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88-583: The tribe's historical location is in the region of Al-Bahah in southwestern of Hejaz region of Saudi Arabia . Portions of the tribe also exist in Iraq, Jordan, Oman, Sudan, Egypt, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen. Like other Azd tribes in the southwestern region of the country, the Ghamd are socially divided into three large groups based on geography and lifestyle: the sarat mountaineers in

176-400: A navy . By the end of the 1830s, Egypt's war industries had constructed nine 100-gun warships and were turning out 1,600 muskets a month. However, the industrial innovations were not limited to weapons production. Muhammad Ali established a textile industry in an effort to compete with European industries and produce greater revenues for Egypt. While the textile industry was not successful,

264-559: A School of Medicine for women. Clot-Bey had been invited in 1827 by Muhammad Ali to found the Qasral-‘Ayni School of Medicine at the Army hospital of Abou Zabel which later transferred to Cairo. The Army Medical School had a difficult beginning with religious officials against dissection of corpses for anatomy lessons. The medical school for women would produce hakimas, "doctoress", to treat women and children. French women adherents of

352-658: A Sirba in the valley led by the knight Salman bin Nami Al-Ghamdi and Ali Amer Al-Ghamdi for a while until things settled between the two neighboring tribes. The battle of 'Asir : The Sharif of Mecca, with his knights from the Ghamid tribe, invaded the Asir regions and subjugated them. The battle of Ranyah , against the Subay' tribe: In the past, a border dispute occurred and some agreements were breached by some members of

440-675: A finger of the right hand, so as to be unable to fire a rifle. Beyond building a functioning, industrial economy, Muhammad Ali also made an effort to train a professional military and bureaucracy. He sent promising citizens to Europe to study. Again the driving impulse behind the effort was to build a European-style army. Students were sent to study European languages, primarily French, so they could in turn translate military manuals into Arabic. He then used both educated Egyptians and imported European experts to establish schools and hospitals in Egypt. European education also provided talented Egyptians with

528-497: A free hand to attempt reforms similar to those first begun by Selim III. Muhammad Ali's goal was for Egypt to leave the Ottoman Empire and be ruled by his own hereditary dynasty. To do that, he had to reorganize Egyptian society, streamline the economy, train a professional bureaucracy, and build a modern military. His first task was to secure a revenue stream for Egypt. To accomplish this, Muhammad Ali 'nationalized' all

616-568: A fundamental role in reducing the incidence of smallpox during the 19th century by vaccinating approximately 600 children a month in the Civil Hospital. They checked and treated women, mainly prostitutes, for venereal diseases. Another important task was the "forensic examination" of women. In this respect, hakimas operated in a legal setting. Their examination was used as evidence in cases involving unnatural death, suspected premarital loss of virginity, or miscarriage. Although one task of

704-846: A means of social mobility. A by-product of Muhammad Ali's training program was the establishment of a professional bureaucracy . Establishing an efficient central bureaucracy was an essential prerequisite for the success of Muhammad Ali's other reforms. In the process of destroying the Mamluks, the Wāli had to fill the governmental roles that the Mamluks had previously filled. In doing so, Muhammad Ali kept all central authority for himself. He partitioned Egypt into ten provinces responsible for collecting taxes and maintaining order. Muhammad Ali installed his sons in most key positions; however, his reforms did offer Egyptians opportunities beyond agriculture and industry. A 2015 study found that Ali's economic policies had

792-517: A monthly allowance from the state. Graduates served at the Civil Hospital in Cairo or at health centres throughout Egypt. Some stayed at the school to serve as instructors. Marriages were arranged by the state to male doctors. Once married, hakimas were given the title of Effendi , the rank of second lieutenant, and a monthly salary of 250 piasters. Licensed hakimas treated women and children, providing vaccinations and delivering children. They served

880-449: A positive impact on industrialization in Egypt. The purpose of the law was to represent Muhammad Ali in his absence. Muhammad Ali's initial focus was on reforming the criminal law, passing his first penal legislation in 1829. By this time, Muhammad Ali was already moving towards an establishment of an independent state, which he first expressed in 1830, by creating a state of "law and order", where Christians within Egypt can be safe, which

968-466: A sign of reform but Ali furthering his military goals. For example, their treatment of venereal diseases was intended to curb its incidence among soldiers and smallpox vaccinations increased the pool of potential soldiers by reducing childhood mortality rate. Furthermore, the hakimas allowed for increased state control over social life. This is observed in the use of hakimas to collect statistics on childbirth, either personally or through dayas, as well as in

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1056-588: A thriving international trading community with well-developed markets throughout the Levant ; in addition, it would be a captive market for the goods now being produced in Egypt. Yet perhaps most of all, Syria was desirable as a buffer state between Egypt and the Ottoman Sultan. A new fleet was built, a new army was raised and on 31 October 1831, under Ibrahim Pasha, the Egyptian invasion of Syria initiated

1144-441: A unique number that identified their unit and their role within it, and officers were expected to use lists with these numbers to keep a close watch on the men and ensure every man performed his clearly assigned duty. This was particularly useful in identifying deserters who often fled in the chaos of massed movement, such as during forced marches or relocation to a new encampment. The soldiers were placed under strict surveillance in

1232-539: A young age, Muhammad was taken and raised by his uncle Husain Agha with his cousins. As a reward for Muhammad Ali's hard work, his uncle gave him the rank of " Bolukbashi " for the collection of taxes in the town of Kavala. Muhammad Ali later married his cousin Amina Hanim , a wealthy widow. She was the daughter of Ali Agha and Kadriye (Zeynep's sister). After Muhammad's promising success in collecting taxes, he earned

1320-632: Is Amr bin Abdullah bin Kaab. Zahran bin al-Harith had six children, including Abdullah bin Zahran who is the great grandfather of the Zahran tribe. The population of the region now is about 500,000. Many have moved to major metropolitan areas for better living and education. The variation in topography influences the climate of the region. Al-Sarat area is exposed to the formation of clouds and fog, and this often happens in winter because of air masses coming from

1408-467: Is a province of Saudi Arabia . It is located in the southwestern part of the Hejazi region. It has an area of 9,921 km , and a population of 339,174 (2022). Its capital is Al Bahah . The region includes Al-Baḥah City, Al-Mikhwah and Baljorashi. Baljorashi has a famous traditional market known as Sūq as-Sabt ( سُوْق ٱلسَّبْت ), which translates to English as "Saturday market". The Baljorashi market

1496-497: Is equivalent to "the" in English) has many meanings; it means water and the maximum of it, the courtyard of a house, the high and abundant palm tree. In tales it refers to an extremely deep bottomless well in al-Zafir fortress. It means "open space", "water" and "abundant palm tree" and the "midline of a road". Al-Baḥah is the name of the province as well its main city, situated in the northwestern part of Ghamed territory. The region

1584-672: Is formed of mountains , hills , plains, valleys and desert stretches. This region is situated in the Hejaz, between longitudes 41/42 E and latitudes 19/20 N. The region covers an area about 36,000 km . The region is divided by huge rocky steeps into two main sectors. To the west is a coastal plain, the Tihamah . To the east is the mountain range of al- As-Sarawat or the Sarat , with an elevation of 1,500 to 2,450 m (4,920 to 8,040 ft) above sea level. A genealogist has confirmed that

1672-684: Is very old and its exact age is unknown. Other cities in the region include Baljourashi, Al-Mikhwah, Rahwat Albar and Sabt Alalaya. Al-Baḥah region is the home of two Azd tribes, the Ghamid and the Zahran . Four of the muscle hijackers - the operatives who would storm the cockpits and control the passengers - involved in the September 11 attacks were recruited from three towns in the Al-Bahah region. The word al-Baḥah (or Baḥah without al which

1760-678: The Anazeh in Syria and those bred in the Nejd . While his immediate successor had minimal interest in the horse breeding program, his grandson, who became Abbas I shared this interest and further built upon his work. Though Muhammad Ali's chief aim was to establish a European-style military, and carve out a personal empire, he waged war initially on behalf of the Ottoman Sultan, Mahmud II , in Arabia and Greece, although he later came into open conflict with

1848-588: The Ecole Polytechnique . Additionally, by hiring European managers, he was able to introduce industrial training to the Egyptian population. To staff his new industries, Muhammad Ali employed a corvée labor system. The peasantry objected to these conscriptions and many ran away from their villages to avoid being taken, sometimes fleeing as far away as Syria . A number of them maimed themselves so as to be unsuitable for combat: common ways of self-maiming were blinding an eye with rat poison and cutting off

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1936-625: The First Turko-Egyptian War . For the sake of appearance on the world stage, a pretext for the invasion was vital. Ultimately, the excuse for the expedition was a quarrel with Abdullah Pasha of Acre . The Wāli alleged that 6,000 fellahin had fled to Acre to escape the draft, corvée, and taxes, and he wanted them back. (See also: 1834 Arab revolt in Palestine ) The Egyptians overran most of Syria and its hinterland with ease. The strongest and only really significant resistance

2024-521: The Greek rebellion failed decisively, however, following an intervention by the European powers at Navarino . In 1831, Ali waged war against the sultan , capturing Syria, crossing into Anatolia and directly threatening Constantinople , but the European powers forced him to retreat. After a failed Ottoman invasion of Syria in 1839, he launched another invasion of the Ottoman Empire in 1840; he defeated

2112-484: The Janissaries . Consequently, he was deposed and ultimately killed in 1808. Muhammad Ali shared some traits with common warlords seeking to gain the upper hand at the expense of the weakened imperial power, but scholars have noted that Muhammad Ali's rule was the first significant program of Europeanization of the military and its supporting institutions. Unlike Selim, he had dispatched his chief rivals, giving him

2200-587: The Nuba Mountains , and west and south Sudan, all incorporated into a foot regiment known as the Gihadiya (pronounced Jihadiya in non-Egyptian Arabic) which were composed of the recently defeated Shaigiya who now took service under the invaders in exchange for keeping their domains. Ali's reign in Sudan, and that of his immediate successors, is remembered in Sudan as brutal and heavy-handed, contributing to

2288-720: The Red Sea , accompanied by thunderstorms. In spring and summer the climate is mild and pleasant. The climate in the area of the Tihamah is different from that in Al-Sarat, although they are separated by no more than 25 km (16 miles). The Tihama is an undulating coastal plain, hot in summer, warm in spring and mild in winter. The climate in general falls in the arid zone. Relative humidity varies between 52% and 67%, with maximum temperatures of 23 °C (73 °F), and minimum temperatures of 12 °C (54 °F). The social life of

2376-699: The Republic of Egypt . Muhammad Ali was born in the Sanjak of Kavala (modern-day Kavala ), in the Rumelia Eyalet , to an Albanian family from Korça region. He was the second son of a Bektashi Albanian tobacco and shipping merchant named Ibrahim Agha, who also served as an Ottoman commander of a small unit in their hometown. His mother was Zeynep, the daughter of Çorbaci Husain Agha, another Muslim Albanian notable in Kavala. When his father died at

2464-744: The Saint-Simonian social reform movement were living in Egypt during 1833–36 and studied or provided medical care under Clot Bey's direction. French sage-femme (midwife) Suzanne Voilquin writes of assisting during the cholera epidemic of 1834. Several of the French women contracted cholera and died. Ali's military and economic goals required a healthy army and population from which young boys could be conscripted. Venereal diseases, especially syphilis, were common among soldiers and smallpox outbreaks led to high childhood mortality rates. Clot Bey argued that female-provided health care for women and children

2552-528: The bastinado and the whip to control and punish the soldiers. Muhammad not only wanted his soldiers to be disciplined, but he also created many military codes to regulate the definitions of crime and punishment, this helped to create blind obedience to the laws. A large part of Ali's goal of a European-style military was through the creation of new labelling and organizational systems to identify soldiers, distinguish officers from enlisted men, structure units, and properly distribute salaries. Soldiers were given

2640-468: The iltizam lands of Egypt, thereby officially owning all the production of the land. He accomplished the state annexation of property by raising taxes on the ' tax-farmers ' who had previously owned the land throughout Egypt. The new taxes were intentionally high and when the tax-farmers could not extract the demanded payments from the peasants who worked the land, Muhammad Ali confiscated their properties. The other major source of revenue Muhammad Ali created

2728-760: The Al-Baha region, but it failed. In 1870, al-Ashraf led disciplinary campaigns for some tribes, and the Turkish campaign reached Al-Baha Under the leadership of Sharif Abdullah bin Muhammad bin Abd al-Mu'in Sharif Makkah, and fierce skirmishes took place between the army and the rebellious population, which eventually led to Ibn Ayed's intervention, and thus Saeed bin Ayed managed to lead the military campaign and entered

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2816-621: The Egyptian army marched north into Anatolia . At the Battle of Konya (21 December 1832), Ibrahim Pasha soundly defeated the Ottoman army led by the sadr azam Grand Vizier Reshid Pasha. There were now no military obstacles between Ibrahim's forces and Constantinople itself. Through the course of the campaign, Muhammad Ali paid particular focus to the European powers. Fearing another intervention that would reverse all his gains, he proceeded slowly and cautiously. For example, Muhammad Ali continued

2904-525: The Ghamid and Subai tribes in the eastern side of the Ranieh Valley. Due to these skirmishes continued for a period of time, the two tribes mobilized, and it became a battle that resulted in the victory of Ghamid. Battle against the Al-Shalawi الشلاوي tribe : This battle took place after the attack of the tribes of Bani Al-Harith, and most likely it was from Al-Shalawi, after they attacked

2992-790: The Hijrah, journeyed to Mecca . The Ghamid tribe subsequently converted to Islam and dispatched two delegations, one of them to Medina, and another to Mecca during the Hajjat al-Wida (Farewell Pilgrimage), the only Haj performed by Prophet Muhammad . Ghamid participated in the conquest of Iraq and the Levant with the Muslim army led by Mikhnaf bin Sulaym and Sufyan bin Awf, who invaded the Romans, and among them

3080-430: The Ottoman Empire. He used several new strategies to ensure the success of his new military. First new recruits were isolated from the environment they were used to. They began housing soldiers in barracks, leadership enforced a strict regime of surveillance, roll call was done several times a day, and corporal punishment used to ensure the new fighting force grew to become a strong disciplined military. The army often used

3168-600: The Ottoman Sultan gave Muhammad Ali Pasha supplies, provisions and weapons. In 1814, where the famous battle in the Quraish Valley between the army of Muhammad Ali Pasha and an army from Ghamid led by the knight / Salih bin Habash and the enemy led by the Turkish / Abdin Bey consisting of twenty thousand fighters and the Turkish army was defeated, so more than a thousand fighters were killed from Muhammad Ali Pasha's army and

3256-609: The Ottomans again and opened the way towards a capture of Constantinople. Faced with another European intervention, he accepted a brokered peace in 1842 and withdrew from the Levant; in return, he and his descendants were granted hereditary rule over Egypt and Sudan. His dynasty would rule Egypt for over a century, until the revolution of 1952 when King Farouk was overthrown by the Free Officers Movement led by Mohamed Naguib and Gamal Abdel Nasser , establishing

3344-669: The Saudis began conquering parts of Arabia. This culminated in the capture of the Hejaz region by 1805. With the main Ottoman army tied up in Europe, Mahmud II turned to Muhammad Ali to recapture the Arabian territories . Muhammad Ali in turn appointed his son, Tusun , to lead a military expedition in 1811. The campaign was initially turned back in Arabia; however, a second attack was launched in 1812 that succeeded in recapturing Hejaz. While

3432-588: The Sharif's victory over them, as the Sharif and his soldiers displaced them and expelled Al-Dhafeer from Najd and Al-Qassim to the regions of the mountain (Jabal Shammar). At the end of the year 1678 (the Battle of Hadiya), the Sharif, along with Ghamid and Thaqif, attacked and supervised Bani Khalid in and took from them great spoils and killed among the famous Bani Khalid Saqan bin Khalaf Al Mani' Al Khalidi,

3520-561: The Sheikh of Al Mani' of Bani Khalid. In the year 1705 on the 26th of Ramadan, Sharif Saad bin Zaid came out against Sharif Abdul Karim bin Muhammad following a dispute between them. Sharif Saad sought help from Ghamid, and clashed with the defenders in the breach next to Al-Ma'alla. Sharif Saad managed to enter victoriously in Shawwal after the army of Sharif Abdul Karim fled from it. In 1813,

3608-811: The Turkish army withdrew to Taif. At the end of the year, Ghamed tribe invaded the Turks and destroyed a Turkish fortress in the town of Nasiriyah in Balharith, where they seized weapons, ammunition and horses. In 1815, Imam Faisal bin Saud descended on the town of Turbah with ten thousand fighters, and the Muslims mobilized from the Hijaz tribes and from Ghamid under the leadership of the knight Hamdan bin Hatamel until their number reached twenty five thousand fighters from all

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3696-537: The Turks stationed in Tihama and drove them to Taif and to Jeddah. In the year 1817 the fall of Bani Jarrah, the victory of the village of Bani Jarrah from Bani Zibyan against an army from the Bisha tribes led by Emir Omar Al-Sa'iri, and among the most famous of the dead was Colonel Medawi Al-Qushayri from Bisha. In 1817, a campaign came by the Turks to burn the market of Ghadana, but it defeated by Ghamid tribe. In 1818,

3784-605: The Turks were killed and 300 were captured. Among the famous dead was Hussain bin Haif al-Rafidi al-Qahtani, who was killed with the Ottomans from Ghamid in Bilad Ghamid, and Ghamid looted 4 cannons, rifles and a bundle. In 1904, Ghamid joins Al-Sharif in the war against Al-Idrisi. In 1915, the battle of Hajla against Asir. The year 1922 put an end to the rebellion led by Hassan bin Ayedh in Asir. In 1925, Ghamid participated in

3872-792: The balance of power in the East Mediterranean. On 20 October 1827 at the Battle of Navarino , while under the command of Muharram Bey, the Ottoman representative, the entire Egyptian navy was sunk by the European Allied fleet, under the command of Admiral Edward Codrington . If the Porte was not in the least prepared for this confrontation, Muhammad Ali was even less prepared for the loss of his highly competent, expensively assembled and maintained navy. With its fleet essentially destroyed, Egypt had no way to support its forces in Greece and

3960-442: The barracks. In order to accomplish this Muhammad Ali relied on the Bedouins to guard the troops that were sent to the training camps. Despite being hired to control the troops the Bedouins were actually a menace to the government who often had to use the army to control the Bedouins. In order to combat this the government slowly switched from using Bedouins to guard the soldiers and to capture deserters and instead attempted to set up

4048-560: The battle of Abraq Raghama. In 1929, the Battle of Hissar bin Fadel al-Maliki and Bani Harb from Bani Malik. In 1932, the Idrissi rebellion in Jizan ended. Many members of this tribe have the surname Al-Ghamdi . Like many other tribes in the Arabian peninsula, numerous members of Ghamd, ( Ghamdi s), have emigrated in recent decades to three major metropolitan centers of Saudi Arabia; Riyadh , Jeddah , and Dammam . Al Bahah Province Al-Bahah Province ( Arabic : ٱلْبَاحَة al-Bāḥah pronounced [alˈbaːħa] )

4136-428: The campaign was successful, the power of the Saudis was not broken. They continued to harass Ottoman and Egyptian forces from the central Nejd region of the Peninsula. Consequently, Muhammad Ali dispatched another of his sons, Ibrahim, at the head of another army to finally rout the Saudis. After a two-year campaign, the Saudis were crushed and most of the Saudi family was captured. The family leader, Abdullah ibn Saud ,

4224-596: The cases where a hakima was used to examine a woman. In the 1820s, Muhammad Ali sent the first educational "mission" of Egyptian students to Europe. This contact resulted in literature that is considered the dawn of the Arabic literary renaissance, known as the Nahda . To support the modernization of industry and the military, Muhammad Ali set up a number of schools in various fields where French texts were studied. Rifa'a al-Tahtawi supervised translations from French to Arabic on topics ranging from sociology and history to military technology. In 1819/21, his government founded

4312-456: The central highlands of Al-Baha and 'Hejaz, the badyah bedouins in the desert regions of Najd and parts of Bisha in the Asir Region , and the tohm who inhabit the narrow plain of Tihama on the Red Sea coast. The history of the Ghamd began in the Pre-Islamic Era , where members of the Ghamd joined the early Muslim empire . A Ghamid delegation coming from Saraya, led by Abu Dhabian Al-Ghamdi , who converted to Islam in Mecca before

4400-405: The commercial convoys of Ghamid heading to Mecca. The battle ended with the victory of the Ghamid tribe. In the year 1678, Sharif Muhammad Al-Harith, Sharif of Mecca, used his horsemen (Knights) from Ghamid tribe, with the supervision of the Hejaz and great crowds of Arabs, for the famous battle of (Al-Dhafa'a) between the Sharif of Mecca and the tribes of Dhafir in Al-Qassim. The battle ended with

4488-411: The conflict drew on, the local populace grew weary of the power struggle. In 1801, he allied with the Egyptian leader Umar Makram and Egypt's Grand Imam of al-Azhar . During the infighting between the Ottomans and Mamluks between 1801 and 1805, Muhammad Ali carefully acted to gain the support of the general public. In 1805, a group of prominent Egyptians led by the ulama (scholars, savants) demanded

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4576-408: The country of Ghamid and Zahran, and was welcomed by the men of Ghamid and Zahran. In 1872, a battle took place in the Al-Baha market between the people of Ghamid and Zahran with the Turkish forces. The siege of Abha took place in 1882. In the year 1895, two murders took place between the tribes of Qahtan and the Turk on one side, and Ghamid and those with them on the other side, and in them 900 of

4664-472: The country of Ghamid, and on Thursday, Ghamid bin Mari participated and became Turk in Al Dhafir. In 1837, the tribes of the southern Hijaz rebelled against the Ottoman rule and attacked the Ottoman garrisons in both Hejaz and Bilad Ghamid (Al-Bahah), after the arrival of one of the campaigns of the Asir ruler Ayed bin Mari. In 1838, they participated in Ghamid al-Sharif and defeated the army of Ayed bin Mari. In 1848, Ghamid Ibn Ayed participated, and they broke

4752-453: The crowd of Sharif. In 1851, the knight Thamer bin Thamer Al-Yassidi Al-Ghamdi breaks the knights of Sharif Abdul-Muttalib bin Ghalib and takes shelter for camels. That same year the Egyptian Hejaz campaign, which consisted of the Egyptian army, the Hijaz desert, and Harb and Mutair, was defeated at the hands of Ghamid and Asir. In 1864, a campaign came under the leadership of the Sharif of Mecca (Abdullah bin Muhammad bin Abdul-Muin) to retake

4840-532: The decaying Ottoman Empire. He summed up his vision for Egypt as follows: I am well aware that the (Ottoman) Empire is heading by the day toward destruction... On its ruins I will build a vast kingdom... up to the Euphrates and the Tigris. Sultan Selim III (reigned 1789–1807) had recognized the need to reform and modernize the Ottoman military , along European lines, to ensure that his state could compete. Selim III, however, faced stiff local opposition from an entrenched clergy and military apparatus, especially from

4928-445: The entire endeavour employed tens of thousands of Egyptians. Muhammad Ali used contracts called concessions to build cheap infrastructure – dams and railroads – whereby foreign European companies would raise capital, build projects, and collect most of the operating revenue but would provide Ali's government with a portion of that revenue. Ali also granted Barthélemy Prosper Enfantin permission to build technical schools modeled after

5016-453: The expectation of internment from the beginning of the soldiers stay at the training camps in order to deter them from deserting the military in the first place. Muhammad Ali's first military campaign was an expedition into the Arabian Peninsula . The holy cities of Mecca , and Medina had been captured by the House of Saud , who had recently embraced a literalist Hanbali interpretation of Islam . Armed with their newfound religious zeal,

5104-413: The first indigenous press in the Arab World, the Bulaq Press . The Bulaq press published the official gazette of Muhammad Ali's government. Among his personal interests was the accumulation and breeding of Arabian horses . In horses obtained as taxes and tribute , Muhammad Ali recognized the unique characteristics and careful attention to bloodlines of the horses bred by the Bedouin , particularly by

5192-431: The founder of modern Egypt . At the height of his rule, he controlled Egypt, Sudan , Hejaz , the Levant , Crete and parts of Greece . He was a military commander in an Albanian Ottoman force sent to recover Egypt from French occupation under Napoleon . Following Napoleon's withdrawal, Muhammad Ali rose to power through a series of political maneuvers, and in 1805 he was named Wāli (governor) of Egypt and gained

5280-407: The greatest threat to Muhammad Ali. They controlled Egypt for more than 600 years, and over that time they extended their rule systematically south along the Nile River to Upper Egypt. Muhammad Ali's approach was to eliminate the Mamluk leadership, then move against the rank and file. Muhammad Ali invited the Mamluk leaders to a celebration at the Cairo Citadel in honour of his son, Tusun Pasha , who

5368-411: The hakimas was overseeing childbirth, the majority of the population continued to use the dayas. Hakimas performed almost no deliveries and often were only called upon during difficult deliveries. However, dayas were required to have a certificate to perform deliveries, which could only be obtained from hakimas. They were also expected to report statistics on births to the hakimas. A significant issue

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5456-422: The individual farmers, as the average wage increased fourfold. In addition to bolstering the agricultural sector, Muhammad Ali built an industrial base for Egypt. His motivation for doing so was primarily an effort to build a modern military. Consequently, he focused on weapons production. Factories based in Cairo produced muskets and cannons . With a shipyard he built in Alexandria , he began construction of

5544-406: The inhabitants of the region is based on Sunni Islam , in addition to the well established Arab customs and tradition. Each tribe division or subdivision has its own Shaykh (head). Muhammad Ali of Egypt Muhammad Ali (4 March 1769 – 2 August 1849) was the Ottoman Albanian viceroy and governor who became the de facto ruler of Egypt from 1805 to 1848, widely considered

5632-461: The intent of conquering the territory and subjugating it to his authority. Ali's troops made headway into Sudan in 1821, but met with fierce resistance by the Shaigiya . Ultimately, the superiority of the Egyptian troops and firearms ensured the defeat of the Shaigiya and the subsequent conquest of the Sudan. Ali now had an outpost from which he could expand to the source of the Nile in Ethiopia , and Uganda . His administration captured slaves from

5720-425: The island of Crete in exchange for his support in putting down the revolt. Muhammad Ali sent 16,000 soldiers, 100 transports, and 63 escort vessels under command of his son, Ibrahim Pasha . After Ibrahim sustained successive defeats in Greece (see Ottoman–Egyptian invasion of Mani ) Britain , France , and Russia intervened to aid the Greek revolution as a check on Ibrahim's expansionist agenda which threatened

5808-516: The majority of the population of Al-Baḥah are descended from the Azad Shenou`a tribe which emigrated from the south of the Hejaz in the Arabian Peninsula , following some historical natural events. Al-Azad is an Arab tribe which is divided into 24 tribes derived from four stocks: Azad Shenou`a, Azad Al Sarat, Azad Ghassan and Azad Aman. Al-Azad (or al-Assad the Lion ) was the title given to Darda`e bin al-Ghot bin Nabt bin Malik bin Nassr al-Azad. Kaab bin al-Harith had seven children including Ghamed, who

5896-406: The people of the region participated in the campaign of Khalil Pasha and the Sharif Muhammad Ibn Aun, the governor of Mecca. And Solomon Sanjak against Asir. In 1823, a campaign led by Muhammad bin Aun and Ahmad Pasha came to strike Asir, but it was destroyed from Ghamid. In 1833, Sharif Hazaa bin Aoun landed in Al Baha and warfare him, Ghamid. That same year, Ayed bin Mari arrived in Buraidah in

5984-526: The popular independence struggle of the self-proclaimed Mahdi , Muhammad Ahmad , in 1881. While Muhammad Ali was expanding his authority into Africa, the Ottoman Empire was being challenged by ethnic rebellions in its European territories. The rebellion in the Greek provinces of the Ottoman Empire began in 1821. The Ottoman army proved ineffectual in its attempts to put down the revolt as ethnic violence spread as far as Constantinople. With his own army proving ineffective, Sultan Mahmud II offered Muhammad Ali

6072-457: The practice of using the sultan's name at Friday prayers in the newly captured territories and continued to circulate Ottoman coins instead of issuing new ones bearing his likeness. So long as Muhammad Ali's march did not threaten to cause the complete collapse of the Ottoman state, the powers in Europe remained as passive observers. Despite this show, Muhammad Ali's goal was now to remove the current Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II and replace him with

6160-411: The rank of Pasha . As Wāli , Ali attempted to modernize Egypt by instituting dramatic reforms in the military, economic and cultural spheres. He also initiated a violent purge of the Mamluks , consolidating his rule and permanently ending the Mamluk hold over Egypt. Militarily, Ali recaptured the Arabian territories for the sultan, and conquered Sudan of his own accord. His attempt at suppressing

6248-436: The rank of Second Commander under his cousin Sarechesme Halil Agha in the Kavala Volunteer Contingent of Albanian mercenaries that was sent to re-occupy Egypt following General Napoleon Bonaparte's withdrawal. In 1801, his unit was sent, as part of a much larger Ottoman force, to re-occupy Egypt following a brief French occupation that upended Mamluk dominance in Egypt. The expedition, aboard xebecs , landed at Aboukir in

6336-496: The replacement of Wāli (governor) Ahmad Khurshid Pasha by Muhammad Ali, and the Ottomans yielded. In 1809, though, Ali exiled Makram to Damietta . According to Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti , Makram had discovered Muhammad Ali's intentions to seize power for himself. Sultan Selim III could not oppose Muhammad Ali's ascension. By appearing as the champion of the people, Muhammad Ali was able to forestall popular opposition until he had consolidated his power. The Mamluks still posed

6424-501: The seventeenth century, several tribes associated with Banu Al-Harith took Tabalah , which was a part of the tribe of Khath'am . Despite the problems between Khath'am and Ghamid, Khath'am asked for assistance from the Hijaz knight Abu Dhahiba bin Jerry al-Ghamdi, who prepared 5 battalions and brought them from Wadi Bisha to Tabalah in a war of response. The land was for Khath'am and he reconciled between Bani Al-Harith and Al-Faz', and made

6512-526: The spring of 1801. One of his trusted army commanders was Miralay Mustafa Bey, who had married Muhammad's sister Zubayda and was the ancestor of the Yeghen family. The French withdrawal left a power vacuum in Egypt. Mamluk power had been weakened, but not destroyed, and Ottoman forces clashed with the Mamluks for power. During this period of turmoil, Muhammad Ali used his loyal Albanian troops to work with both sides, gaining power and prestige for himself. As

6600-437: The state. The state in turn resold Egyptian goods, within Egypt and to foreign markets, and retained the surplus. The practice proved very profitable for Egypt with the cultivation of long staple cotton , a new cash crop . To help improve production, he expanded the land used for agriculture and overhauled the irrigation system, largely completed by the corvée , or forced peasant labor. The new-found profits also extended down to

6688-623: The sultan's son, the infant Abdülmecid . This possibility so alarmed Mahmud II that he accepted Russia's offer of military aid resulting in the Treaty of Hünkâr İskelesi . Russia's gain dismayed the British and French governments, resulting in their direct intervention. From this position, the European powers brokered a negotiated solution in May 1833 known as the Convention of Kutahya . The terms of

6776-461: The tribes. The Turks and those with them among the Egyptians fought a fierce fight that ended in victory for Faisal and those with him were able to kill a large number of Turkish-Egyptian forces (an estimated five hundred Ottoman soldiers). In the year 1816, after the return of Muhammad Ali Pasha to Egypt, the tribes of Ghamid and the men of al-Ma'a co-operated Some of the Asir tribes pushed back

6864-477: The wheels for the conquest of Syria were set in motion. Like other rulers of Egypt before him, Ali desired to control Bilad al-Sham (the Levant), both for its strategic value and for its rich natural resources; nor was this a sudden, vindictive decision on the part of Ali since he had harboured this goal since his early years as Egypt's unofficial ruler. For not only had Syria abundant natural resources, it also had

6952-857: Was Zuhair bin Sulaym, the killer of the Nakhrajans, the greatest commander in the Sasanians. Among them is Jundub bin Zuhair, a killer and a sorcerer who was one of Ali bin Abi Talib's men in the Battle of the Camel and Siffin, as well as Abu Zainab bin Awf, who comforted Ali bin Abi Talib and was with him in his battles. In 1638 CE, Zaid bin Mohsen invaded Ghamid territory. The invasion ended in reconciliation. A battle against Banu Al-harith in Bisha : In

7040-477: Was a new tax on waqf endowments, which were previously tax-free. Through these endowments, personal income could be set aside for schools or other charitable purposes. As well as raising revenue to fund his new military, this tax took revenue away from the local elite, Mamluks and the ulama, weakening opposition to Muhammad Ali's reforms. In practice, Muhammad Ali's land reform amounted to a monopoly on trade in Egypt. He required all producers to sell their goods to

7128-607: Was a way Muhammad Ali was able to pull influence from Europe. He started gradually reforming the government in a way that increased his influence and reduced that of the Sultan. He implemented a police force (principally in Cairo and Alexandria) that combined public order and prosecutorial functions. Strict Shari'a rules of evidence were relaxed, and modern evidence, particularly autopsy reports, became increasingly important in investigations and trials. In 1832, Muhammad Ali allowed Antoine Clot , known as "Clot Bey" in Egypt, to establish

7216-685: Was crucial to maintain a healthy population. He believed that the untrained local dayas (midwives) were unable to provide appropriate care and under Egyptian law, male doctors could not treat women. Clot Bey's solution was a school to train female doctors. The school of medicine for women followed a French model. The first two years of training provided Arabic literacy in order to communicate with patients. The following four included training in: obstetrics, pre- and post-natal care, dressing wounds, cauterization, vaccination, scarification, cupping, application of leeches, identification/preparation of common medicines. Students were provided housing, food, clothes and

7304-477: Was forced to withdraw. Ultimately the campaign cost Muhammad Ali his navy and yielded no tangible gains. In compensation for his loss at Navarino, Muhammad Ali asked the Porte for the territory of Syria . The Ottomans were indifferent to the request; the Sultan himself asked blandly what would happen if Syria was given over and Muhammad Ali later deposed. But Muhammad Ali was no longer willing to tolerate Ottoman indifference. To compensate for his and Egypt's losses,

7392-401: Was put up at the port city of Acre . The Egyptian force eventually captured the city after a six-month siege, which lasted from 3 November 1831 to 27 May 1832. Unrest on the Egyptian home front increased dramatically during the course of the siege. Ali was forced to squeeze Egypt more and more in order to support his campaign and his people resented the increased burden. After the fall of Acre,

7480-399: Was reached in 1846. Contemporary and modern historians have viewed the creation of a school of medicine for women and the position of hakima as an example of modernization and reform for women under Muhammad Ali. Khaled Fahmy argues against this view. Fahmy states that, because the reasons for the creation of the school are primarily for the maintenance of a healthy army, the school was not

7568-402: Was recruitment of students. Egyptian culture at the time opposed the education of women. Therefore, the first students at the medical school were young slave girls. Slaves continued to be recruited through slave auctions as well as orphans from hospices. Despite the modest success of the school and its graduates, increasing enrolment remained a consistent problem, though the limit of 60 students

7656-689: Was sent to Istanbul, and executed. Muhammad Ali next turned his attention to military campaigns independent of the Porte , beginning with the Sudan which he viewed as a valuable additional resource of territory, gold, and slaves. The Sudan at the time had no real central authority, as since the 18th century many petty kingdoms and tribal sheikhdoms had seceded from the declining Sultanate of Sennar , fighting each other with Medieval weaponry. In 1820 Muhammad Ali dispatched an army of 5,000 troops commanded by his third son, Ismail, and Abidin Bey , south into Sudan with

7744-518: Was to lead a military expedition into Arabia . The event was held on 1 March 1811. When the Mamluks had gathered at the Citadel, they were surrounded and killed by Muhammad Ali's troops. After the leaders were killed, Muhammad Ali dispatched his army throughout Egypt to rout the remainder of the Mamluk forces. Muhammad Ali transformed Egypt into a regional power which he saw as the natural successor to

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