61-444: Gibbons ( / ˈ ɡ ɪ b ə n z / ) are apes in the family Hylobatidae ( / ˌ h aɪ l ə ˈ b æ t ɪ d iː / ). The family historically contained one genus , but now is split into four extant genera and 20 species . Gibbons live in subtropical and tropical forests from eastern Bangladesh to Northeast India to southern China and Indonesia (including the islands of Sumatra , Borneo and Java ). Also called
122-548: A clade of Old World simians native to sub-Saharan Africa and Southeast Asia (though they were more widespread in Africa, most of Asia, and Europe in prehistory, and counting humans are found globally). Apes are more closely related to Old World monkeys (family Cercopithecidae) than to the New World monkeys (Platyrrhini) with both Old World monkeys and apes placed in the clade Catarrhini . Apes do not have tails due to
183-504: A branch breaks or a hand slips, and researchers estimate that the majority of gibbons suffer bone fractures one or more times during their lifetimes. They are the fastest of all tree-dwelling, nonflying mammals. On the ground, gibbons tend to walk bipedally, and their Achilles tendon morphology is more similar to that of humans than that of any other ape. Gibbons' diets are about 60% fruit-based, but they also consume twigs, leaves, insects, flowers, and occasionally birds' eggs. Gibbons were
244-449: A close relationship between humans and the rest of the animal kingdom. Linnaeus's Lutheran archbishop had accused him of "impiety". In a letter to Johann Georg Gmelin dated 25 February 1747, Linnaeus wrote: It is not pleasing to me that I must place humans among the primates, but man is intimately familiar with himself. Let's not quibble over words. It will be the same to me whatever name is applied. But I desperately seek from you and from
305-441: A cyclical dynamic of expansions and contractions of their forest habitat, an instance of radiation experienced by the gibbon genera. This may have led to the development of a suite of physical characteristics, distinct from their great ape relatives, to adapt to their habitat of dense, canopy forest. These crucial findings in genetics have contributed to the use of gibbons as a genetic model for chromosome breakage and fusion, which
366-447: A genus, are also suspected to occur in wild gibbons where their ranges overlap. No records exist, however, of fertile hybrids between different gibbon genera, either in the wild or in captivity. One unique aspect of a gibbon's anatomy is the wrist, which functions something like a ball-and-socket joint , allowing for biaxial movement. This greatly reduces the amount of energy needed in the upper arm and torso, while also reducing stress on
427-582: A mutation of the TBXT gene . In traditional and non-scientific use, the term ape can include tailless primates taxonomically considered Cercopithecidae (such as the Barbary ape and black ape ), and is thus not equivalent to the scientific taxon Hominoidea. There are two extant branches of the superfamily Hominoidea: the gibbons , or lesser apes; and the hominids , or great apes . Except for gorillas and humans, hominoids are agile climbers of trees. Apes eat
488-507: A premature termination state leading to an alteration in transcription . This incorporation of the jumping gene near genes involved in chromosome replication is thought to make the rearrangement in the genome even more likely, leading to a greater diversity within the gibbon genera. In addition, some characteristic genes in the gibbon genome had gone through a positive selection and are suggested to give rise to specific anatomical features for gibbons to adapt to their new environment. One of them
549-539: A second species in Homo along with H. sapiens : Homo troglodytes ("cave-dwelling man"). Although the term "Orang Outang" is listed as a variety – Homo sylvestris – under this species, it is nevertheless not clear to which animal this name refers, as Linnaeus had no specimen to refer to, hence no precise description. Linnaeus may have based Homo troglodytes on reports of mythical creatures, then-unidentified simians , or Asian natives dressed in animal skins. Linnaeus named
610-428: A tail. Monkeys are more likely to be in trees and use their tails for balance. While the great apes are considerably larger than monkeys, gibbons (lesser apes) are smaller than some monkeys. Apes are considered to be more intelligent than monkeys, which are considered to have more primitive brains. The enzyme urate oxidase has become inactive in all apes, its function having been lost in two primate lineages during
671-413: A variety of plant and animal foods, with the majority of food being plant foods, which can include fruits, leaves, stalks, roots and seeds, including nuts and grass seeds. Human diets are sometimes substantially different from that of other hominoids due in part to the development of technology and a wide range of habitation. All non-human hominoids are rare and threatened with extinction . The main threat
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#1732765060551732-547: Is TBX5 , which is a gene that is required for the development of the front extremities or forelimbs such as long arms. The other is COL1A1 , which is responsible for the development of collagen , a protein that is directly involved with the forming of connective tissues, bone, and cartilage. This gene is thought to have a role in gibbons' stronger muscles. Researchers have found a coincidence between major environmental changes in Southeast Asia about 5 Mya that caused
793-519: Is habitat loss , though some populations are further imperiled by hunting. The great apes of Africa are also facing threat from the Ebola virus . "Ape", from Old English apa , is a word of uncertain origin. The term has a history of rather imprecise usage—and of comedic or punning usage in the vernacular. Its earliest meaning was generally of any non-human anthropoid primate, as is still the case for its cognates in other Germanic languages. Later, after
854-487: Is vulnerable ), primarily due to degradation or loss of their forest habitats. On the island of Phuket in Thailand , a volunteer-based Gibbon Rehabilitation Center rescues gibbons that were kept in captivity, and are being released back into the wild. The Kalaweit Project also has gibbon rehabilitation centers on Borneo and Sumatra . The IUCN Species Survival Commission Primate Specialist Group announced 2015 to be
915-457: Is a type of synovial joint in which the ball-shaped surface of one rounded bone fits into the cup-like depression of another bone. The distal bone is capable of motion around an indefinite number of axes, which have one common center. This enables the joint to move in many directions. An enarthrosis is a special kind of spheroidal joint in which the socket covers the sphere beyond its equator. Examples of this form of articulation are found in
976-680: Is a type of translocation mutation. The unusually high number of structural changes in the DNA and chromosomal rearrangements could lead to problematic consequences in some species. Gibbons, however, not only seemed to be free from problems but let the change help them effectively adapt to their environment. Thus, gibbons are organisms on which genetics research could be focused to broaden the implications to human diseases related to chromosomal changes, such as cancer, including chronic myeloid leukemia . Most species are either endangered or critically endangered (the sole exception being H. leuconedys , which
1037-507: Is complex and somewhat confusing. Recent evidence has changed our understanding of the relationships between the hominoids, especially regarding the human lineage; and the traditionally used terms have become somewhat confused. Competing approaches to methodology and terminology are found among current scientific sources. Over time, authorities have changed the names and the meanings of names of groups and subgroups as new evidence — that is, new discoveries of fossils and tools and of observations in
1098-535: Is critical for evolutionary development. The very high rate of chromosomal disorder and rearrangements (such as duplications, deletions or inversions of large stretches of DNA) due to the moving of this large DNA segment is one of the key features that are unique to the gibbon genome. A special feature of the LAVA transposon is that it positioned itself precisely between genes that are involved in chromosome segregation and distribution during cell division, which results in
1159-436: Is derived from, and intended as encompassing, the hominids , the family of great apes . Both terms were introduced by Gray (1825). The term hominins is also due to Gray (1824), intended as including the human lineage (see also Hominidae#Terminology , Human taxonomy ). The distinction between apes and monkeys is complicated by the traditional paraphyly of monkeys: Apes emerged as a sister group of Old World Monkeys in
1220-458: Is singing, but also the area from which it comes. Gibbons often retain the same mate for life, although they do not always remain sexually monogamous. In addition to extra-pair copulations , pair-bonded gibbons occasionally "divorce". Gibbons are among nature's best brachiators . Their ball-and-socket wrist joints allow them unmatched speed and accuracy when swinging through trees. Nonetheless, their mode of transportation can lead to hazards when
1281-534: Is specific in small apes such as gibbons could potentially be due to factors that increase the rate of chromosomal breakage or factors that allow derivative chromosomes to be fixed in a homozygous state while mostly lost in other mammals. The whole genome of the gibbons in Southeast Asia was first sequenced in 2014 by the German Primate Center , including Christian Roos, Markus Brameier, and Lutz Walter, along with other international researchers. One of
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#17327650605511342-474: Is their long arms, which they use to brachiate through trees. Their wrists are ball and socket joints as an evolutionary adaptation to their arboreal lifestyle. Generally smaller than the African apes, the largest gibbon, the siamang , weighs up to 14 kg (31 lb); in comparison, the smallest "great ape", the bonobo , is 34 to 60 kg (75 to 132 lb). The superfamily Hominoidea falls within
1403-1307: The Old World monkeys about 25 million years ago (mya), near the Oligocene–Miocene boundary . The gibbons split from the rest about 18 mya, and the hominid splits happened 14 mya ( Pongo ), 7 mya ( Gorilla ), and 3–5 mya ( Homo & Pan ). In 2015, a new genus and species were described, Pliobates cataloniae , which lived 11.6 mya, and appears to predate the split between Hominidae and Hylobatidae. Saadanioidea (†28) Victoriapithecinae (†19) Crown Cercopithecoidea Dendropithecidae (†7 Mya) Ekembo heseloni (†17 Mya) Proconsulidae (†18 Mya) Ekembo nyanzae (†17 Mya) Equatorius (†16) Pliobates (†11.6 Mya) Morotopithecus (†20) Afropithecus (†16) Hominidae Hylobatidae humans (genus Homo ) [REDACTED] chimpanzees (genus Pan ) [REDACTED] gorillas (genus Gorilla ) [REDACTED] orangutans (genus Pongo ) [REDACTED] gibbons/lesser apes (family Hylobatidae) [REDACTED] Cercopithecoidea [REDACTED] Old World monkeys The families, and extant genera and species of hominoids are: The history of hominoid taxonomy
1464-417: The catarrhines , which are a sister group of New World Monkeys. Therefore, cladistically , apes, catarrhines and related contemporary extinct groups such as Parapithecidae are monkeys as well, for any consistent definition of "monkey". "Old World monkey" may also legitimately be taken to be meant to include all the catarrhines, including apes and extinct species such as Aegyptopithecus , in which case
1525-611: The lesser apes , gibbons differ from the great apes ( chimpanzees , gorillas , orangutans and humans ) in being smaller, exhibiting low sexual dimorphism , and not making nests. Like all of the apes, gibbons are tailless . Unlike most of the great apes, gibbons frequently form long-term pair bonds . Their primary mode of locomotion, brachiation , involves swinging from branch to branch for distances up to 15 m (50 ft), at speeds as fast as 55 km/h (34 mph). They can also make leaps up to 8 m (26 ft), and walk bipedally with their arms raised for balance. They are
1586-539: The parvorder Catarrhini , which also includes the Old World monkeys of Africa and Eurasia. Within this grouping, the two families Hylobatidae and Hominidae can be distinguished from Old World monkeys by the number of cusps on their molars ; hominoids have five in the "Y-5" molar pattern, whereas Old World monkeys have only four in a bilophodont pattern. Further, in comparison with Old World monkeys, hominoids are noted for: more mobile shoulder joints and arms due to
1647-431: The pig-tailed langur , is known to walk significant distances bipedally. The front of the ape skull is characterised by its sinuses, fusion of the frontal bone, and by post-orbital constriction . Cladistically , apes, catarrhines, and extinct species such as Aegyptopithecus and Parapithecidaea , are monkeys, so one can only specify ape features not present in other monkeys. Unlike most monkeys , apes do not possess
1708-662: The Chinese word yuán (猿) referred specifically to gibbons until they were extirpated throughout most of the country due to habitat destruction (around the 14th century). In modern usage, however, yuán is a generic word for ape. Early Chinese writers viewed the "noble" gibbons, gracefully moving high in the treetops, as the "gentlemen" ( jūnzǐ , 君子) of the forest, in contrast to the greedy macaques , attracted by human food. The Taoists ascribed occult properties to gibbons, believing them to be able to live for several hundred years and to turn into humans. Gibbon figurines as old as from
1769-558: The Quadrumana, under the title of the Primates. The justice of this conclusion will be admitted: for in the first place, we must bear in mind the comparative insignificance for classification of the great development of the brain in man, and that the strongly marked differences between the skulls of man and the Quadrumana (lately insisted upon by Bischoff , Aeby , and others) apparently follow from their differently developed brains. In
1830-560: The Year of the Gibbon and initiated events to be held around the world in zoos to promote awareness of the status of gibbons. Sinologist Robert van Gulik concluded gibbons were widespread in central and southern China until at least the Song dynasty , and furthermore, based on an analysis of references to primates in Chinese poetry and other literature and their portrayal in Chinese paintings,
1891-453: The apes, Cercopithecoidea and Aegyptopithecus emerged within the Old World monkeys. The primates called "apes" today became known to Europeans after the 18th century. As zoological knowledge developed, it became clear that taillessness occurred in a number of different and otherwise distantly related species . Sir Wilfrid Le Gros Clark was one of those primatologists who developed the idea that there were trends in primate evolution and that
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1952-426: The common hominoid ancestor to today's gibbons. No common specific sequence element in the independent rearrangements was found, while 46% of the gibbon-human synteny breakpoints occur in segmental duplication regions. This is an indication that these major differences in humans and gibbons could have had a common source of plasticity or change. Researchers view this unusually high rate of chromosomal rearrangement that
2013-554: The descendant species, because humans were excluded from being among the apes. Traditionally, the English-language vernacular name "apes" does not include humans, but phylogenetically, humans ( Homo ) form part of the family Hominidae within Hominoidea. Thus, there are at least three common, or traditional, uses of the term "ape": non-specialists may not distinguish between "monkeys" and "apes", that is, they may use
2074-470: The dorsal position of the scapula ; broader ribcages that are flatter front-to-back; and a shorter, less mobile spine, with greatly reduced caudal (tail) vertebrae—resulting in complete loss of the tail in extant hominoid species. These are anatomical adaptations, first, to vertical hanging and swinging locomotion ( brachiation ) and, later, to developing balance in a bipedal pose. Note there are primates in other families that also lack tails, and at least one,
2135-410: The extant members of the order could be arranged in an "ascending series", leading from "monkeys" to "apes" to humans. Within this tradition "ape" came to refer to all members of the superfamily Hominoidea except humans. As such, this use of "apes" represented a paraphyletic grouping, meaning that, even though all species of apes were descended from a common ancestor, this grouping did not include all
2196-401: The fastest of all tree-dwelling, nonflying mammals. Depending on the species and sex, gibbons' fur coloration varies from dark- to light-brown shades, and any shade between black and white, though a completely "white" gibbon is rare. The English word "gibbon" is a reborrowing from French and may originally derive from an Orang Asli word. Whole genome molecular dating analyses indicate that
2257-501: The field, plus continual comparisons of anatomy and DNA sequences — has changed the understanding of relationships between hominoids. There has been a gradual demotion of humans from being 'special' in the taxonomy to being one branch among many. This recent turmoil (of history) illustrates the growing influence on all taxonomy of cladistics , the science of classifying living things strictly according to their lines of descent. Today, there are eight extant genera of hominoids. They are
2318-401: The first apes to diverge from the common ancestor of humans and apes about 16.8 Mya. With a genome that has a 96% similarity to humans, the gibbon has a role as a bridge between Old World monkeys, such as macaques , and the great apes. According to a study that mapped synteny (genes occurring on the same chromosome) disruptions in the gibbon and human genome, humans and great apes are part of
2379-402: The four genera are ordered as ( Symphalangus , ( Nomascus , ( Hoolock , Hylobates ))). Symphalangus Nomascus Hoolock Hylobates A coalescent-based species tree analysis of genome-scale datasets suggests a phylogeny for the four genera ordered as ( Hylobates , ( Nomascus , ( Hoolock , Symphalangus ))). Hylobates Nomascus Hoolock Symphalangus At
2440-540: The four genera in the family Hominidae, namely Homo , Pan , Gorilla , and Pongo ; plus four genera in the family Hylobatidae (gibbons): Hylobates , Hoolock , Nomascus and Symphalangus . (The two subspecies of hoolock gibbons were recently moved from the genus Bunopithecus to the new genus Hoolock and re-ranked as species; a third species was described in January 2017). In 1758, Carl Linnaeus , relying on second- or third-hand accounts, placed
2501-927: The fourth to third centuries BCE (the Zhou dynasty ) have been found in China. Later on, gibbons became a popular subject for Chinese painters, especially during the Song dynasty and early Yuan dynasty , when Yì Yuánjí and Mùqī Fǎcháng excelled in painting these apes. From Chinese cultural influence, the Zen motif of the "gibbon grasping at the reflection of the moon in the water" became popular in Japanese art , as well, though gibbons have never occurred naturally in Japan. Ape sister: Cercopithecoidea Apes (collectively Hominoidea / h ɒ m ɪ ˈ n ɔɪ d i . ə / ) are
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2562-557: The generic and species names Symphalangus and syndactylus . Like all primates, gibbons are social animals. They are strongly territorial, and defend their boundaries with vigorous visual and vocal displays. The vocal element, which can often be heard for distances up to 1 km (0.62 mi), consists of a duet between a mated pair, with their young sometimes joining in. In most species, males and some females sing solos to attract mates, as well as advertise their territories. The song can be used to identify not only which species of gibbon
2623-594: The gibbon lineage diverged from that of great apes around 16.8 million years ago (Mya) (95% confidence interval: 15.9–17.6 Mya; given a divergence of 29 Mya from Old World monkeys ). Adaptive divergence associated with chromosomal rearrangements led to rapid radiation of the four genera 5–7 Mya. Each genus comprises a distinct, well-delineated lineage, but the sequence and timing of divergences among these genera has been hard to resolve, even with whole genome data, due to radiative speciations and extensive incomplete lineage sorting . An analysis based on morphology suggests that
2684-497: The gibbons and orang-utan ... the gorilla and chimpanzee ... and humans". Modern biologists and primatologists refer to apes that are not human as "non-human" apes. Scientists broadly, other than paleoanthropologists, may use the term " hominin " to identify the human clade , replacing the term " hominid ". See terminology of primate names . See below, History of hominoid taxonomy , for a discussion of changes in scientific classification and terminology regarding hominoids. Although
2745-462: The gibbons that had its genome sequenced is a white-cheeked gibbon ( Nomascus leucogenys , NLE) named Asia. The team found that a jumping DNA element named LAVA transposon (also called gibbon-specific retrotransposon) is unique to the gibbon genome apart from humans and the great apes. The LAVA transposon increases mutation rate, thus is supposed to have contributed to the rapid and greater change in gibbons in comparison to their close relatives, which
2806-470: The hominoid fossil record is still incomplete and fragmentary, there is now enough evidence to provide an outline of the evolutionary history of humans . Previously, the divergence between humans and other extant hominoids was thought to have occurred 15 to 20 million years ago, and several species of that time period, such as Ramapithecus , were once thought to be hominins and possible ancestors of humans. But, later fossil finds indicated that Ramapithecus
2867-775: The hoolock gibbons. The family is divided into four genera based on their diploid chromosome number: Hylobates (44), Hoolock (38), Nomascus (52), and Symphalangus (50). Also, three extinct genera currently are recognised: Bunopithecus , Junzi , and Yuanmoupithecus . Family Hylobatidae : gibbons Many gibbons are hard to identify based on fur coloration, so are identified either by song or genetics. These morphological ambiguities have led to hybrids in zoos. Zoos often receive gibbons of unknown origin, so they rely on morphological variation or labels that are impossible to verify to assign species and subspecies names, so separate species of gibbons commonly are misidentified and housed together. Interspecific hybrids, within
2928-652: The middle Miocene; first in the common ancestors of Hominidae, and later in the common ancestor of Hylobatidae. It has been hypothesized that in both incidents it was a mutation that occurred in apes living in Europe when the climate was getting colder, leading to starvation during winter. The mutation changed the biochemistry of the apes and made it easier to accumulate fat, which allowed the animals to survive longer periods of starvation. When they migrated to Asia and Africa, this genetic trait remained. Ball-and-socket joint The ball-and-socket joint (or spheroid joint )
2989-417: The orangutan Simia satyrus ("satyr monkey"). He placed the three genera Homo , Simia and Lemur in the order of Primates. The troglodytes name was used for the chimpanzee by Blumenbach in 1775, but moved to the genus Simia . The orangutan was moved to the genus Pongo in 1799 by Lacépède . Linnaeus's inclusion of humans in the primates with monkeys and apes was troubling for people who denied
3050-705: The primates be divided into the Quadrumana (four-handed, i.e. apes and monkeys) and Bimana (two-handed, i.e. humans). This distinction was taken up by other naturalists, most notably Georges Cuvier . Some elevated the distinction to the level of order . However, the many affinities between humans and other primates – and especially the "great apes" – made it clear that the distinction made no scientific sense. In his 1871 book The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex , Charles Darwin wrote: The greater number of naturalists who have taken into consideration
3111-567: The same superfamily ( Hominoidea ) with gibbons. The karyotype of gibbons, however, diverged in a much more rapid fashion from the common hominoid ancestor than other apes. The common ancestor of hominoids is shown to have a minimum of 24 major chromosomal rearrangements from the presumed gibbon ancestor's karyotype. Reaching the common gibbon ancestor's karyotype from today's various living species of gibbons will require up to 28 additional rearrangements. Adding up, this implies that at least 52 major chromosomal rearrangements are needed to compare
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#17327650605513172-464: The second place, we must remember that nearly all the other and more important differences between man and the Quadrumana are manifestly adaptive in their nature, and relate chiefly to the erect position of man; such as the structure of his hand, foot, and pelvis, the curvature of his spine, and the position of his head. The lesser apes are the gibbon family, Hylobatidae, of sixteen species; all are native to Asia. Their major differentiating characteristic
3233-441: The shoulder joint. Gibbons also have long hands and feet, with a deep cleft between the first and second digits of their hands. Their fur is usually black, gray, or brownish, often with white markings on hands, feet and face. Some species such as the siamang have an enlarged throat sac , which inflates and serves as a resonating chamber when the animals call. This structure can become quite large in some species, sometimes equaling
3294-446: The size of the animal's head. Their voices are much more powerful than that of any human singer, although they are at best half a human's height. Gibbon skulls and teeth resemble those of the great apes, and their noses are similar to those of all catarrhine primates. The dental formula is 2.1.2.3 2.1.2.3 . The siamang, which is the largest of the 18 species, is distinguished by having two fingers on each foot stuck together, hence
3355-428: The species level, estimates from mitochondrial DNA genome analyses suggest that Hylobates pileatus diverged from H. lar and H. agilis around 3.9 Mya, and H. lar and H. agilis separated around 3.3 Mya. Whole genome analysis suggests divergence of H. pileatus from H. moloch 1.5–3.0 Mya. The extinct Bunopithecus sericus is a gibbon or gibbon-like ape, which until recently, was thought to be closely related to
3416-429: The term " monkey " had been introduced into English, "ape" was specialized to refer to a tailless (therefore exceptionally human-like) primate. Thus, the term "ape" obtained two different meanings, as shown in the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica entry: it could be used as a synonym for "monkey" and it could denote the tailless human-like primate in particular. Some, or recently all, hominoids are also called "apes", but
3477-552: The term is used broadly and has several different senses within both popular and scientific settings. "Ape" has been used as a synonym for "monkey" or for naming any primate with a human-like appearance, particularly those without a tail. Biologists have traditionally used the term "ape" to mean a member of the superfamily Hominoidea other than humans, but more recently to mean all members of Hominoidea. So "ape"—not to be confused with "great ape"—now becomes another word for hominoid including humans. The taxonomic term hominoid
3538-460: The two terms interchangeably; or they may use "ape" for any tailless monkey or non-human hominoid; or they may use the term "ape" to just mean the non-human hominoids. Modern taxonomy aims for the use of monophyletic groups for taxonomic classification; Some literature may now use the common name "ape" to mean all members of the superfamily Hominoidea, including humans. For example, in his 2005 book, Benton wrote "The apes, Hominoidea, today include
3599-470: The whole structure of man, including his mental faculties, have followed Blumenbach and Cuvier, and have placed man in a separate Order, under the title of the Bimana, and therefore on an equality with the orders of the Quadrumana, Carnivora, etc. Recently many of our best naturalists have recurred to the view first propounded by Linnaeus, so remarkable for his sagacity, and have placed man in the same Order with
3660-445: The whole world a general difference between men and simians from the principles of Natural History. I certainly know of none. If only someone might tell me one! If I called man a simian or vice versa I would bring together all the theologians against me. Perhaps I ought to, in accordance with the law of Natural History. Accordingly, Johann Friedrich Blumenbach in the first edition of his Manual of Natural History (1779), proposed that
3721-414: Was more closely related to the orangutan; and new biochemical evidence indicates that the last common ancestor of humans and non-hominins (that is, the chimpanzees) occurred between 5 and 10 million years ago, and probably nearer the lower end of that range (more recent); see Chimpanzee–human last common ancestor (CHLCA). Genetic analysis combined with fossil evidence indicates that hominoids diverged from
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