107-413: Ginger ( Zingiber officinale ) is a flowering plant whose rhizome , ginger root or ginger, is widely used as a spice and a folk medicine . It is an herbaceous perennial that grows annual pseudostems (false stems made of the rolled bases of leaves) about one meter tall, bearing narrow leaf blades. The inflorescences bear flowers having pale yellow petals with purple edges, and arise directly from
214-406: A carcinogenic compound. The United States Food and Drug Administration warns that consumption of aristolochic acid-containing products is associated with "permanent kidney damage, sometimes resulting in kidney failure that has required kidney dialysis or kidney transplantation. In addition, some patients have developed certain types of cancers, most often occurring in the urinary tract." Raw ginger
321-1819: A molecular phylogeny of plants placed the flowering plants in their evolutionary context: Bryophytes [REDACTED] Lycophytes [REDACTED] Ferns [REDACTED] [REDACTED] [REDACTED] The main groups of living angiosperms are: Amborellales [REDACTED] 1 sp. New Caledonia shrub Nymphaeales [REDACTED] c. 80 spp. water lilies & allies Austrobaileyales [REDACTED] c. 100 spp. woody plants Magnoliids [REDACTED] c. 10,000 spp. 3-part flowers, 1-pore pollen, usu. branch-veined leaves Chloranthales [REDACTED] 77 spp. Woody, apetalous Monocots [REDACTED] c. 70,000 spp. 3-part flowers, 1 cotyledon , 1-pore pollen, usu. parallel-veined leaves Ceratophyllales [REDACTED] c. 6 spp. aquatic plants Eudicots [REDACTED] c. 175,000 spp. 4- or 5-part flowers, 3-pore pollen, usu. branch-veined leaves Amborellales Melikyan, Bobrov & Zaytzeva 1999 Nymphaeales Salisbury ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Austrobaileyales Takhtajan ex Reveal 1992 Chloranthales Mart. 1835 Canellales Cronquist 1957 Piperales von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Magnoliales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Laurales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Acorales Link 1835 Alismatales Brown ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Petrosaviales Takhtajan 1997 Dioscoreales Brown 1835 Pandanales Brown ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Liliales Perleb 1826 Asparagales Link 1829 Arecales Bromhead 1840 Poales Small 1903 Zingiberales Grisebach 1854 Commelinales de Mirbel ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 Canoe plant One of
428-456: A carbonated beverage and also fresh in their homes. Ginger tea is often made from fresh ginger, as well as the famous regional specialty Jamaican ginger cake. In Western cuisine , ginger is traditionally used mainly in sweet foods such as ginger ale , gingerbread , ginger snaps , parkin , and speculaas . A ginger-flavored liqueur called Canton is produced in Jarnac , France. Ginger wine
535-1398: A food source in Southeast Asia. A few species of bamboo were carried by Austronesian settlers as they colonized the Pacific islands. They include the ʻohe ( Schizostachyum glaucifolium ), the common bamboo ( Bambusa vulgaris ), and the thorny bamboo ( Bambusa bambos ). Reconstructed Proto-Austronesian words that referred to bamboo include *qauR , *kawayan , *buluq , and *betung . The latter entered Proto-Malayo-Polynesian and Proto-Oceanic as *bitung , with cognates including Sundanese awi bitung ; Fijian bitu ; and Tongan pitu . Most terms for bamboo in Polynesia, however, originated from Proto-South-Central-Pacific *kofe (originally from Proto-Polynesian *kofe , "root"). Modern cognates include Tongan and Niue kofe ; Tokelau , Marquesan , Tuamotuan , and Māori kohe ; Rarotongan koʻe ; Samoan and Tahitian ʻofe ; and Hawaiian ʻohe . Some names have also shifted to refer to bamboo-like plants; especially in islands where they were not introduced into or did not survive, like in New Zealand . Paper mulberry ( Broussonetia papyrifera ), better known as " tapa cloth tree" in
642-426: A process to be done by machinery. The whole dried rhizomes are ground in the consuming centres. Fresh ginger does not need further processing after harvest, and it is harvested much younger. Ginger is sent through various stages to be transported to its final destination either domestically or internationally. The journey begins when farmers sell a portion of their produce to village traders who collect produce right at
749-610: A total of 64 angiosperm orders and 416 families. The diversity of flowering plants is not evenly distributed. Nearly all species belong to the eudicot (75%), monocot (23%), and magnoliid (2%) clades. The remaining five clades contain a little over 250 species in total; i.e. less than 0.1% of flowering plant diversity, divided among nine families. The 25 most species-rich of 443 families, containing over 166,000 species between them in their APG circumscriptions, are: The botanical term "angiosperm", from Greek words angeíon ( ἀγγεῖον 'bottle, vessel') and spérma ( σπέρμα 'seed'),
856-523: A variety of food items such as vegetables, candy, soda, pickles, and alcoholic beverages. Ginger is a fragrant kitchen spice. Young ginger rhizomes are juicy and fleshy with a mild taste. They are often pickled in vinegar or sherry as a snack or cooked as an ingredient in many dishes. They can be steeped in boiling water to make ginger herb tea , to which honey may be added. Ginger can be made into candy or ginger wine . Mature ginger rhizomes are fibrous and nearly dry. The juice from ginger roots
963-420: A variety of nuts and seeds. In Thailand' where it is called ขิง khing , it is used to make a ginger garlic paste in cooking. In Indonesia , a beverage called wedang jahe is made from ginger and palm sugar . Indonesians also use ground ginger root, called jahe , as a common ingredient in local recipes. In Malaysia , ginger is called halia and used in many kinds of dishes, especially soups. Called luya in
1070-501: Is *kuluʀ , which became Proto-Oceanic *kulur and Proto-Polynesian *kulu . Modern cognates include Sundanese and Malay kulur or kelur ; Acehnese kulu ; Iban kurur ; Cebuano kulo or kolo ; Muna kula ; Mussau ulu ; Kapingamarangi gulu ; Wayan Fijian kulu ; Emae kuro ; Tuamotuan , Takuu , and Rarotongan kuru ; Tahitian ʻuru ; Samoan and Hawaiian ʻulu ; and Māori kuru . Note that in Māori, kuru
1177-514: Is *bitaquR , with modern cognates including Ilocano bittáug ; Ifugao bitául ; Bikol , Cebuano , Maranao , Mansaka and Manobo bitáʻog or bitaʻug ; Nias bito ; Palauan btáʻəs ; Wetan witora ; and Asilulu hataul . The Western Malayo-Polynesian words for mastwood is derived from the doublet Proto-Austronesian *bintaŋuR , with cognates including Iban , Malay and Toba Batak bintangur or bentangur ; Tontemboan wintangor ; and Malagasy vintáno . In Proto-Oceanic ,
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#17327910290951284-858: Is starting to impact plants and is likely to cause many species to become extinct by 2100. Angiosperms are terrestrial vascular plants; like the gymnosperms, they have roots , stems , leaves , and seeds . They differ from other seed plants in several ways. The largest angiosperms are Eucalyptus gum trees of Australia, and Shorea faguetiana , dipterocarp rainforest trees of Southeast Asia, both of which can reach almost 100 metres (330 ft) in height. The smallest are Wolffia duckweeds which float on freshwater, each plant less than 2 millimetres (0.08 in) across. Considering their method of obtaining energy, some 99% of flowering plants are photosynthetic autotrophs , deriving their energy from sunlight and using it to create molecules such as sugars . The remainder are parasitic , whether on fungi like
1391-651: Is 79% water, 18% carbohydrates , 2% protein , and 1% fat (table). In a reference amount of 100 g (3.5 oz), raw ginger supplies 333 kilojoules (80 kilocalories) of food energy and moderate amounts of potassium (14% of the Daily Value , DV), magnesium (10% DV) and manganese (10% DV), but otherwise is low in micronutrient content (table). If consumed in reasonable quantities, ginger has few negative side effects , although large amounts may cause adverse events , such as gastrointestinal discomfort, and undesirable interactions with prescription drugs . It
1498-405: Is a cysteine protease and has similar properties to rennet . Evidence that ginger use is associated with reduced nausea during pregnancy is of low quality. There is no good evidence ginger helps alleviate chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting. There is no clear evidence that taking ginger to treat nausea during pregnancy is safe. Ginger is not effective for treating dysmenorrhea . There
1605-481: Is a perennial reed -like plant with annual leafy stems, about a meter (3 to 4 feet) tall. Traditionally, the rhizome is gathered when the stalk withers ; it is immediately scalded , or washed and scraped, to kill it and prevent sprouting . The fragrant perisperm of the Zingiberaceae is used as sweetmeats by Bantu , and also as a condiment and sialagogue . Source: Food and Agricultural Organization of
1712-816: Is a common root for words for breadfruit in Micronesia , northern and western New Guinea , the Solomon Islands , the Admiralty Islands , St Matthias Islands , New Caledonia , and parts of the Central Pacific . The term itself may have originally been for Artocarpus mariannensis instead of Artocarpus altilis . Cognates include Pohnpeian , Mokil , and Ngatik māi ; Palauan , Satawal , and Tuvaluan mai ; Puluwat mais ; Yapese maiyah ; and Tongan , Niuean , and Marquesan mei . The jackfruit ( Artocarpus heterophyllus )
1819-653: Is a ginger-flavoured wine produced in the United Kingdom, traditionally sold in a green glass bottle. Ginger is also used as a spice added to hot coffee and tea. On the island of Corfu , Greece, a traditional drink called τσιτσιμπύρα ( tsitsibira ), a type of ginger beer , is made. The people of Corfu and the rest of the Ionian islands adopted the drink from the British, during the period of the United States of
1926-470: Is a summer yogurt drink made with ginger as a key ingredient, along with green chillies, salt and curry leaves. Ginger powder is used in food preparations intended primarily for pregnant or nursing women, the most popular one being katlu , which is a mixture of gum resin, ghee , nuts, and sugar. Ginger is also consumed in candied and pickled form. In Japan, ginger is pickled to make beni shōga and gari or grated and used raw on tofu or noodles . It
2033-516: Is a widespread timber tree native to tropical Asia. It is notable for its ability to grow to massive sizes in sandy or rocky beaches of island and coastal habitats, as well as its habit of sending out arching large trunks over the water where its seeds are dispersed via the currents. Due to these characters, mastwood are of particular importance to traditional shipbuilding of the larger Austronesian outrigger ships and were carried with them as they migrated to Oceania and Madagascar. Other species of
2140-655: Is also found in Neolithic sites of the Toalean culture in southern Sulawesi dated to around 3,700 to 2,300 BP . Candlenut were widely introduced into the Pacific Islands by early Austronesian voyagers and became naturalized to high volcanic islands. Candlenut has a very wide range of uses and every part of the tree can be harvested. They were primarily cultivated for the high oil content in their nut kernels . They were used widely for illumination, prior to
2247-423: Is also unknown if the feral plants reproduced sexually as the plants are dioecious and require both male and female specimens to be present in one island. Paper mulberry is primarily used in the Pacific Islands to make barkcloth ( tapa in most Polynesian languages). Barkcloth, can also be made from other members of the mulberry family ( Moraceae ), including Ficus (figs) and Artocarpus . Barkcloth
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#17327910290952354-433: Is an ingredient in traditional Indian drinks, both cold and hot, including spiced masala chai . Fresh ginger is one of the main spices used for making pulse and lentil curries and other vegetable preparations. Fresh ginger together with peeled garlic cloves is crushed or ground to form ginger garlic masala . Fresh, as well as dried, ginger is used to spice tea and coffee, especially in winter. In south India, "sambharam"
2461-541: Is believed to be the most widely transported fiber crop in prehistory, having been transported along with the full range of the Austronesian expansion, as opposed to most of the other commensal crops in Oceania. Paper mullbery is present in almost every island or island group in Polynesia, including Easter Island and New Zealand . Some populations have gone recently extinct after they stopped being cultivated, like in
2568-535: Is commonly paired with meat, when it is cooked. Candied ginger is sometimes a component of Chinese candy boxes, and a herbal tea can be prepared from ginger. Raw ginger juice can be used to set milk and make a dessert , ginger milk curd . In the Caribbean , ginger is a popular spice for cooking and for making drinks such as sorrel , a drink made during the Christmas season. Jamaicans make ginger beer both as
2675-539: Is done, farmers go on to mulch the crop to conserve moisture and check weed growth, as well as check surface run-off to conserve soil. Mulching is done by applying mulch (green leaves for example) to the plant beds directly after planting and again 45 and 90 days into growth. After mulching comes hilling, which is the stirring and breaking up of soil to check weed growth, break the firmness of the soil from rain, and conserve soil moisture. Farmers must ensure that their ginger crops are receiving supplemental irrigation if rainfall
2782-514: Is effective for treating any disease, and use of ginger as a drug has not been approved by the FDA . In 2020, world production of ginger was 4.3 million tonnes , led by India with 43% of the world total. The English origin of the word "ginger" is from the mid-14th century, from Old English gingifer , which derives in turn from the Medieval Latin gingiber , gingiber from
2889-475: Is exported follow the marketing channels of vegetable marketing in India, and the steps are similar to those when transported domestically. However, instead of reaching a terminal market after the regional forwarding centres, the produce will reach an export market and then be sent off by vehicle, plane or boat to reach its final international destination, where it will arrive at a local retail market and finally reach
2996-431: Is low in their region. In India, farmers must irrigate their ginger crops every two weeks at the least between September and November (when the monsoon is over) to ensure maximum yield and high quality product. The final farming stage for ginger is the harvesting stage. When the rhizome is planted for products such as vegetable, soda, and candy, harvesting should be done between four and five months of planting, whereas when
3103-485: Is made into a candy called shoga no sato zuke . In the traditional Korean kimchi , ginger is either finely minced or just juiced to avoid the fibrous texture and added to the ingredients of the spicy paste just before the fermenting process. In Myanmar , ginger is called gyin . It is widely used in cooking and as a main ingredient in traditional medicines . It is consumed as a salad dish called gyin-thot , which consists of shredded ginger preserved in oil, with
3210-648: Is more commonly made from other "softer" timber species like Artocarpus . Other pieces became masts , outrigger floats, and outrigger spars. Smaller curving limbs can also be carved into the ribs of the boat. Aside from shipbuilding, tamanu oil extracted from the fruit kernels were important in Polynesian culture. The oils, as well as poultices made from leaves and flowers, are also commonly used for traditional medicine. The leaves contain compounds that are poisonous to fish and can be used as fish poison . The reconstructed Proto-Austronesian word for mastwood
3317-525: Is not native and display a genetic bottleneck resulting from a founder effect . A study in 2008 showed that the coconuts in the Americas are genetically closest related to coconuts in the Philippines , and not to any other nearby coconut populations (including Polynesia ). Such an origin indicates that the coconuts were not introduced naturally, such as by sea currents. The researchers concluded that it
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3424-439: Is now believed that elephant foot yams originated from Island Southeast Asia and spread westwards into Thailand and India, resulting in three independent domestication events. From Island Southeast Asia, they were also spread even further west into Madagascar , and eastwards to coastal New Guinea and Oceania by Austronesians. Though they may have spread south into Australia without human intervention. The elephant foot yam
3531-485: Is often used as a seasoning in Indian recipes and is a common ingredient of Chinese , Korean , Japanese , Vietnamese , and many South Asian cuisines for flavoring dishes such as seafood , meat , and vegetarian dishes . In Indian cuisine, ginger is a key ingredient, especially in thicker gravies, as well as in many other dishes, both vegetarian and meat-based. Ginger has a role in traditional Ayurvedic medicine. It
3638-530: Is on the FDA 's " generally recognized as safe " list, though it does interact with some medications, including the anticoagulant drug warfarin and the cardiovascular drug nifedipine . The characteristic fragrance and flavor of ginger result from volatile oils that compose 1–3% of the weight of fresh ginger, primarily consisting of sesquiterpenes , such as beta-bisabolene and zingiberene , zingerone , shogaols , and gingerols with [6]-gingerol (1-[4'-hydroxy-3'-methoxyphenyl]-5-hydroxy-3-decanone) as
3745-693: Is one of the first spices to have been exported from Asia, arriving in Europe with the spice trade , and was used by ancient Greeks and Romans . The distantly related dicots in the genus Asarum are commonly called wild ginger because of their similar taste. Ginger has been used in traditional medicine in China, India and Japan for centuries, and as a dietary supplement . There is no good evidence that ginger helps alleviate nausea and vomiting associated with pregnancy or chemotherapy , and its safety has not been demonstrated. It remains uncertain whether ginger
3852-610: Is one of the four main species of aroids (taros) cultivated by Austronesians primarily as a source of starch , the others being Alocasia macrorrhizos , Colocasia esculenta , and Cyrtosperma merkusii , each with multiple cultivated varieties. Elephant foot yam, however, is the least important among the four and was likely only eaten as a famine crop , since it contains more raphides that cause irritation if not cooked thoroughly. The practice of chewing areca nuts originated in Island Southeast Asia , where
3959-477: Is only mentioned in tradition, but does not refer to the plant because breadfruit did not survive into New Zealand . Also note that it is believed that breadfruit only reached western Island Southeast Asia (Java, Sumatra, Malay Peninsula) during the recent centuries, as a result of trade with the Maluku Islands . Another notable reconstructed word for breadfruit is Proto-Oceanic *maRi or *mai . It
4066-719: Is presumed that ancient introductions of paper mulberry went extinct in prehistory due to its replacement with hand-woven fabrics, given that paper mulberry generally only survives under human cultivation. However, its absence in the Philippines further underlines its origins in Taiwan, and not within Island Southeast Asia. Additionally paper mulberry populations in New Guinea also show genetic inflow from another expansion out of Indochina and South China . It
4173-830: Is rarely done for giant taro as it contains higher amounts of raphides which cause itching. The reconstructed word for giant taro in Proto-Austronesian is *biRaq , which became Proto-Oceanic *piRaq . Modern cognates for it in Island Southeast Asia and Micronesia include Rukai vi'a or bi'a ; Ifugao bila ; Ilocano , Cebuano , and Bikol biga ; Tiruray bira ; Ngaju biha ; Malagasy via ; Malay and Acehnese birah ; Mongondow biga ; Palauan bísə ; Chamorro piga ; Bima wia ; Roti and Tetun fia ; Asilulu hila ; and Kowiai fira . In Oceania, cognates for it include Wuvulu and Aua pia ; Motu and 'Are'are hira ; Kilivila and Fijian via ; and Hawaiian pia . Note that in some cases,
4280-556: Is some evidence for it having an anti-inflammatory effect, and improving digestive function, but insufficient evidence for it affecting pain in osteoarthritis . The evidence that ginger retards blood clotting is mixed. A 2018 review found evidence that ginger could decrease body weight in obese subjects and increase HDL-cholesterol . Although generally recognized as safe , ginger can cause heartburn and other side effects, particularly if taken in powdered form. It may adversely affect individuals with gallstones , and may interfere with
4387-574: Is the "largest producer of ginger in the world". Regions in southwest and Northeast India are most suitable for ginger production due to their warm and humid climate, average rainfall and land space. Ginger has the ability to grow in a wide variety of land types and areas, however is best produced when grown in a warm, humid environment, at an elevation between 300 and 900 m (1,000 and 3,000 ft), and in well-drained soils at least 30 cm deep. A period of low rainfall prior to growing and well-distributed rainfall during growing are also essential for
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4494-513: Is the root cooked in sugar until soft, and is a type of confectionery . Fresh ginger may be peeled before eating. For longer-term storage, the ginger can be placed in a plastic bag and refrigerated or frozen. Ginger is used in Iranian cuisine . Ginger bread is a kind of cookie traditionally prepared in the city of Gorgan on the holiday of Nowruz (New Year's Day). Other members of the family Zingiberaceae are used in similar ways. They include
4601-424: Is toward labor and seed material purchase". The farm owner may benefit given that there is no losses in production or price decreases, which is not easily avoidable. Production of dry ginger proves to have a higher benefit-cost ratio, as well as ginger cultivated in intercropping systems rather than as a pure crop. Ginger is a common spice used worldwide, whether for meals or as a folk medicine. Ginger can be used for
4708-526: Is used for ornamentation. The species originated from the Philippines . It is not known whether it is native to Polynesia and Melanesia or introduced. Numerous species of Citrus are native to Island Southeast Asia, Mainland Southeast Asia, East Asia, South Asia and Near Oceania. The Austronesians cultivated and gathered a variety of citrus for food, medicine and washing with the thorns being used as piercing implements for tattooing . Citrus hystrix , Citrus macroptera , and Citrus maxima were also among
4815-637: The Analects , written by the Disciples of Confucius in China during the Warring States period (475–221 BCE). In it, Confucius was said to eat ginger with every meal. In 406, the monk Faxian wrote that ginger was grown in pots and carried on Chinese ships to prevent scurvy . During the Song dynasty (960–1279), ginger was being imported into China from southern countries. Ginger was introduced to
4922-400: The myoga ( Zingiber mioga ), the several types of galangal , the fingerroot ( Boesenbergia rotunda ), and the bitter ginger ( Zingiber zerumbet ). A dicotyledonous native species of eastern North America, Asarum canadense , is also known as " wild ginger ", and its root has similar aromatic properties, but it is not related to true ginger. The plant contains aristolochic acid ,
5029-491: The Alismatales grow in marine environments, spreading with rhizomes that grow through the mud in sheltered coastal waters. Some specialised angiosperms are able to flourish in extremely acid or alkaline habitats. The sundews , many of which live in nutrient-poor acid bogs , are carnivorous plants , able to derive nutrients such as nitrate from the bodies of trapped insects. Other flowers such as Gentiana verna ,
5136-624: The Cook Islands and Mangareva , although accounts and prepared barkcloth and herbarium specimens of them exist in museum collections gathered by Europeans during the Colonial Period. They were spread by Polynesians primarily through vegetative propagation with cuttings and root shoots. They were rarely cultivated from seeds as most plants were harvested prior to flowering, when the stems reach around 1 in (2.5 cm) in diameter, as described by 18th century European accounts. It
5243-676: The Pacific Islands in prehistory, long before any contact with other civilizations. Reflexes of the Proto-Malayo-Polynesian word * laqia are found in Austronesian languages all the way to Hawaii . They also presumably introduced it to India along with other Southeast Asian food plants and Austronesian sailing technologies , during early contact by Austronesian sailors with the Dravidian -speaking peoples of Sri Lanka and South India at around 3,500 BP . It
5350-407: The Philippines , ginger is a common ingredient in local dishes and is brewed as a tea called salabat . In Vietnam , the fresh leaves, finely chopped, can be added to shrimp-and-yam soup ( canh khoai mỡ ) as a top garnish and spice to add a much subtler flavor of ginger than the chopped root. In China, sliced or whole ginger root is often paired with savory dishes such as fish, and chopped ginger root
5457-796: The areca palm is native. The oldest known evidence of areca nut chewing was found in a burial pit in the Duyong Cave site in the Philippines (to which areca palms are native), which dates to around 4,630±250 BP . Its diffusion is closely tied to the Neolithic expansion of the Austronesian peoples . It was spread to the Indo-Pacific during prehistoric times, reaching Micronesia at 3,500 to 3,000 BP , Near Oceania at 3,400 to 3,000 BP; South India and Sri Lanka by 3,500 BP; Mainland Southeast Asia by 3,000 to 2,500 BP; Northern India by 1500 BP; and Madagascar by 600 BP. From India, it
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#17327910290955564-460: The orchids for part or all of their life-cycle, or on other plants , either wholly like the broomrapes, Orobanche , or partially like the witchweeds, Striga . In terms of their environment, flowering plants are cosmopolitan, occupying a wide range of habitats on land, in fresh water and in the sea. On land, they are the dominant plant group in every habitat except for frigid moss-lichen tundra and coniferous forest . The seagrasses in
5671-481: The seeds are enclosed within a fruit. The group was formerly called Magnoliophyta . Angiosperms are by far the most diverse group of land plants with 64 orders , 416 families , approximately 13,000 known genera and 300,000 known species . They include all forbs (flowering plants without a woody stem ), grasses and grass-like plants, a vast majority of broad-leaved trees , shrubs and vines , and most aquatic plants . Angiosperms are distinguished from
5778-892: The "Big Five" extinction events in Earth's history, only the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event had occurred while angiosperms dominated plant life on the planet. Today, the Holocene extinction affects all kingdoms of complex life on Earth, and conservation measures are necessary to protect plants in their habitats in the wild ( in situ ), or failing that, ex situ in seed banks or artificial habitats like botanic gardens . Otherwise, around 40% of plant species may become extinct due to human actions such as habitat destruction , introduction of invasive species , unsustainable logging , land clearing and overharvesting of medicinal or ornamental plants . Further, climate change
5885-480: The Austronesian expansion however, are Artocarpus camansi (breadnut or seeded breadfruit) and Artocarpus altilis (breadfruit). According to DNA fingerprinting studies, the wild seeded ancestor of Artocarpus altilis is the Artocarpus camansi , which is native to New Guinea , the Maluku Islands , and the Philippines . A. camansi was domesticated and selectively bred in Polynesia, giving rise to
5992-708: The Greek ζιγγίβερις zingiberis from the Prakrit (Middle Indic) siṅgabera , and siṅgabera from the Sanskrit śṛṅgavera . The Sanskrit word is thought to come from an ancient Dravidian word that also produced the Tamil and Malayalam term iñci-vēr (from vēr , "root"); an alternative explanation is that the Sanskrit word comes from srngam , meaning "horn", and vera , meaning "body" (describing
6099-512: The Ionian Islands . Fresh ginger can be substituted for ground ginger at a ratio of six to one, although the flavours of fresh and dried ginger are somewhat different. Powdered dry ginger root is typically used as a flavouring for recipes such as gingerbread , cookies , crackers and cakes, ginger ale , and ginger beer . Candied or crystallized ginger , known in the UK as " stem ginger ",
6206-777: The Mediterranean by the Arabs, and described by writers like Dioscorides (40–90) and Pliny the Elder (24–79). In 150, Ptolemy noted that ginger was produced in Ceylon (Sri Lanka). Ginger—along with its relative, galangal —was imported into the Roman Empire as part of very expensive herbal remedies that only the wealthy could afford, e.g. for the kidneys. Aëtius of Amida describes both ginger and galangal as ingredients in his complex herbal prescriptions. Raw and preserved ginger
6313-534: The Pacific, originates from subtropical regions in mainland Asia and is one of the best evidence for the mainstream "Out of Taiwan" hypothesis of the Austronesian expansion . Various genetic studies have traced the origins of paper mulberry populations in the Remote Pacific all the way to Taiwan via New Guinea and Sulawesi . In the Philippines , which was along the expansion path, paper mulberry are mostly descendants of modern introductions in 1935. It
6420-509: The Philippines, they spread outwards to the rest of Island Southeast Asia and eastward to Oceania where it became one of the staple crops of Pacific Islanders . They are one of the four main species of aroids (taros) cultivated by Austronesians primarily as a source of starch , the others being Amorphophallus paeoniifolius , Colocasia esculenta , and Cyrtosperma merkusii , each with multiple cultivated varieties. Their leaves and stems are also edible if cooked thoroughly, though this
6527-556: The United Arab Emirates, Morocco, the United States, Yemen Republic, the United Kingdom, and Netherlands". Though India is the largest ginger producer in the world, it fails to play the role of a large exporter and only accounts for about 1.17% of total ginger exports. Ginger farming in India is a costly and risky business, as farmers do not gain much money from exports and "more than 65% of the total cost incurred
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#17327910290956634-513: The United Nations, Statistics Division (FAOSTAT) In 2020, global production of ginger was 4.3 million tonnes , led by India with 43% of the world total. Nigeria , China , and Nepal also had substantial production. Though it is grown in many areas across the globe, ginger is "among the earliest recorded spices to be cultivated and exported from southwest India". India holds the seventh position in ginger export worldwide, however
6741-616: The canoe plants carried by Austronesian voyagers eastwards into Micronesia and Polynesia . Most Polynesian names describing citruses are named moli ultimately from Proto-Oceanic * molis ; whether a link to PMP * limaw is present (albeit indirect) or otherwise is uncertain. The region between Southwest Asia and Melanesia is the center of origin for coconuts ( Cocos nucifera ), where it shows greatest genetic diversity. A study in 2011 identified two highly genetically differentiated subpopulations of coconuts, one originating from Island Southeast Asia (the Pacific group) and
6848-463: The chants and folklore of Polynesia . Various parts of the mastwood were integral to the manufacture of outrigger canoes. The large curving limbs were commonly carved into the dugout canoes that formed the keel of the Austronesian outriggers ships. The strakes , which are attached to the keel by the uniquely Austronesian technique of "sewing" them with a combination of dowels and lashed lugs instead of nails, can also be made from mastwood, but it
6955-511: The cognates have shifted to mean other types of taro. The elephant foot yam ( Amorphophallus paeoniifolius ) is used as food in Island Southeast Asia, Mainland Southeast Asia, and South Asia. Its origin and center of domestication was formerly considered to be India , where it is most widely utilized as a food resource in recent times. But a genetic study in 2017 has shown that Indian populations of elephant foot yams have lower genetic diversity than those in Island Southeast Asia, therefore it
7062-489: The construction of the candlenut torches. It became Proto-Eastern-Malayo-Polynesian and Proto-Oceanic *tuRi which is then reduplicated . Modern cognates including Fijian , Tongan , Rarotongan , and Niue tui-tui ; and Hawaiian kui-kui or kukui . The giant taro ( Alocasia macrorrhizos ) was originally domesticated in the Philippines , but are known from wild specimens to early Austronesians in Taiwan . From
7169-479: The consumer once purchased. Dry ginger is most popularly traded between Asian countries through a unique distribution system involving a network of small retail outlets. Fresh and preserved ginger are often sold directly to supermarket chains, and in some countries fresh ginger is seen exclusively in small shops unique to certain ethnic communities. India frequently exports its ginger and other vegetable produce to nearby Pakistan and Bangladesh, as well as "Saudi Arabia,
7276-622: The context of the Polynesian migrations. Domesticated animals and plants introduced during historic times are not included. Domesticated, semi-domesticated, and commensal plants carried by Austronesian voyagers include the following: The candlenut ( Aleurites moluccanus ) was first domesticated in Island Southeast Asia. Remains of harvested candlenuts have been recovered from archaeological sites in Timor and Morotai in eastern Indonesia , dated to around 13,000 BP and 11,000 BP respectively. Archaeological evidence of candlenut cultivation
7383-540: The cuisines of Southeast Asia and the Pacific. The Proto-Malayo-Polynesian word for candlenut is reconstructed as *kamiri , with modern cognates including Hanunó'o , Iban , and Sundanese kamiri ; Javanese and Malay kemiri ; and Tetun kamii . However the Oceanian words for candlenut are believed to be derived instead from Proto-Austronesian *CuSuR which became Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *tuhuR , originally meaning "string together, as beads", referring to
7490-818: The dominant group of plants across the planet. Agriculture is almost entirely dependent on angiosperms, and a small number of flowering plant families supply nearly all plant-based food and livestock feed. Rice , maize and wheat provide half of the world's staple calorie intake, and all three plants are cereals from the Poaceae family (colloquially known as grasses). Other families provide important industrial plant products such as wood , paper and cotton , and supply numerous ingredients for beverages , sugar production , traditional medicine and modern pharmaceuticals . Flowering plants are also commonly grown for decorative purposes , with certain flowers playing significant cultural roles in many societies. Out of
7597-523: The effects of anticoagulants , such as warfarin or aspirin , and other prescription drugs . Flowering plant Basal angiosperms Core angiosperms Flowering plants are plants that bear flowers and fruits , and form the clade Angiospermae ( / ˌ æ n dʒ i ə ˈ s p ər m iː / ). The term 'angiosperm' is derived from the Greek words ἀγγεῖον / angeion ('container, vessel') and σπέρμα / sperma ('seed'), meaning that
7704-565: The farm gate. Once the produce is collected, it is transported to the closest assembly market where it is then taken to main regional or district level marketing centres. Farmers with a large yield of produce will directly take their produce to local or regional markets. Once the produce has "reached [the] regional level markets, they are cleaned, graded, and packed in sacks of about 60 kg". They are then moved to terminal markets such as in New Delhi, Kochi, and Bombay. States from which ginger
7811-415: The farmer to break up the soil. After the soil is sufficiently ploughed (at least 3–5 times), water channels are made 60–80 feet (18–24 m) apart to irrigate the crop. The next step is planting the rhizome seed. In India, planting the irrigated ginger crop is usually done in the months between March and June as those months account for the beginning of the monsoon, or rainy season. Once the planting stage
7918-659: The flowering plants as an unranked clade without a formal Latin name (angiosperms). A formal classification was published alongside the 2009 revision in which the flowering plants rank as the subclass Magnoliidae. From 1998, the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) has reclassified the angiosperms, with updates in the APG II system in 2003, the APG III system in 2009, and the APG IV system in 2016. In 2019,
8025-604: The fruit was only recently introduced to Guam via Filipino settlers when both were part of the Spanish Empire . Various species of bamboo ( subfamily Bambusoideae ) are found throughout Island Southeast Asia, Mainland Southeast Asia, East Asia, and South Asia. In Austronesian regions, different types of bamboos have different names, as well as the products made from them. They are used variously as building materials, fishing gear, musical instruments, knives, water and food vessels, and so on. Bamboo shoots are also
8132-721: The genus Calophyllum were also used similarly, like Calophyllum soulattri , Calophyllum peekelii , and Calophyllum goniocarpum . The wood grain of the members of the genus are characteristically interlocked, which make them harder to work with but also makes them stronger as well as being more suitable for carving intricate shapes. They were comparable in importance to how oaks were in European shipbuilding and timber industries. In many parts of Polynesia, mastwood groves planted in marae were considered sacred and abodes of spirits. Mastwood were also carved into religious objects like tiki . They are also commonly mentioned in
8239-400: The ginger to thrive well in the soil. Ginger produced in India is most often farmed through homestead farming, with work adaptively shared by available family and community members. The size of the ginger rhizome is essential to the production of ginger. The larger the rhizome piece, the faster ginger will be produced and therefore the faster it will be sold onto the market. Prior to planting
8346-419: The introduction of other light sources, hence the name "candlenut". The kernels were skewered on coconut midribs that were then set alight. Each kernel takes about three minutes to burn and thus the series could act as a torch. This tradition of making candlenut torches exists in both Southeast Asia and Oceania. Candlenut oil extracted from the nuts can also be used directly in lamps. They can also be utilized in
8453-755: The islands of Maritime Southeast Asia (also known as 'Island Southeast Asia'. e.g.: Philippines , Indonesia ), Near Oceania ( Melanesia ), Remote Oceania ( Micronesia and Polynesia ), Madagascar , and the Comoros Islands . They include crops and animals believed to have originated from the Hemudu and Majiabang cultures in the hypothetical pre-Austronesian homelands in mainland China , as well as other plants and animals believed to have been first domesticated from within Taiwan , Maritime Southeast Asia, and New Guinea . Some of these plants are sometimes also known as " canoe plants ", especially in
8560-439: The leading export crop on both Hispaniola and Puerto Rico by the end of the century, until the introduction of slave labour from Africa made sugar more economical to produce in the 17th century. Ginger produces clusters of white and pink flower buds that bloom into yellow flowers. Because of its aesthetic appeal and the adaptation of the plant to warm climates, it is often used as landscaping around subtropical homes. It
8667-464: The leaves were used to flavour food or eaten directly. The leaves were also used to weave mats. Aside from these uses, ginger had religious significance among Austronesians, being used in rituals for healing and for asking protection from spirits. It was also used in the blessing of Austronesian ships . Ginger was carried with them in their voyages as canoe plants during the Austronesian expansion , starting from around 5,000 BP . They introduced it to
8774-486: The major human migration events was the maritime settlement of the islands of the Indo-Pacific by the Austronesian peoples , believed to have started from at least 5,500 to 4,000 BP (3500 to 2000 BCE). These migrations were accompanied by a set of domesticated, semi-domesticated, and commensal plants and animals transported via outrigger ships and catamarans that enabled early Austronesians to thrive in
8881-470: The major pungent compound. Some 400 chemical compounds exist in raw ginger. Zingerone is produced from gingerols during drying, having lower pungency and a spicy-sweet aroma. Shogaols are more pungent, and are formed from gingerols during heating, storage or via acidity. Numerous monoterpenes , amino acids , dietary fiber , protein, phytosterols , vitamins , and dietary minerals are other constituents. Fresh ginger also contains an enzyme zingibain which
8988-518: The manner of vines or lianas . The number of species of flowering plants is estimated to be in the range of 250,000 to 400,000. This compares to around 12,000 species of moss and 11,000 species of pteridophytes . The APG system seeks to determine the number of families , mostly by molecular phylogenetics . In the 2009 APG III there were 415 families. The 2016 APG IV added five new orders (Boraginales, Dilleniales, Icacinales, Metteniusales and Vahliales), along with some new families, for
9095-800: The most general can be reconstructed to Proto-Central Eastern Malayo-Polynesian *malaw , which also refers to the loincloth and other items of clothing made from paper mulberry bark. Its cognates including Selaru mal ; Asilulu mala ai ; Buli māl ; Numfor mār ; Tanga , Tolai , and Gedaged mal ; Rennellese mago ; Kairiru myal ; Lusi , Kove , Manam , Gitua , Mota , Niue , Futunan , Samoan , Tuvaluan , Nukuoro , Anuta , and Hawaiian malo ; and Arosi , Rarotongan , and Māori maro . In Eastern Polynesia, terms for paper mulberry can also be reconstructed to Proto-Central Eastern-Polynesian *aute , with cognates including Tahitian and Rarotongan ʻaute ; Marquesan ute ; Hawaiian wauke ; Rapa and Māori aute . In most of Polynesia,
9202-472: The mostly seedless Artocarpus altilis . Micronesian breadfruit also show evidence of hybridization with the native Artocarpus mariannensis , while most Polynesian and Melanesian cultivars do not. This indicates that Micronesia was initially colonized separately from Polynesia and Melanesia through two different migration events which later came into contact with each other in eastern Micronesia. The reconstructed Proto-Malayo-Polynesian word for breadfruit
9309-702: The name has become more generalized to large timber trees. Another set of cognates for C. inophyllum in Proto-Oceanic can be reconstructed as *tamanu . Its difference from *pitaquR is unclear, but given the distinction between the terms in the Mussau reflex , *tamanu probably originally referred to specimens of the tree that grow in island interiors and not on the coastlines. Modern cognates include Mussau , Tongan , Niue , Samoan , and Rarotongan tamanu ; Fijian damanu ; and Hawaiian kamani . Cananga odorata , with its large, aromatic flowers,
9416-518: The other from the southern margins of the Indian subcontinent (the Indo-Atlantic group). The Pacific group is the only one to display clear genetic and phenotypic indications that they were domesticated; including dwarf habit, self-pollination, and the round " niu vai " fruit morphology with larger endosperm-to-husk ratios. The distribution of the Pacific coconuts correspond to the regions settled by Austronesian voyagers indicating that its spread
9523-567: The other major seed plant clade, the gymnosperms , by having flowers , xylem consisting of vessel elements instead of tracheids , endosperm within their seeds, and fruits that completely envelop the seeds. The ancestors of flowering plants diverged from the common ancestor of all living gymnosperms before the end of the Carboniferous , over 300 million years ago. In the Cretaceous , angiosperms diversified explosively , becoming
9630-798: The pre-Taiwan Austronesian homelands were located in the region prior to the southward expansion of the Han Dynasty , particularly around the Pearl River Delta . The oldest such remains is from the Dingmo Site in Guangxi , dated to around 7,900 BP . Barkcloth remained an important source of clothing fabrics in pre-colonial Melanesia, Polynesia, and parts of Indonesia. However, it has been mostly replaced by woven fiber clothing in most of Island Southeast Asia and Micronesia. There are numerous names for paper mulberry throughout Austronesia,
9737-418: The production of soaps, ointments, and as preservatives for fishing gear. Other traditional uses include using the timber for making small canoes and carvings; the sap for varnish and resins; the nut shells for ornamentation (most notably as leis ), fish-hooks, toys, and the production of black dyes; the bark for medicine and fiber; and so on. Some non-toxic varieties are also used as condiments or ingredients in
9844-490: The reconstructed word is pitaquR , with cognates including Nauna pitɨ ; Loniu pitow ; Nali pirow ; Seimat hita ; Aua piʻaw ; Pohnpeian isou ; Rotuman hefau ; Fijian vetau , Tongan fetaʻu ; Niue , Samoan , and Tuvaluan fetau ; Nukuoro hedau ; and Rennellese hetaʻu . In most of these languages, the name specifically refers to C. inophyllum , although in Ifugao, Maranao, Nias, Wetan, and Fijian,
9951-405: The rhizome is planted for products such as dried ginger or ginger oil, harvesting must be done eight to ten months after planting. Dry ginger is one of the most popular forms of ginger in commerce. Ginger rhizomes for dry ginger are harvested at full maturity (8–10 months). After soaking them in water, the outer skin is scraped off with a bamboo splinter or wooden knife by hand as it is too delicate
10058-526: The rhizome on separate shoots. Ginger is in the family Zingiberaceae , which also includes turmeric ( Curcuma longa ), cardamom ( Elettaria cardamomum ), and galangal . Ginger originated in Maritime Southeast Asia and was likely domesticated first by the Austronesian peoples . It was transported with them throughout the Indo-Pacific during the Austronesian expansion ( c. 5,000 BP ), reaching as far as Hawaii . Ginger
10165-400: The seed rhizomes, farmers are required to treat the seeds to prevent pests, and rhizome rot and other seed-borne diseases . Various ways Indian farmers do seed treatment include dipping the seeds in cow dung emulsion, smoking the seeds before storage, and hot water treatment. Once the seeds are properly treated, the farmland in which they are to be planted must be thoroughly dug or ploughed by
10272-757: The shape of its root), but that may be folk etymology . The word probably was readopted in Middle English from the Old French gingibre (modern French gingembre ). Ginger originated from Maritime Southeast Asia . It is a true cultigen and does not exist in its wild state. The most ancient evidence of its domestication is among the Austronesian peoples where it was among several species of ginger cultivated and exploited since ancient times. They cultivated other gingers including turmeric ( Curcuma longa ), white turmeric ( Curcuma zedoaria ), and bitter ginger ( Zingiber zerumbet ). The rhizomes and
10379-633: The southern coast of Sweden in the summer of 1495 while conveying King Hans to a summit with the Swedish Council. Among the luxuries carried on the ship were ginger, cloves, saffron, and pepper. Ginger was smuggled onto the Caribbean islands from Asia sometime in the 16th century, along with black pepper , cloves , and cinnamon , at the encouragement of the Spanish Crown, though only ginger thrived. It eventually displaced sugar to become
10486-568: The spring gentian, are adapted to the alkaline conditions found on calcium -rich chalk and limestone , which give rise to often dry topographies such as limestone pavement . As for their growth habit , the flowering plants range from small, soft herbaceous plants , often living as annuals or biennials that set seed and die after one growing season, to large perennial woody trees that may live for many centuries and grow to many metres in height. Some species grow tall without being self-supporting like trees by climbing on other plants in
10593-822: The term for barkcloth can also be reconstructed from Proto-Nuclear-Polynesian *taba , meaning "bark", with cognates including Wayan taba ; Tongan , Samoan , Mangareva , and Rarotongan tapa ; and Hawaiian kapa . Other terms widely used for barkcloth and paper mulberry are derived from the Proto-Polynesian reconstructed word *siapo , with cognates including Niue , Tongan , and Marquesan hiapo ; and Samoan and East Futunan siapo . The term for barkcloth beater, however, can be reconstructed more extensively back to Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *ike , with cognates including Uma ike ; Sa'a iki ; Bauan , Tongan , and East Futunan ike ; and Samoan and Hawaiian iʻe . Mastwood ( Calophyllum inophyllum )
10700-675: Was also carried by Austronesian voyagers into Madagascar and the Comoros in the 1st millennium CE. From India, it was carried by traders into the Middle East and the Mediterranean by around the 1st century CE. It was primarily grown in southern India and the Greater Sunda Islands during the spice trade , along with peppers , cloves , and numerous other spices. The first written record of ginger comes from
10807-528: Was also occasionally made from Pipturus nettles, especially in Hawaii . However the highest quality of barkcloth was from paper mulberry. Barkcloth was mainly used for clothing among ancient Austronesians and is traditionally made using characteristic stone or wooden beaters which are among the most common artifacts found in Austronesian archaeological sites. Numerous archaeological remains of barkcloth beaters in southern China has been regarded as evidence that
10914-875: Was also spread westwards to Persia and the Mediterranean . It was also previously present in the Lapita culture , based on archaeological remains dated from 3,600 to 2,500 BP, but it was not carried into Polynesia . Numerous species of Artocarpus are traditionally cultivated or harvested from semi-domesticated or wild populations in Island Southeast Asia and Micronesia for food, timber, traditional medicine, and other uses. They include Artocarpus anisophyllus (entawak), Artocarpus heterophyllus (jackfruit or nangka), Artocarpus integer (cempedak), Artocarpus lacucha (lakuch), Artocarpus mariannensis (Marianas breadfruit), Artocarpus odoratissimus (tarap or marang), and Artocarpus treculianus (tipuho), among many others. The most important species pertaining to
11021-429: Was brought by early Austronesian sailors to the Americas from at least 2,250 BP, and may be proof of pre-Columbian contact between Austronesian cultures and South American cultures, albeit in the opposite direction than what early hypotheses like Heyerdahl's had proposed. It is further strengthened by other similar botanical evidence of contact, like the pre-colonial presence of sweet potato in Oceanian cultures. During
11128-483: Was coined in the form "Angiospermae" by Paul Hermann in 1690, including only flowering plants whose seeds were enclosed in capsules. The term angiosperm fundamentally changed in meaning in 1827 with Robert Brown , when angiosperm came to mean a seed plant with enclosed ovules. In 1851, with Wilhelm Hofmeister 's work on embryo-sacs, Angiosperm came to have its modern meaning of all the flowering plants including Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons. The APG system treats
11235-969: Was domesticated independently in South Asia and Southeast Asia , as evidenced by the fact that the Southeast Asian names for the fruit are not derived from the Sanskrit roots . It was probably first domesticated by Austronesians in Java or the Malay Peninsula . The word for jackfruit in Proto-Western-Malayo-Polynesian is reconstructed as *laŋkaq . Modern cognates include Sundanese , Javanese , Malay , Balinese , and Cebuano nangka ; Tagalog , Pangasinan , Bikol and Ilocano langka ; Chamorro lanka or nanka ; Kelabit nakan ; Wolio nangke ; Ibaloi dangka ; and Lun Dayeh laka . Note, however, that
11342-577: Was imported into Europe in increased quantity during the Middle Ages after European tastes shifted favorably towards its culinary properties; during this time, ginger was described in the official pharmacopeias of several countries. In 14th century England, a pound of ginger cost as much as a sheep. Archaeological evidence of ginger in northwest Europe comes from the wreck of the Danish-Norwegian flagship, Gribshunden . The ship sank off
11449-1048: Was largely the result of human introductions. It is most strikingly displayed in Madagascar , an island settled by Austronesian sailors at around 2,000 to 1,500 BP . The coconut populations in the island show genetic admixture between the two subpopulations indicating that Pacific coconuts were brought by the Austronesian settlers that later interbred with the local Indo-Atlantic coconuts. Most words for "coconut" in Austronesian languages are derived from proto-Malayo-Polynesian * niuʀ . Modern cognates include Tagalog niyog ; Chamorro niyok ; Malay nyiur or nyior ; Tetum nuu ; Drehu nu ; Gilbertese nii ; Hawaiian , Samoan , Tongan , Fijian , and Rapa Nui niu ; and Malagasy nio . Genetic studies of coconuts have also confirmed pre-Columbian populations of coconuts in Panama in South America. However, it
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