71-696: Ghost shirts are shirts, or other clothing items, worn by members of the Ghost Dance religion, and thought to be imbued with spiritual powers. The religion was founded by Wovoka (Jack Wilson), a Northern Paiute Native American, in the late 19th century and quickly spread throughout the Indigenous peoples of the Great Basin and Plains tribes . Ghost shirts, sacred to certain factions of Lakota people , were thought to guard against bullets through spiritual power. Wovoka opposed open rebellion against
142-629: A 100-gram ( 3 + 1 ⁄ 2 -ounce) reference serving, dried pine nuts supply 2,815 kilojoules (673 kilocalories) of food energy and are a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value , DV) of numerous micronutrients , particularly manganese (419% DV), phosphorus (82% DV), magnesium (71% DV), zinc (67% DV), copper (65% DV), vitamin E (62% DV), vitamin K (51% DV), and the B vitamins , thiamin and niacin (29–35% DV), among others (table). Pine nuts have been eaten in Europe and Asia since
213-492: A beautiful land filled with wild game and instructed him to return home to tell his people that they must love each other and not fight. He also stated that Jesus was being reincarnated on Earth in 1892, that the people must work, not steal or lie, and that they must not engage in the old practices of war or the traditional self-mutilation practices connected with mourning the dead. He said that if his people abided by these rules, they would be united with their friends and family in
284-602: A diverse range of dishes such as kibbeh , sambusak , fatayer , and Maqluba , desserts such as baklava , meghli , and many others. Throughout Europe, the Levant , and West Asia , the pine nuts used are traditionally from Pinus pinea (stone pine). They are easily distinguished from the Asian pine nuts by their more slender shape and more homogeneous flesh. Because of the lower price, Asian pine nuts are also often used, especially in cheaper preparations. Pine nut oil
355-562: A dough similar to that of a macaroon and then topped with pine nuts. In Catalonia , a sweet is made of small marzipan balls covered with pine nuts, painted with egg, and lightly cooked, and those are called "panellets". Pine nuts are also featured in the salade landaise of southwestern France . Nevada, or Great Basin, pine nut has a sweet fruity flavor and is promoted for its large size, sweet flavor, and ease of peeling. Pine nuts are also widely used in Levantine cuisine , reflected in
426-598: A renewed Earth filled with food, love, and faith. Quickly accepted by his Paiute brethren, the new religion was termed, "Dance In A Circle". Because the first European contact with the practice came by way of the Lakota , their expression "Spirit Dance" was adopted as a descriptive title for all such practices. This was subsequently translated as "Ghost Dance". The invention of the Kinetoscope created and developed by Thomas Edison and William Kennedy Dickson were part of
497-527: A small extent, as is gray pine ( P. sabineana ), Coulter pine ( P. coulteri ), Torrey pine ( P. torreyana ), sugar pine ( P. lambertiana ) and Parry pinyon ( P. quadrifolia ). Here, the nuts themselves are known by the Spanish name for the pinyon pine, piñón (plural: piñones ). In the United States, pine nuts are mainly harvested by Native American and Hispano communities, particularly in
568-571: A sought-after species due to the trading post system and the Navajo people who used the nuts as a means of commerce. The Italian pine nut ( P. pinea ) was brought to the United States by immigrants and became a favored treat along the East Coast in the early 1930s, when bumper crops of American pine nuts were readily available at low prices. When dried for eating, pine nuts are 2% water, 13% carbohydrates , 14% protein , and 68% fat (table). In
639-403: A subsistence pattern of fishing, hunting wild game, and foraging for pine nuts and roots such as Cyperus esculentus . The Tövusidökadö tended to follow various spiritual leaders and community organizers. Community events centered on the observance of seasonal ceremonies such as harvests or hunting. In 1869, Hawthorne Wodziwob , a Paiute man, organized a series of community dances to announce
710-457: A vision. He spoke of a journey to the land of the dead and of promises made to him by the souls of the recently deceased. They promised to return to their loved ones within a period of three to four years. Wodziwob's peers accepted this vision, likely due to his reputable status as a healer . He urged the populace to dance the common circle dance as was customary during a time of celebration. He continued preaching this message for three years with
781-413: Is a circular community dance held usually around an individual who leads the ceremony. Round dances may be ceremonial or purely social. Usually, the dancers are accompanied by a group of singers who may also play hand drums in unison. The dancers join hands to form a large circle. The dancers move with a side-shuffle step to reflect the long-short pattern of the drum beat , bending their knees to emphasize
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#1732772503663852-553: Is added to foods for flavor. Some raw pine nuts can cause pine mouth syndrome, a taste disturbance lasting from a few days to a few weeks after consumption. A bitter, metallic, unpleasant taste is reported. There are no known lasting effects, with the United States Food and Drug Administration reporting that there are "no apparent adverse clinical side effects". Raw nuts from Pinus armandii , mainly in China, may be
923-491: Is danced with Ghost Dance songs. Leonard Crow Dog recalls in his memoir during the Wounded Knee Occupation of 1973 the chants they were singing: "The whole world is coming, a nation is coming, a nation is coming, the eagle brought the message, says the father, says the father, the whole world is coming, the buffalo are coming, the buffalo are coming, the crow has brought the message, says the father , says
994-414: Is often observed. American pinyon pine cone production is most commonly found at an elevation between 1,800 and 2,600 m (6,000 and 8,500 ft), and ideally at 2,100 m (7,000 ft). This is due to higher temperatures at elevations lower than 1,800 m (6,000 ft) during the spring, which dry up humidity and moisture content (particularly snow packs) that provide for the tree throughout
1065-715: Is practiced by most notably the Caddo , but details are confined to the participants not the public. During the Wounded Knee incident of 1973, Lakota men and women, including Mary Brave Bird , did the ghost dance ceremony on the site where their ancestors had been killed. In her book Lakota Woman , Brave Bird wrote that ghost dances continue as private ceremonies. During the Wounded Knee Occupation from February 27 – May 8, 1973, Pine nut Pine nuts , also called piñón ( Spanish: [piˈɲon] ), pinoli ( Italian: [piˈnɔːli] ), or pignoli , are
1136-424: Is stunted, and the seeds deteriorate. When first extracted from the pine cone , they are covered with a hard shell (seed coat), thin in some species and thick in others. The nutrition is stored in the embryo ( sporophyte ) in the center. Although a nut in the culinary sense, in the botanical sense, pine nuts are seeds; being a gymnosperm , they lack a carpel (fruit) outside. The shell must be removed before
1207-442: Is the repeated striking of the burlap bag containing the cone(s) against a rough surface to cause the cone(s) to shatter, leaving just the job of separating by hand the seed from the residue within the bag. Another option for harvesting is to wait until the cone opens on the tree (as it naturally will) and harvest the cone from the piñon pine, followed by the extracting process mentioned above. Fallen seeds can also be gathered beneath
1278-516: The Ghost Dance of 1890 ) is a ceremony incorporated into numerous Native American belief systems. According to the millenarian teachings of the Northern Paiute spiritual leader Wovoka (renamed Jack Wilson), proper practice of the dance would reunite the living with spirits of the dead, bring the spirits to fight on their behalf, end American Westward expansion , and bring peace, prosperity, and unity to Native American peoples throughout
1349-572: The Paleolithic period. They are frequently added to meat, fish, salads, and vegetable dishes or baked into bread. In Italian, they are called pinoli (in the US, they are often called pignoli , but in Italy, pignolo is actually a word far more commonly used to describe a fussy, overly fastidious or extremely meticulous person) and are an essential component of Italian pesto sauce; the upsurge in
1420-682: The Western United States and Southwestern United States , by the Shoshone , Paiute , Navajo , Pueblo , Hopi , Washoe , and Hispanos of New Mexico . Certain treaties negotiated by tribes and laws in Nevada guarantee Native Americans' right to harvest pine nuts, and the state of New Mexico protects the use of the word piñon for use with pine nuts from certain species of indigenous New Mexican pines. Commonly used species include: Pine nuts will not reach full maturity unless
1491-448: The stone pine ( P. pinea ), which has been cultivated for its nuts for over 5,000 years. Pine nuts have been harvested from wild trees for far longer. The Swiss pine ( P. cembra ) is also used, to a very small extent. In North America, the main species are three of the pinyon pines : Colorado pinyon ( P. edulis ), single-leaf pinyon ( P. monophylla ), and Mexican pinyon ( P. cembroides ). The other eight pinyon species are used to
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#17327725036631562-576: The FDA found that some manufacturers substituted a non-food species of pine nuts in place of more expensive edible pine nut species as a form of food fraud . Some Native American tribes use the hard outer shell of the pine nut as a bead for decorative purposes in traditional regalia and jewelry. In the Great Basin area of the US, collecting pine nuts is a protected right through state law and treaty. In northern California, pine nuts are collected from
1633-584: The Indian prophet were familiar and often accepted. While many followers of the Ghost Dance believed Wovoka to be a teacher of pacifism and peace, others did not. An elaboration of the Ghost Dance concept was the development of ghost shirts , which were special clothing that warriors could wear. They were rumored to repel bullets through spiritual power. It is uncertain where this belief originated. Scholars believe that in 1890 Chief Kicking Bear introduced
1704-522: The Lakota during the period of transition, the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) was to supplement the Lakota with food and to hire white farmers as teachers for the people. The farming plan failed to take into account the difficulty that Lakota farmers would have in trying to cultivate crops in the semi-arid region of South Dakota. By the end of the 1890 growing season, a time of intense heat and low rainfall, it
1775-524: The Lakota interpretation from Jack Wilson's original teachings. The Caddo still practice the Ghost Dance today. The Northern Paiutes living in Mason Valley , in what became the U.S. state of Nevada , were known collectively as the Tövusidökadö ( lit. ' ( Cyperus ) bulb eaters ' ) at the time of European contact . The Northern Paiute community at this time was thriving upon
1846-446: The Navajo's higher levels of social and economic satisfaction at the time. Another factor was cultural norms among the Navajo, which inculcated a fear of ghosts and spirits, based on religious beliefs. The Wounded Knee massacre was not the end of the Ghost Dance religious movement. Instead, it went underground. Wovoka continued to spread its message, along with Kicking Bear , Short Bull and other spiritual leaders. The Ghost Dance
1917-532: The U.S. Army attacked, 153 Lakota died, with 50 wounded and 150 missing at the Wounded Knee Massacre in 1890. Anthropologist James Mooney argued that the most likely source of the belief that ghost shirts could repel bullets is the Mormon temple garment (which Mormons believe protect the pious wearer from evil, though not bullets). Scholars believe that in 1890 chief Kicking Bear introduced
1988-547: The United States government broke a Lakota treaty by adjusting the Great Sioux Reservation of South Dakota (an area that formerly encompassed the majority of the state) and breaking it up into five smaller reservations. The government was accommodating white homesteaders from the eastern United States; in addition, it intended to "break up tribal relationships" and "conform Indians to the white man's ways, peaceably if they will, or forcibly if they must". On
2059-500: The awards to be rescinded, but none have been revoked. Following the Wounded Knee Massacre, open participation in the Ghost Dance movement declined gradually for fear of continued violence against practitioners. Like most Indian ceremonies, it became clandestine rather than dying out completely. Congress officially apologized for the Wounded Knee Massacre in 1990 but did not rescind any Medals of Honor. Despite
2130-491: The banks of Wounded Knee Creek . The following day, during an attempt by the officers to collect weapons from the band, one young, deaf Lakota warrior refused to relinquish his arms. A struggle followed in which somebody's weapon discharged into the air. One U.S. officer gave the command to open fire, and the Lakota responded by taking up previously confiscated weapons; the U.S. forces responded with carbine firearms and several rapid-fire light-artillery Hotchkiss guns mounted on
2201-513: The beginning of a movement to cast and film Indigenous North Americans performing ceremonies, dances, and hunting. The kinetoscope was largely popular in the 1890s in both the East and West coast of the United States. These motion pictures were produced to contain a level of shock value to satisfy the viewers who would pay fifty cents to watch it. Films of Indigenous North Americans include a twenty-two second video of "Sioux Ghost Dance", passing around of
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2272-420: The cause of the problem. Metallic taste disturbance is typically reported 1–3 days after ingestion, being worse on day two and typically lasting up to two weeks. Cases are self-limited and resolve without treatment. In the United States, from 2008 to 2012, some people reported a bitter metallic taste ("pine mouth") that sometimes lasted for weeks after they ate pine nuts. After an international investigation,
2343-473: The center, and the gap was closed by other dancers. The goal was to enter a Trance , where the dancer is transported into the afterworld and met with lost realties, and times before the arrival of Europeans when the Bison was found in abundance. Wailing, cries, and perplexed looks were found from the dancers as they woke from their unconscious state and retold their experiences to the shamans. The Ghost Dance
2414-451: The ceremony. On the day of the dance, Men and Women enter a separate Sweat lodge . During a period of two to four days dancers hold hands with their heads looking upwards and slowly sideways shuffle their feet in a clockwise formation while singing Ghost Dance songs. Shamans will wave eagle wing fans in the faces of the participants. The combination of days-long dancing caused with exhaustion and ensued with participants falling unconscious into
2485-461: The concept to his people, the Lakota, while James Mooney argued that the most likely source is the Mormon temple garment (which Mormons believe protect the pious wearer from evil). The Lakota interpretation drew from their traditional idea of a "renewed Earth" in which "all evil is washed away". This Lakota interpretation included the removal of all European Americans from their lands: They told
2556-510: The concept to his people, the Lakota. In Kurt Vonnegut 's novel Player Piano , a faction revolting against the rigidly hierarchical, mechanized United States of the future calls itself the Ghost Shirt Society. The founders claim that, like the militant Native Americans of the late 19th century, they are "mak[ing] one last fight for the old values". Ghost Dance The Ghost Dance ( Caddo : Nanissáanah , also called
2627-413: The cones) and removal of trees for timber have led to losses in production capacity. Some growers claim that the elevation of the pinyon pine is an important determinant of the quantity of pine cone production and, therefore, will largely determine the number of pine nuts the tree will yield. The US Department of Agriculture notes that variation in cone production between trees growing on identical sites
2698-785: The dances and ridiculed the panic that seemed to have overcome the agencies, saying: The coming of the troops has frightened the Indians. If the Seventh-day Adventists prepare the ascension robes for the Second Coming of the Savior , the United States Army is not put in motion to prevent them. Why should not the Indians have the same privilege? If the troops remain, trouble is sure to come. Nonetheless, thousands of additional U.S. Army troops were deployed to
2769-660: The edible seeds of pines (family Pinaceae , genus Pinus ). According to the Food and Agriculture Organization , only 29 species provide edible nuts, while 20 are traded locally or internationally owing to their seed size being large enough to be worth harvesting; in other pines, the seeds are also edible but are too small to be of notable value as human food. The biggest producers of pine nuts are China , Russia , North Korea , Pakistan and Afghanistan . As pines are gymnosperms , not angiosperms (flowering plants), pine nuts are not " true nuts "; they are not botanical fruits ,
2840-426: The end of its second summer. The mature piñon pine cone is ready to harvest ten days before the green cone begins to open. A cone is harvested by placing it in a burlap bag and exposing it to a heat source such as the sun to begin drying. It takes about 20 days until the cone fully opens. Once it is fully open and dry, the seed can be easily extracted in various ways. The most common and practical extraction method used
2911-449: The environmental conditions are favorable for the tree and the cone. The time to maturity varies depending on the species. For some American species, development begins in early spring with pollination. A tiny cone, about the size of a small marble, will form from mid-spring through the end of summer; this immature cone will temporarily cease growing and remain dormant until the following spring, then grow again until it reaches maturity near
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2982-488: The father. The crow nation is coming, says the father, says the father." Jack Wilson, the prophet otherwise known as Wovoka , was believed to have had a vision during a solar eclipse on January 1, 1889 . It was reportedly not his first time experiencing a vision, but as a young adult, he claimed that he was then better equipped, spiritually, to handle this message. Jack had received training from an experienced holy man under his parents' guidance after they realized that he
3053-477: The help of a local "weather doctor" named Tavibo, father of Wovoka . Prior to Wodziwob's religious movement, a devastating typhoid fever epidemic struck in 1867. This and other European diseases killed approximately one-tenth of the total population, resulting in widespread psychological and emotional trauma. The disruption brought disorder to the economic system and society. Many families were prevented from continuing their nomadic lifestyle. A round dance
3124-549: The only dances he was allowed to witness were social dances or ones that had already incorporated Christian elements, making investigation of the round dance's origin complicated. Eyewitness accounts of the Ghost Dance prior to the Wounded knee massacre include Ella Cara Deloria and Goodale Sisters. The Ghost Dance included hundreds of participants in its peak, with many visiting from near by reservations to participate, with those participants fasting for one to two days prior to
3195-515: The other world, and in God's presence, there would be no sickness, disease, or old age. Mooney writes that Wilson was given the Ghost Dance and commanded to take it back to his people. He preached that if the five-day dance was performed in the proper intervals, the performers would secure their happiness and hasten the reunion of the living and deceased. Wilson said that the Creator gave him powers over
3266-499: The overlooking hill. When the fighting had concluded, 25 U.S. soldiers lay dead, many killed by friendly fire. Among the 153 dead Lakota, most were women and children. Following the massacre, Chief Kicking Bear officially surrendered his weapon to General Nelson A. Miles . Twenty U.S. soldiers received Medals of Honor for their actions (some sources state the number as 18 or 23). American Indian and human rights activists have referred to these as "Medals of Dis-Honor" and called for
3337-522: The pattern. During his studies of the Pacific Northwest tribes the anthropologist Leslie Spier used the term " prophet dances " to describe ceremonial round dances where the participants seek trance , exhortations and prophecy . Spier studied peoples of the Columbia plateau (a region including Washington , Oregon , Idaho , and parts of western Montana ). By the time of his studies
3408-540: The peace pipe, the buffalo dance, and the Omaha war dance. The Sioux Ghost Dance film offers non-natives who watched the kinetoscope an inaccurate depiction of the Ghost Dance, in the film there is a drum but the dance itself does not include instruments. The dancers heads are face downwards, hands are holding pipes and moving their feet in a fast paced motion, whereas the original dance is slow, hands are held together and heads are usually looking upwards. Dancers are crammed into
3479-522: The people they could dance a new world into being. There would be landslides, earthquakes, and big winds. Hills would pile up on each other. The earth would roll up like a carpet with all the white man's ugly things – the stinking new animals, sheep and pigs, the fences, the telegraph poles, the mines and factories. Underneath would be the wonderful old-new world as it had been before the white fat-takers came. ...The white men will be rolled up, disappear, go back to their own continent. (p. 228) In February 1890,
3550-424: The pine nut can be eaten. Unshelled pine nuts have a long shelf life if kept dry and refrigerated (−5 to 2 °C or 23 to 36 °F); shelled nuts (and unshelled nuts in warm conditions) deteriorate rapidly, becoming rancid within a few weeks or even days in warm, humid conditions. Pine nuts are commercially available in the shelled form, but due to poor storage, they can have poor flavor and may already be rancid at
3621-666: The popularity of this sauce since the 1990s has increased the visibility of the nut in America, primarily on the West Coast. Torta della nonna (literally "granny's cake") is a generic Italian dish name that in most families indicates an old family recipe for any cake but often is used for a tart or a pie filled with custard, topped with pine nuts and optionally dusted with icing sugar . Pignoli cookies , an Italian American specialty confection (in Italy, these would be called biscotti ai pinoli ), are made of almond flour formed into
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#17327725036633692-476: The published show programs.Yet they were stereotyped as mounted, war-bonneted warriors, the last impediment to civilization. Thus they had to re-fight a losing war nightly; and their hollow victory in the Little Big Horn enactments demonstrated over and over to their audiences the justification for American conquest. Through Native Americans and some white settlers, Wilson's message spread across much of
3763-443: The reduced reservations, the government allocated family units on 320-acre (1.3 km ) plots for individual households. The Lakota were expected to farm and raise livestock, and to send their children to boarding schools . With the goal of assimilation , the schools taught English and Christianity, as well as American cultural practices. Generally, they forbade inclusion of Indian traditional cultures and languages. To help support
3834-484: The region. The basis for the Ghost Dance is the circle dance , a traditional Native American dance. The Ghost Dance was first practiced by the Nevada Northern Paiute in 1889. The practice swept throughout much of the Western United States , quickly reaching areas of California and Oklahoma . As the Ghost Dance spread from its original source, different tribes synthesized selective aspects of
3905-562: The reservation. On December 15, 1890, Sitting Bull was arrested for failing to stop his people from practicing the Ghost Dance. During the incident, one of Sitting Bull's men, Catch the Bear, fired at Lieutenant "Bull Head", striking his right side. He instantly wheeled and shot Sitting Bull, hitting him in the left side, between the tenth and eleventh ribs; this exchange resulted in deaths on both sides, including that of Sitting Bull. Spotted Elk ( Lakota : Unpan Glešká – also known as Big Foot)
3976-529: The ritual with their own beliefs. The Ghost Dance has been associated with Wovoka's prophecy of an end to colonial expansion while preaching goals of clean living, an honest life, and cross-cultural cooperation by Native Americans. Practice of the Ghost Dance movement was believed to have contributed to Lakota resistance to assimilation under the Dawes Act . The Lakota variation on the Ghost Dance tended towards millenarianism , an innovation that distinguished
4047-590: The seed not being enclosed in an ovary which develops into the fruit, but simply bare seeds—"gymnosperm" meaning literally "naked seed" (from Ancient Greek : γυμνός , romanized : gymnos , lit. 'naked' and σπέρμα , sperma , 'seed'). The similarity of pine nuts to some angiosperm fruits is an example of convergent evolution . In Asia, two species, in particular, are widely harvested: Korean pine ( Pinus koraiensis ) in northeast Asia (the most important species in international trade) and chilgoza pine ( P. gerardiana ) in
4118-684: The small stage to accomodate the small space for the kinetoscope to view. The rise in popularity coincided with Buffalo Bill's Wild West shows where, "The role of Indian people was both essential and anomalous in the Wild West. At least in the big shows, they generally were treated and paid the same as other performers. They were able to travel with their families, and they earned a living not possible to them on their reservations. They were encouraged by Buffalo Bill and others to retain their language and rituals. They gained access to political and economic leaders, and their causes were sometimes argued in
4189-402: The spring and summer, allowing pine cones to fully mature and produce seed. At elevations above 2,600 m (8,500 ft), the temperature substantially drops, drastically affecting the state of the dormant cone. During the winter, frequent dramatic changes in temperature, drying, and gusty winds make the cones susceptible to freeze-drying that permanently damages them; in this case, growth
4260-425: The spring and summer, causing little nourishment for pine cone maturity. Although several other environmental factors determine the conditions of the ecosystem (such as clouds and rain), the trees tend to abort cones without sufficient water. High humidity encourages cone development. There are certain topographical areas found in lower elevations, such as shaded canyons, where the humidity remains constant throughout
4331-575: The supervising agents of the BIA. Those who had been residing in the area for a long time recognized that the ritual was often held shortly before battle was to occur. Kicking Bear was forced to leave Standing Rock, but when the dances continued unabated, Agent James McLaughlin asked for more troops. He claimed the Hunkpapa spiritual leader Sitting Bull was the real leader of the movement. A former agent, Valentine McGillycuddy , saw nothing extraordinary in
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#17327725036634402-424: The time of purchase. Consequently, pine nuts are often frozen to preserve their flavor. European pine nuts may be distinguished from Asian ones by their greater length than girth; Asian pine nuts are stubbier, shaped somewhat like long kernels of corn. The American piñon nuts are known for their large size and ease of shelling. In the United States, Pinus edulis , the hard shell of New Mexico and Colorado, became
4473-462: The trees. Because pine nuts are an important food source for many animals, overharvesting of pine nuts threatens local ecosystems, an effect occurring during the early 21st century with increased culinary uses for pine nuts. In the United States, millions of hectares of productive pinyon pine woods have been destroyed due to conversion of lands, and in China and Russia, destructive harvesting techniques (such as breaking off whole branches to harvest
4544-480: The weather and that he would be the deputy in charge of affairs in the western United States, leaving current President Harrison as God's deputy in the East. Jack claims that he was then told to return home and preach God's message. Jack Wilson claimed to have left the presence of God convinced that if every Indian in the West danced the new dance to "hasten the event", all evil in the world would be swept away, leaving
4615-516: The western Himalaya . Four other species, Siberian pine ( P. sibirica ), Siberian dwarf pine ( P. pumila ), Chinese white pine ( P. armandii ) and lacebark pine ( P. bungeana ), are also used to a lesser extent. Russia is the largest producer of P. sibirica nuts in the world, followed by either Mongolia or Afghanistan . They each produce over 10,000 metric tons (9,800 long tons; 11,000 short tons) annually, most of it exported to China . Pine nuts produced in Europe mostly come from
4686-414: The western portion of the United States. Early in the religious movement, many tribes sent members to investigate the self-proclaimed prophet, while other communities sent delegates only to be cordial. Regardless of their initial motivations, many left as believers and returned to their homeland preaching his message. The Ghost Dance was also investigated by many Mormons from Utah , for whom the concepts of
4757-504: The white settlers. He believed that through pacificism , the Lakota and the rest of the Native Americans would be delivered from white oppression in the form of earthquakes . However, two Lakota warriors and followers of Wovoka, Kicking Bear and Short Bull , thought otherwise, and believed that Ghost shirts would protect the wearer enough to actively resist U.S. military aggression. The shirts did not work as promised, and when
4828-408: The widespread acceptance of the Ghost Dance movement, Navajo leaders described the Ghost Dance as "worthless words" in 1890. Three years later, James Mooney arrived at the Navajo reservation in northern Arizona during his study of the Ghost Dance movement and found the Navajo never incorporated the ritual into their society. Kehoe believed the movement did not gain traction with the tribe due to
4899-487: Was a Miniconjou leader on the U.S. Army's list of 'trouble-making' Indians. On December 29, 1890, he was stopped while en route to convene with the remaining Lakota chiefs. U.S. Army officers forced him to relocate with his people to a small camp close to the Pine Ridge Agency. Here the soldiers could more closely watch the old chief. That evening, December 28, the small band of Lakota erected their tipis on
4970-416: Was clear that the land was unable to produce substantial agricultural yields. Unfortunately, this was also the time when the government's patience with supporting the so-called "lazy Indians" ran out. They cut rations for the Lakota in half. With the bison having been virtually eradicated a few years earlier, the Lakota were at risk of starvation. The people turned to the Ghost Dance ritual, which frightened
5041-730: Was having difficulty interpreting his previous visions. Jack was also training to be a "weather doctor", following in his father's footsteps. He was known throughout Mason Valley as a gifted and blessed young leader. Preaching a message of universal love, he often presided over circle dances, which symbolized the sun's heavenly path across the sky. Anthropologist James Mooney conducted an interview with Wilson prior to 1892. Mooney confirmed that his message matched that given to his fellow Indians. This study compared letters between tribes. According to Mooney, Wilson's letter said he stood before God in heaven and had seen many of his ancestors engaged in their favorite pastimes, and that God showed Wilson
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