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104-836: The plateau is elevated approximately 60 meters above sea-level. The Giza pyramid complex (مجمع أهرامات الجيزة), also called the Giza necropolis and also known as the Pyramids of Giza or Egypt , is the site on the Giza Plateau in Giza, that includes the Great Pyramid of Giza , the Pyramid of Khafre , and the Pyramid of Menkaure , along with their associated pyramid complexes and the Great Sphinx of Giza . All were built during

208-518: A seked of ⁠5 + 1 / 2 ⁠ palms (a slope of 51°50'40"). The Great Pyramid was built by quarrying an estimated 2.3 million large blocks, weighing 6 million tonnes in total. The majority of the stones are not uniform in size or shape, and are only roughly dressed. The outside layers were bound together by mortar . Primarily local limestone from the Giza Plateau was used for its construction. Other blocks were imported by boat on

312-419: A king's portrayal was about the idea of the office of kingship, which were dependent on the time period. The Old Kingdom was considered a golden age for Egypt, a grandiose height to which all future kingdoms aspired. As such, the king was portrayed as young and vital, with features that agreed with the standards of beauty of the time. The musculature seen in male figures was also applied to kings. A royal rite,

416-399: A man holding a tablet and a woman holding a mirror. Supposedly, between the statues was a "stone vessel [with] a gold cover". Inside the vessel was "something like pitch ", and when the explorer reached into the vessel "a gold receptacle happened to be inside". The receptacle, when taken from the vessel, was filled with "fresh blood", which quickly dried up. Ibn al-Nadim's work also claims that

520-413: A misinterpretation of the pyramids as "Joseph's granary" began to gain in popularity. The first textual evidence of this connection is found in the travel narratives of the female Christian pilgrim Egeria , who records that on her visit between 381 and 384 AD, "in the twelve-mile stretch between Memphis and Babylonia [= Old Cairo] are many pyramids, which Joseph made in order to store corn." Ten years later

624-534: A mixture of comprehensible descriptions, personal descriptions, erroneous reports, and fantastical legends; as a result, many of the speculative errors and confusions about the monument can be traced back to Herodotus and his work. Herodotus writes that the Great Pyramid was built by Khufu (Hellenized as Cheops) who, he erroneously relays, ruled after the Ramesside Period (the 19th dynasty and

728-578: A piece to a particular time frame. Proportions of the human figure are one of the most distinctive, as they vary between kingdoms. Old Kingdom male figures have characteristically broad shoulders and a long torso, with obvious musculature. On the other hand, females are narrower in the shoulders and waist, with longer legs and a shorter torso. However, in the Sixth Dynasty, the male figures lose their muscularity and their shoulders narrow. The eyes also tend to get much larger. In order to help maintain

832-515: A workers' town. The Great Sphinx of Giza is a limestone statue of a reclining sphinx , a mythical creature with the head of a human, and the body of a lion. Facing directly from west to east, it was carved out of a low lying spur of the Giza Plateau on the west bank of the Nile in Giza. The face of the Sphinx appears to represent the pharaoh Khafre. The original shape of the Sphinx was cut from

936-641: Is evidence that Merenre was not only active in Nubia like Pepi I but also sent officials to maintain Egyptian rule over Nubia from the northern border to the area south of the third cataract. During the Sixth Dynasty (2345–2181 BC) the power of the pharaoh gradually weakened in favor of powerful nomarchs (regional governors). These no longer belonged to the royal family and their charge became hereditary, thus creating local dynasties largely independent from

1040-654: Is the largest Egyptian pyramid . It served as the tomb of pharaoh Khufu , who ruled during the Fourth Dynasty of the Old Kingdom . Built c.  2600 BC , over a period of about 26 years, the pyramid is the oldest of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World , and the only wonder that has remained largely intact. It is the most famous monument of the Giza pyramid complex , which is part of

1144-402: Is thought to be mainly responsible for the 100–300 year offset, since the age of the organic material was determined, not when it was last used. A reanalysis of the data gave a completion date for the pyramid between 2620 and 2484 BC, based on the younger samples. In 1872 Waynman Dixon opened the lower pair of "Air-Shafts", previously closed at both ends, by chiseling holes into the walls of

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1248-559: Is through the monuments and their inscriptions that scholars have been able to construct a history. Egyptologists also include the Memphite Seventh and Eighth Dynasties in the Old Kingdom as a continuation of the administration, centralized at Memphis. While the Old Kingdom was a period of internal security and prosperity, it was followed by a period of disunity and relative cultural decline referred to by Egyptologists as

1352-470: The 20th dynasty ). Khufu was a tyrannical king, Herodotus claims, which may explain the Greek's view that such buildings can only come about through cruel exploitation of the people. Herodotus states that gangs of 100,000 labourers worked on the building in three-month shifts, taking 20 years to build. In the first ten years a wide causeway was erected, which, according to Herodotus, was almost as impressive as

1456-498: The Diary of Merer was found at Wadi al-Jarf . It documents the transportation of white limestone blocks from Tura to the Great Pyramid, which is mentioned by its original name Akhet Khufu (with a pyramid determinative ) dozens of times. It details that the stones were accepted at She Akhet-Khufu ("the pool of the pyramid Horizon of Khufu") and Ro-She Khufu ("the entrance to the pool of Khufu"), which were under supervision of Ankhhaf ,

1560-537: The East Field south of the causeway, and the West Field , including the wives, children and grandchildren of Khufu, Hemiunu , Ankhaf and (the funerary cache of) Hetepheres I , mother of Khufu. As Hassan puts it: "From the early dynastic times, it was always the custom for the relatives, friends and courtiers to be buried in the vicinity of the king they had served during life. This was quite in accordance with

1664-719: The First Intermediate Period . During the Old Kingdom, the King of Egypt (not called the Pharaoh until the New Kingdom) became a living god who ruled absolutely and could demand the services and wealth of his subjects. Under King Djoser , the first king of the Third Dynasty of the Old Kingdom, the royal capital of Egypt was moved to Memphis, where Djoser established his court. A new era of building

1768-468: The Fourth Dynasty of the Old Kingdom of Ancient Egypt , between 2600 and 2500 BC. The site also includes several cemeteries and the remains of a workers' village. The Giza pyramid complex consists of the Great Pyramid (also known as the Pyramid of Cheops or Khufu and constructed c. 2580 – c. 2560 BC), the somewhat smaller Pyramid of Khafre (or Chephren) a few hundred metres to the south-west, and

1872-479: The Nile : white limestone from Tura for the casing, and blocks of granite from Aswan , weighing up to 80 tonnes, for the "King's Chamber" structure. There are three known chambers inside of the Great Pyramid. The lowest was cut into the bedrock , upon which the pyramid was built, but remained unfinished. The so-called Queen's Chamber and King's Chamber, which contain a granite sarcophagus, are above ground, within

1976-538: The Rashidun Caliphate conquered Egypt , ending several centuries of Romano-Byzantine rule. A few centuries later, in 832 AD, the Abbasid caliph al-Ma'mun (786–833) is said to have tunnelled into the side of the structure and discovered the ascending passage and its connecting chambers. Around this time a Coptic legend gained popularity that claimed the antediluvian king Surid Ibn Salhouk had built

2080-627: The Third Dynasty , who ordered the construction of a pyramid (the Step Pyramid ) in Memphis' necropolis, Saqqara . An important person during the reign of Djoser was his vizier , Imhotep . It was in this era that formerly independent ancient Egyptian states became known as nomes , under the rule of the king. The former rulers were forced to assume the role of governors or otherwise work in tax collection. Egyptians in this era believed

2184-482: The UNESCO World Heritage Site " Memphis and its Necropolis ". It is situated at the northeastern end of the line of the three main pyramids at Giza . Initially standing at 146.6 metres (481 feet), the Great Pyramid was the world's tallest human-made structure for more than 3,800 years. Over time, most of the smooth white limestone casing was removed, which lowered the pyramid's height to

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2288-402: The bedrock , and has since been restored with layers of limestone blocks . It measures 73 m (240 ft) long from paw to tail, 20 m (66 ft) high from the base to the top of the head and 19 m (62 ft) wide at its rear haunches. Its nose was broken off between the 3rd and 10th centuries AD. The Arab historian al-Maqrīzī, writing in the 15th century, attributes the loss of

2392-399: The "granaries of Joseph" ( horrea Ioseph ). This reference from Julius is important, as it indicates that the identification was starting to spread out from pilgrim's travelogues. In 530 AD, Stephanos of Byzantium added more to this idea when he wrote in his Ethnica that the word "pyramid" was connected to the Greek word πυρός ( pyros ), meaning wheat. In the seventh century AD,

2496-530: The 4th. However, after phonetic changes in the Egyptian language and consequently the Greek translation, "Cheops" had transformed into "Souphis" (and similar versions). Greaves , in 1646, reported the great difficulty of ascertaining a date for the pyramid's construction based on the lacking and conflicting historic sources. Because of the differences in spelling, he did not recognize Khufu on Manetho's king list (as transcribed by Africanus and Eusebius ), hence he relied on Herodotus' incorrect account. Summating

2600-489: The Egyptian idea of the Hereafter." The cemeteries were actively expanded until the 6th dynasty and used less frequently afterwards. The earliest pharaonic name of seal impressions is that of Khufu, the latest of Pepi II . Worker graffiti were written on some of the stones of the tombs as well; for instance, "Mddw" ( Horus name of Khufu) on the mastaba of Chufunacht, probably a grandson of Khufu. Some inscriptions in

2704-531: The Great Pyramid had been attributed to Khufu based on the words of authors of classical antiquity , first and foremost Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus . During the Middle Ages other people were credited with the construction of the pyramid as well, for example Joseph from the Book of Genesis , Nimrod , or the legendary king Saurid ibn Salhouk . In 1837 four additional relieving chambers were found above

2808-424: The Great Pyramid had gained a reputation as a haunted structure. Others feared entering because it was home to animals like bats. A hillock forms the base on which the pyramid stands. It was cut back into steps and only a strip around the perimeter was leveled, which has been measured to be horizontal and flat to within 21 millimetres (0.8 in). The bedrock reaches a height of almost 6 metres (20 ft) above

2912-481: The Great Pyramid. One legend in particular relates how, three hundred years prior to the Great Flood, Surid had a terrifying dream of the world's end, and so he ordered the construction of the pyramids so that they might house all the knowledge of Egypt and survive into the present. The most notable account of this legend was given by al-Masudi (896–956) in his Akbar al-zaman , alongside imaginative tales about

3016-466: The King's Chamber after tunnelling to them. The chambers, previously inaccessible, were covered in hieroglyphs of red paint. The workers who were building the pyramid had marked the blocks with the names of their gangs, which included the pharaoh's name (e.g.: "The gang, The white crown of Khnum-Khufu is powerful"). The names of Khufu were spelled out on the walls over a dozen times. Another of these graffiti

3120-500: The Middle Kingdom ensured that art was axial, symmetrical, proportional, and most importantly reproducible and therefore recognizable. Composite composition, the second principle, also contributes to the goal of identification. Multiple perspectives were used in order to ensure that the onlooker could determine precisely what they saw. Though Egyptian art almost always includes descriptive text, literacy rates were not high, so

3224-491: The Nile. Herodotus later states that at the Pyramid of Khafre (beside the Great Pyramid) the Nile flows through a built passage to an island in which Khufu is buried. Hawass interprets this to be a reference to the " Osiris Shaft ", which is located at the causeway of Khafre, south of the Great Pyramid. Herodotus described an inscription on the outside of the pyramid, which, according to his translators, indicated

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3328-447: The Old Kingdom only kings and queens could have a pyramid tomb. Architectural layout and funeral equipment were also sanctioned, and were, like access to material and workers, at the discretion of the king. The Great Pyramid's internal chambers lack inscriptions and decorations, the norm for Egyptian tombs of the fourth to late fifth dynasty, apart from work-gang graffiti that include Khufu's names. Constructed around 2600 BC, it predates

3432-574: The Queen's Chamber. One of the objects found within was a cedar plank, which came into possession of James Grant, a friend of Dixon. After inheritance it was donated to the Museum of Aberdeen in 1946; however, it had broken into pieces and was filed incorrectly. Lost in the vast museum collection, it was only rediscovered in 2020, when it was radiocarbon dated to 3341–3094 BC. Being over 500 years older than Khufu's chronological age, Abeer Eladany suggests that

3536-635: The Sphinx was built by Djedefre as a monument to his father Khufu. Alternatively, the Sphinx has been proposed to be the work of Khafre and Khufu himself. There were military expeditions into Canaan and Nubia , with Egyptian influence reaching up the Nile into what is today Sudan . The later kings of the Fourth Dynasty were Menkaure (2532–2504 BC), who built the smallest of the three great pyramids in Giza; Shepseskaf (2504–2498 BC); and, perhaps, Djedefptah (2498–2496 BC). The Fifth Dynasty (2494–2345 BC) began with Userkaf (2494–2487 BC) and

3640-436: The amount of radishes, garlic and onions that the workers would have eaten while working on the pyramid. This could be a note of restoration work that Khaemweset , son of Rameses II , had carried out. Apparently, Herodotus' companions and interpreters could not read the hieroglyphs or deliberately gave him false information. Between 60 and 56 BC, the ancient Greek historian Diodorus Siculus visited Egypt and later dedicated

3744-421: The art gave another method for communicating the same information. One of the best examples of composite composition is the human form. In most two-dimensional relief, the head, legs, and feet are seen in profile, while the torso faces directly front. Another common example is an aerial view of a building or location. The third principle, the hierarchy of scale, illustrates relative importance in society. The larger

3848-480: The boat pits. As the successor and eldest son he would have presumably been responsible for the burial of Khufu. The second boat pit was examined in 1987; excavation work started in 2010. Graffiti on the stones included 4 instances of the name "Khufu", 11 instances of "Djedefre", a year (in reign, season, month and day), measurements of the stone, various signs and marks, and a reference line used in construction, all done in red or black ink. During excavations in 2013

3952-466: The bodies of a man and woman were discovered inside the pyramid in the "best possible state of preservation". The author al-Kaisi, in his work the Tohfat Alalbab, retells the story of al-Ma'mun's entry but with the additional discovery of "an image of a man in green stone", which when opened revealed a body dressed in jewel-encrusted gold armour. Al-Kaisi claims to have seen the case from which

4056-496: The body was taken, and asserts that it was located at the king's palace in Cairo. He also writes that he entered into the pyramid and discovered many preserved bodies. Another attempt to enter the pyramid in search of treasure is recorded during the vizierate of al-Afdal Shahanshah (1094–1121), but it was abandoned after a member of the party was lost in the passages. The Arab polymath Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi (1163–1231) studied

4160-491: The building of the Great Pyramids at Giza. Sneferu was succeeded by his son, Khufu (2589–2566 BC), who built the Great Pyramid of Giza . After Khufu's death, his sons Djedefre (2566–2558 BC) and Khafre (2558–2532 BC) may have quarrelled. The latter built the second pyramid and (in traditional thinking) the Great Sphinx of Giza . Recent re-examination of evidence has led Egyptologist Vassil Dobrev to propose that

4264-595: The central authority of the Pharaoh. However, Nile flood control was still the subject of very large works, including especially the canal to Lake Moeris around 2300 BC, which was likely also the source of water to the Giza pyramid complex centuries earlier. Internal disorders set in during the incredibly long reign of Pepi II (2278–2184 BC) towards the end of the dynasty. His death, certainly well past that of his intended heirs, might have created succession struggles. The country slipped into civil wars mere decades after

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4368-579: The chapels of the mastabas (like the pyramid, their burial chambers were usually bare of inscriptions) mention Khufu or his pyramid. For instance, an inscription of Mersyankh III states that "Her mother [is the] daughter of the King of Upper and Lower Egypt Khufu." Most often these references are part of a title, for example, Snnw-ka, "Chief of the Settlement and Overseer of the Pyramid City of Akhet-Khufu" or Nykahap, "priest of Khufu who presides over

4472-423: The cladding of the pyramid was still in excellent condition at the time, whereas the uppermost part of the pyramid was formed by a platform 6  cubits (3.1 m; 10.3 ft) high. About the construction of the pyramid he notes that it was built with the help of ramps since no lifting tools had yet been invented. Nothing was left of the ramps, as they were removed after the pyramids were completed. He estimated

4576-416: The close of Pepi II's reign. The final blow was the 22nd century BC drought in the region that resulted in a drastic drop in precipitation. For at least some years between 2200 and 2150 BC, this prevented the normal flooding of the Nile . Whatever its cause, the collapse of the Old Kingdom was followed by decades of famine and strife. An important inscription on the tomb of Ankhtifi , a nomarch during

4680-451: The coins were planted by Al-Ma'mun to appease his workers, who were likely frustrated that they had found no treasure.) In 987 AD, the Arab bibliographer Ibn al-Nadim relates a fantastical tale in his al-Fihrist about a man who journeyed into the main chamber of a pyramid, which Bayard Dodge argues is the Great Pyramid. According to Ibn al-Nadim, the person in question saw a statue of

4784-468: The consistency of these proportions, the Egyptians used a series of eight guidelines to divide the body. They occurred at the following locations: the top of the head, the hairline, the base of the neck, the underarms, the tip of the elbow or the bottom of the ribcage, the top of the thigh at the bottom of the buttocks, the knee, and the middle of the lower leg. From the soles of the feet to the hairline

4888-422: The construction of the pyramids themselves. It measured nearly 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) long and 20 yards (18.3 m) wide, and elevated to a height of 16 yards (14.6 m), consisting of stone polished and carved with figures. Underground chambers were made on the hill where the pyramids stand. These were intended to be burial places for Khufu himself and were supplied with water by a channel brought in from

4992-448: The current 138.5 metres (454.4 ft); what is seen today is the underlying core structure. The base was measured to be about 230.3 metres (755.6 ft) square, giving a volume of roughly 2.6 million cubic metres (92 million cubic feet), which includes an internal hillock. The dimensions of the pyramid were 280 royal cubits (146.7 m; 481.4 ft) high, a base length of 440 cubits (230.6 m; 756.4 ft), with

5096-537: The custom of inscribing pyramids with text by over 200 years. The pyramid complex of Khufu included two temples that were lavishly decorated and inscribed. The pyramid temple was dedicated to the Sed festival , celebrating Khufu's 30th jubilee. Surviving scenes portray Khufu, officials, priests and other characters performing rituals. The valley temple remains largely unexcavated, but blocks reused by Amenemhat I depict, for instance, nautical scenes and personifications of

5200-524: The duration of lines of succession, Greaves concluded 1266 BC to be the beginning of Khufu's reign. Two centuries later, some of the gaps and uncertainties in Manetho's chronology had been cleared by discoveries such as the King Lists of Turin , Abydos , and Karnak . The names of Khufu found within the Great Pyramid's relieving chambers in 1837 helped to make clear that Cheops and Souphis are one and

5304-489: The dynasties. The three primary principles of that style, frontality, composite composition, and hierarchy scale, illustrate this quite well. These characteristics, initiated in the Early Dynastic Period and solidified during the Old Kingdom, persisted with some adaptability throughout the entirety of ancient Egyptian history as the foundation of its art. Frontality, the first principle, indicates that art

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5408-487: The dynasty sent expeditions to the stone quarries and gold mines of Nubia and the mines of Sinai. there are references and depictions of military campaigns in Nubia and Asia. The sixth dynasty peaked during the reigns of Pepi I and Merenre I with flourishing trade, several mining and quarrying expeditions and major military campaigns. Militarily, aggressive expansion into Nubia marked Pepi I's reign. At least five military expeditions were sent into Canaan. There

5512-523: The dynasty were Menkauhor Kaiu (2421–2414 BC), Djedkare Isesi (2414–2375 BC), and Unas (2375–2345), the earliest ruler to have the Pyramid Texts inscribed in his pyramid. Egypt's expanding interests in trade goods such as ebony , incense such as myrrh and frankincense , gold, copper, and other useful metals inspired the ancient Egyptians to build suitable ships for navigation of the open sea. They traded with Lebanon for cedar and travelled

5616-429: The early First Intermediate Period , describes the pitiful state of the country when famine stalked the land. The most defining feature of ancient Egyptian art is its function, as that was the entire purpose of creation. Art was not made for enjoyment in the strictest sense, but rather served a role of some kind in Egyptian religion and ideology. This fact manifests itself in the artistic style, even as it evolved over

5720-414: The estates of Khufu (e.g. the estate "Khufu is beautiful"). The mortuary cult of Khufu which operated in these temples for hundreds of years indicates that Khufu was successfully interred in the Great Pyramid. That the funeral was carried out by Khufu's son and successor Djedefre is evidenced by the presence of his cartouches on the blocks that sealed the boat pits next to the pyramid. The Great Pyramid

5824-478: The figure, the more important the individual. The king is usually the largest, aside from deities. The similarity in size equated to similarity in position. However, this is not to say that physical differences were not shown as well. Women, for example, are usually shown as smaller than men. Children retain adult features and proportions but are substantially smaller in size. Aside from the three primary conventions, there are several characteristics that can help date

5928-413: The first book of his Bibliotheca historica to the land, its history, and its monuments, including the Great Pyramid. Diodorus's work was inspired by historians of the past, but he also distanced himself from Herodotus, who Diodorus claims tells marvellous tales and myths. Diodorus presumably drew his knowledge from the lost work of Hecataeus of Abdera , and like Herodotus, he also places the builder of

6032-634: The first king of the Fourth Dynasty, held territory from ancient Libya in the west to the Sinai Peninsula in the east, to Nubia in the south. An Egyptian settlement was founded at Buhen in Nubia which endured for 200 years. After Djoser, Sneferu was the next great pyramid builder. He commissioned the building of not one, but three pyramids. The first is called the Meidum Pyramid , named for its location in Egypt . Sneferu abandoned it after

6136-491: The half brother and vizier of Khufu, and the owner of the largest mastaba of the Giza East Field . The Great Pyramid has been determined to be about 4,600 years old by two principal approaches: indirectly, through its attribution to Khufu and his chronological age, based on archaeological and textual evidence; and directly, via radiocarbon dating of organic material found in the pyramid and included in its mortar. In

6240-568: The horses in Memphis, when he was still young, and stopped at the Sanctuary of Hor-em-akhet (the Sphinx). He spent a time there in going round it, looking at the beauty of the Sanctuary of Khufu and Khafra the revered." In 1954 two boat pits, one containing the Khufu ship , were discovered buried at the south foot of the pyramid. The cartouche of Djedefre was found on many of the blocks that covered

6344-525: The idea that it was a pre-Adamic construction. A few centuries later, the Islamic historian Al-Maqrizi (1364–1442) compiled lore about the Great Pyramid in his Al-Khitat . In addition to reasserting that Al-Ma'mun breached the structure in 820 AD, Al-Maqrizi's work also discusses the sarcophagus in the coffin chambers, explicitly noting that the pyramid was a grave. By the Late Middle Ages ,

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6448-400: The jubilee run which was established during the Old Kingdom, involved the king running around a group of markers that symbolized the geographic borders of Egypt. This was meant to be a demonstration of the king's physical vigor, which determined his capacity to continue his reign. This idea of kingly youth and strength were pervasive in the Old Kingdom and thus shown in the art. The sculpture

6552-426: The king to be the incarnation of Horus , linking the human and spiritual worlds. Egyptian views on the nature of time during this period held that the universe worked in cycles, and the Pharaoh on earth worked to ensure the stability of those cycles. They also perceived themselves as specially selected people. The Old Kingdom and its royal power reached a zenith under the Fourth Dynasty (2613–2494 BC). King Sneferu,

6656-530: The length of the Red Sea to the Kingdom of Punt - modern-day Eritrea —for ebony, ivory, and aromatic resins. Shipbuilders of that era did not use pegs ( treenails ) or metal fasteners, but relied on the rope to keep their ships assembled. Planks and the superstructure were tightly tied and bound together. This period also witnessed direct trade between Egypt and its Aegean neighbors and Anatolia. The rulers of

6760-417: The level of the river is too low for canals to bring water up to the pyramid. Pliny also recounts how "in the interior of the largest Pyramid there is a well, eighty-six cubits [45.1 m; 147.8 ft] deep, which communicates with the river, it is thought". He also describes a method discovered by Thales of Miletus for ascertaining the pyramid's height by measuring its shadow. During late antiquity ,

6864-547: The lines of succession known from ancient king lists and other texts. The reign lengths from Khufu to known points in the earlier past are summated, bolstered with genealogical data, astronomical observations, and other sources. As such, the historical chronology of Egypt is primarily a political chronology, thus independent from other types of archaeological evidence like stratigraphies , material culture, or radiocarbon dating. The majority of recent chronological estimates date Khufu and his pyramid between 2700 and 2500 BC. Mortar

6968-423: The middle of the third millennium BC. The newly developed radiocarbon dating method confirmed that the historic chronology was approximately correct. It is still not a perfectly accurate method due to larger margins of error, calibration uncertainties and the problem of inbuilt age (time between growth and final usage) in plant material, including wood. Astronomical alignments have also been suggested to coincide with

7072-428: The names of those who erected such stupendous memorials of their vanity". In pondering how the stones could be transported to such a vast height he gives two explanations: That either vast mounds of nitre and salt were heaped up against the pyramid, which were then melted away with water redirected from the river. Or, that "bridges" were constructed, their bricks afterwards distributed for erecting houses, arguing that

7176-466: The natural and cultural features of the entire Giza Plateau. Survey data suggested to Lehner possible locations for the city of the pyramid builders, so in 1988 the mission of the GPMP was extended to excavate and survey those areas. 29°58′34″N 31°07′58″E  /  29.97611°N 31.13278°E  / 29.97611; 31.13278 Great Pyramid of Giza The Great Pyramid of Giza

7280-451: The nose to Muhammad Sa'im al-Dahr. The Sphinx is the oldest known monumental sculpture in Egypt and one of the most recognisable statues in the world. The archaeological evidence suggests that it was created by ancient Egyptians of the Old Kingdom during the reign of Khafre ( c.  2558–2532 BC). Modern Giza is accessed by two main roads. The road from the north leads to Khufu's pyramid;

7384-443: The number of workers necessary to erect the Great Pyramid at 360,000 and the construction time at 20 years. Similar to Herodotus, Diodorus also claims that the side of the pyramid is inscribed with writing that "[set] forth [the price of] vegetables and purgatives for the workmen there were paid out over sixteen hundred talents." The Greek geographer, philosopher, and historian Strabo visited Egypt around 25 BC, shortly after Egypt

7488-628: The other to near the Sphinx's front court, from the east. They cross the Nile River from the east bank and follow the causeway westward. Dominating the plateau and running in a southwest diagonal through the site are the three pyramids of the pharaohs Khufu , Khafre , and Menkaure . The Giza Plateau Mapping Project (GPMP) was undertaken in 1984, "an effort to better understand the social and economic forces that supported pyramid construction." Mark Lehner and his team produced an accurate map of

7592-574: The outside casing fell off of the pyramid. The Meidum pyramid was the first to have an above-ground burial chamber. Using more stones than any other Pharaoh, he built the three pyramids: a now collapsed pyramid in Meidum , the Bent Pyramid at Dahshur , and the Red Pyramid , at North Dahshur. However, the full development of the pyramid style of building was reached not at Saqqara, but during

7696-400: The past the Great Pyramid was dated by its attribution to Khufu alone, putting the construction of the Great Pyramid within his reign, hence dating the pyramid was a matter of dating Khufu and the 4th dynasty. The relative sequence and synchronicity of events is the focal point of this method. Absolute calendar dates are derived from an interlocked network of evidence, the backbone of which are

7800-491: The pyramid Akhet-Khufu". Several tomb owners have a king's name as part of their own name (e.g. Chufudjedef, Chufuseneb, Merichufu). The earliest pharaoh alluded to in that manner at Giza is Snefru (Khufu's father). In 1936 Hassan uncovered a stela of Amenhotep II near the Great Sphinx of Giza , which implies the two larger pyramids were still attributed to Khufu and Khafre in the New Kingdom . It reads: "He yoked

7904-488: The pyramid and one near the Nile); tombs for the immediate family and court of Khufu, including three smaller pyramids for Khufu's wives; an even smaller "satellite pyramid"; and five buried solar barques . The Great Pyramid of Giza was the tomb of pharaoh Khufu, and still contains his granite sarcophagus. It had, like other tombs of Egyptian elites, four main purposes: Make your grave well furnished and prepare thy place in

8008-590: The pyramid base at the location of the Grotto. Old Kingdom of Egypt In ancient Egyptian history, the Old Kingdom is the period spanning c.  2700 –2200 BC. It is also known as the "Age of the Pyramids" or the "Age of the Pyramid Builders", as it encompasses the reigns of the great pyramid-builders of the Fourth Dynasty , such as King Sneferu , under whom the art of pyramid -building

8112-501: The pyramid could be entered at this time. The Roman writer Pliny the Elder , writing in the first century AD, argued that the Great Pyramid had been raised, either "to prevent the lower classes from remaining unoccupied", or as a measure to prevent the pharaoh's riches from falling into the hands of his rivals or successors. Pliny does not speculate as to the pharaoh in question, explicitly noting that "accident [has] consigned to oblivion

8216-418: The pyramid structure. Hemiunu , Khufu's vizier , is believed by some to be the architect of the Great Pyramid. Many varying scientific and alternative hypotheses attempt to explain the exact construction techniques , but, as is the case for other such structures, there is no definite consensus. The funerary complex around the pyramid consisted of two mortuary temples connected by a causeway (one close to

8320-578: The pyramid with great care, and in his Account of Egypt , he praises them as works of engineering genius. In addition to measuring the structure, alongside the other pyramids at Giza, al-Baghdadi also writes that the structures were surely tombs, although he thought the Great Pyramid was used for the burial of Agathodaimon or Hermes . Al-Baghdadi ponders whether the pyramid pre-dated the Great Flood as described in Genesis , and even briefly entertained

8424-406: The pyramid, "Chemmis", after Ramses III. According to his report, neither Chemmis ( Khufu ) nor Cephren ( Khafre ) were buried in their pyramids, but rather in secret places, for fear that the people ostensibly forced to build the structures would seek out the bodies for revenge. With this assertion, Diodorus strengthened the connection between pyramid building and slavery. According to Diodorus,

8528-416: The pyramid, such as the story of a man who fell three hours down the pyramid's well and the tale of an expedition that discovered bizarre finds in the structure's inner chambers. Al-zaman also contains a report of al-Ma'mun's entering the pyramid and discovering a vessel containing a thousand coins, which just happened to cover the cost of opening the pyramid. (Some speculate that this story is true, but that

8632-450: The pyramid. In the second book of his work The Histories , he discusses the history of Egypt and the Great Pyramid. This report was created more than 2000 years after the structure was built, meaning that Herodotus obtained his knowledge mainly from a variety of indirect sources, including officials and priests of low rank, local Egyptians, Greek immigrants, and Herodotus's own interpreters. Accordingly, his explanations present themselves as

8736-503: The relatively modest-sized Pyramid of Menkaure (or Mykerinos) a few hundred metres farther south-west. The Great Sphinx lies on the east side of the complex. Current consensus among Egyptologists is that the head of the Great Sphinx is that of Khafre . Along with these major monuments are a number of smaller satellite edifices, known as "queens" pyramids, causeways pyramid temples, valley temples, harbours, three cemetery fields and

8840-420: The same. Thus the Great Pyramid was recognized to have been built in the 4th dynasty. The dating among Egyptologists still varied by multiple centuries (around 4000–2000 BC), depending on methodology, preconceived religious notions (such as the biblical deluge ) and which source they thought was more credible. Estimates significantly narrowed in the 20th century, most being within 250 years of each other, around

8944-453: The solar aspect of their religion and the inundations of the Nile. Though the above concepts apply to most, if not all, figures in Egyptian art, there are additional characteristics that applied to the representations of the king. Their appearance was not an exact rendering of the king's visage, though kings are somewhat identifiable through looks alone. Identification could be supplied by inscriptions or context. A huge, more important part of

9048-415: The time of construction. Egyptian chronology continues to be refined and data from multiple disciplines have started to be factored in, such as luminescence dating, radiocarbon dating, and dendrochronology. For instance, Ramsey et al. included over 200 radiocarbon samples in their model. The ancient Greek historian Herodotus , writing in the 5th century BC, is one of the first major authors to mention

9152-582: The two periods is the revolutionary change in architecture accompanied by the effects on Egyptian society and the economy of large-scale building projects. The Old Kingdom is most commonly regarded as the period from the Third Dynasty to the Sixth Dynasty (2686–2181 BC). Information from the Fourth to the Sixth Dynasties of Egypt is scarce, and historians regard the history of the era as literally "written in stone" and largely architectural in that it

9256-415: The usage is confirmed in the anonymous travelogue of seven monks who set out from Jerusalem to visit the famous ascetics in Egypt, wherein they report that they "saw Joseph's granaries, where he stored grain in biblical times". This late 4th-century usage is further confirmed in the geographical treatise Cosmographia , written by Julius Honorius around 376 AD, which explains that the Pyramids were called

9360-420: The west. Look, death counts little for us. Look, life is valued highly by us. The house of the dead (the tomb) is for life. In ancient Egypt, high social status was considered absolutely positive, and the monumental social inequalities were symbolized by gigantic pyramids versus smaller mastabas . The sizes of tombs were regulated officially, with their allowed dimensions written down in royal decrees . In

9464-480: The wood originated from the centre of a long-lived tree or had been recycled for many years prior to being deposited in the pyramid. Circa 450 BC Herodotus attributed the Great Pyramid to Cheops (Hellenization of Khufu), yet erroneously placed his reign following the Ramesside period . Manetho , around 200 years later, composed an extensive list of Egyptian kings, which he divided into dynasties, assigning Khufu to

9568-470: Was Sahure's son. Neferirkare introduced the prenomen in the royal titulary. He was followed by two short-lived kings, his son Neferefre (2455–2453 BC) and Shepseskare , the latter of uncertain parentage. Shepseskare may have been deposed by Neferefre's brother Nyuserre Ini (2445–2421 BC), a long-lived pharaoh who built extensively in Abusir and restarted royal activity in Giza. The last pharaohs of

9672-447: Was a major product of the Old Kingdom. The position of the figures in this period was mostly limited to sitting or standing, either with feet together or in the striding pose. Group statues of the king with either gods or family members, typically his wife and children, were also common. It was not just the subject of sculpture that was important, but also the material: The use of hard stone, such as gneiss, graywacke, schist, and granite,

9776-505: Was also divided into thirds, one-third between the soles and the knee, another third between the knee and the elbow, and the final third from the elbow to the hairline. The broad shoulders that appeared in the Fifth Dynasty constituted roughly that one-third length as well. These proportions not only help with the identification of representations and the reproduction of art but also tie into the Egyptian ideal of order, which tied into

9880-465: Was annexed by the Romans . In his work Geographica , he argues that the pyramids were the burial place of kings, but he does not mention which king was buried in the structure. Strabo also mentions: "At a moderate height in one of the sides is a stone, which may be taken out; when that is removed, there is an oblique passage to the tomb." This statement has generated much speculation, as it suggests that

9984-535: Was coined in 1845 by the German Egyptologist Baron von Bunsen , and its definition evolved significantly throughout the 19th and the 20th centuries. Not only was the last king of the Early Dynastic Period related to the first two kings of the Old Kingdom, but the "capital", the royal residence, remained at Ineb-Hedj , the Egyptian name for Memphis . The basic justification for separating

10088-417: Was found by Goyon on an exterior block of the 4th layer of the pyramid. The inscriptions are comparable to those found at other sites of Khufu, such as the alabaster quarry at Hatnub or the harbour at Wadi al-Jarf , and are present in pyramids of other pharaohs as well. Throughout the 20th century the cemeteries next to the pyramid were excavated. Family members and high officials of Khufu were buried in

10192-425: Was initiated at Saqqara under his reign. King Djoser's architect, Imhotep , is credited with the development of building with stone and with the conception of the new architectural form , the step pyramid . The Old Kingdom is best known for a large number of pyramids constructed at this time as burial places for Egypt's kings. The first King of the Old Kingdom was Djoser (sometime between 2691 and 2625 BC) of

10296-413: Was likely looted as early as the First Intermediate Period and may have been reused afterwards. Arab accounts tell stories of mummies and treasures being found inside the pyramid. For instance, Al-Maqrizi (1364–1442) reports the discovery of three shrouded bodies, a sarcophagus filled with gold, and a corpse in golden armour with a sword of inestimable value and a ruby as large as an egg. Historically

10400-458: Was marked by the growing importance of the cult of sun god Ra . Consequently, fewer efforts were devoted to the construction of pyramid complexes than during the Fourth Dynasty and more to the construction of sun temples in Abusir . Userkaf was succeeded by his son Sahure (2487–2475 BC), who commanded an expedition to Punt . Sahure was in turn succeeded by Neferirkare Kakai (2475–2455 BC), who

10504-509: Was perfected, and the kings Khufu , Khafre and Menkaure , who commissioned the construction of the pyramids at Giza . Egypt attained its first sustained peak of civilization during the Old Kingdom, the first of three so-called "Kingdom" periods (followed by the Middle Kingdom and New Kingdom ), which mark the high points of civilization in the lower Nile Valley . The concept of an "Old Kingdom" as one of three "golden ages"

10608-460: Was relatively common in the Old Kingdom. The color of the stone had a great deal of symbolism and was chosen deliberately. Four colors were distinguished in the ancient Egyptian language: black, green, red, and white. Black was associated with Egypt due to the color of the soil after the Nile flood, green with vegetation and rebirth, red with the sun and its regenerative cycle, and white with purity. The statue of Menkaure with Hathor and Anput

10712-438: Was used generously in the Great Pyramid's construction. In the mixing process ashes from fires were added to the mortar, organic material that could be extracted and radiocarbon dated . A total of 46 samples of the mortar were taken in 1984 and 1995, making sure they were clearly inherent to the original structure and could not have been incorporated at a later date. The results were calibrated to 2871–2604 BC. The old wood problem

10816-409: Was viewed directly from the front. One was meant to approach a piece as they would a living individual, for it was meant to be a place of manifestation. The act of interaction would bring forth the divine entity represented in the art. It was therefore imperative that whoever was represented be as identifiable as possible. The guidelines developed in the Old Kingdom and the later grid system developed in

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