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83-460: Originally a Celto-Ligurian oppidum , it expanded under Greek influence before becoming a Roman city. As it was never built over by settlements after the Roman period but was partly buried by deposits washed from the hills above, much of it was preserved. Many of the impressive buildings have been excavated and can be visited today. It is particularly known for two well-preserved Roman monuments of

166-513: A Huguenot defeat and the death of Anne de Montmorency , the royal commander-in-chief, and the short war ended in 1568 with the Peace of Longjumeau . The privileges granted to Protestants were widely opposed, however, leading to their cancellation and the resumption of war. The Dutch Republic , England and Navarre intervened on the Protestant side, while Spain, Tuscany and Pope Pius V supported

249-600: A certain linguistic classification; it may be Pre-Indo-European or an Indo-European language . Because of the strong Celtic influences on their language and culture, they were also known in antiquity as Celto-Ligurians . The Ligures are referred to as Ligyes (Λιγυες) by the Greeks and Ligures (earlier Liguses ) by the Romans . According to Plutarch , the Ligurians called themselves Ambrones , which could indicate

332-724: A certain mastery in metallurgy. Apart from that, the Polada culture does not correspond to the Beaker culture nor to the previous Remedello culture . The Bronze tools and weapons show similarities with those of the Unetice Culture and other groups in north of Alps . According to Bernard Sergent , the origin of the Ligurian linguistic family (in his opinion distantly related to the Celtic and Italic ones) would have to be found in

415-505: A legend, Brescia and Barra ( Bergamo ) were founded by Cydno, forefather of the Ligurians. This myth seems to have a grain of truth, because recent archaeological excavations have unearthed remains of a settlement dating back to 1200 BC that scholars presume to have been built and inhabited by Ligures. Others scholars attribute the founding of Bergamo and Brescia to the Etruscans . The Canegrate culture (13th century BC) may represent

498-477: A much larger area, extending as far as what is today Catalonia (in the north-eastern corner of the Iberian Peninsula ). The origins of the ancient Ligurians are unclear, and an autochthonous origin is increasingly probable. What little is known today about the ancient Ligurian language is based on placenames and inscriptions on steles representing warriors. The lack of evidence does not allow

581-603: A new phase called the Golasecca culture , which is nowadays identified with the Lepontii and other Celto-Ligurian tribes. Within the Golasecca culture territory roughly corresponds with the territories occupied by those tribal groups whose names are reported by Latin and Greek historians and geographers: The Genoa area has been inhabited since the fifth or fourth millennium BC. According to excavations carried out in

664-552: A north–south axis through the valley of Notre-Dame-du-Vallon. At the northern end was the residential quarter, with the public baths, and at the southern end was the sacred quarter, with the spring and grotto. In the center was the monumental quarter, the site of the forum and public buildings. The earliest monuments discovered in Glanum were built by the Salyens in the late 1st and early 2nd centuries BC and were strongly influenced by

747-536: A policy of relative religious tolerance . After the events of the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre, he began to support the persecution of Huguenots. However, the incident haunted Charles for the rest of his life, and historians suspect that it caused his physical and mental health to deteriorate over the next two years. Charles died of tuberculosis in 1574 without legitimate male issue, and was succeeded by his brother Henry III , whose own death in 1589 without issue allowed for

830-513: A proconsular army were sent against the Ligurians. The wars continued into the 150s BC, when victorious generals celebrated two triumphs over the Ligurians. Here too, the Romans drove many natives off their land and settled colonies in their stead ( e.g. , Luna and Luca in the 170s BC). During the same period, the Romans were at war with the Ligurian tribes of the northern Apennines. By the end of

913-565: A relationship with the Ambrones of northern Europe. The geography of Strabo , from book 2, chapter 5, section 28 : The Alps are inhabited by numerous nations, but all Keltic with the exception of the Ligurians, and these, though of a different race, closely resemble them in their manner of life. They inhabit that portion of the Alps which is next the Apennines , and also a part of

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996-565: Is an arch with four bays. The archivoltes, or curved bands of decoration on the tops of the arches, also have acanthus leaves. At the top of each arch is the carved head of a gorgon , the traditional protector of Roman tombs. The frieze at the top of the quadrifons is decorated with carvings of tritons, carrying the disk of the sun, and with sea monsters. The lowest part of the mausoleum is decorated with carved garlands of vegetation, theater masks and cupids or putti , and with mythical or legendary scenes. The triumphal arch stood just outside

1079-549: Is believed that the mausoleum was the tomb of the mother and father of the three Julii brothers, and that the father, for military or civil service, received Roman citizenship and the privilege of bearing the name of the Julii, one of the most distinguished families in Rome. The mausoleum is built in three stages. The upper stage, or tholos , is a circular chapel with Corinthian columns. It contains two statues wearing togas, presumably

1162-794: Is divided from Italy by the river Varus , and by the range of the Alps (...) Forum Julii Octavanorum, a colony, which is also called Pacensis and Classica, the river Argenteus , which flows through it, the district of the Oxubii and that of the Ligauni above whom are the Suetri, the Quariates and the Adunicates. On the coast we have Antipolis, a town with Latian rights, the district of the Deciates, and

1245-464: Is named. In pre-Roman times, the Ligurians occupied the present-day Italian region of Liguria , Piedmont , northern Tuscany , western Lombardy , western Emilia-Romagna and northern Sardinia , reaching also Elba and Sicily . They inhabited also the French region of Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur and Corsica . However, it is generally believed that around 2000 BC , the Ligurians occupied

1328-597: Is still debated. This event, known as the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre , was a significant blow to the Huguenot movement, and religious civil warfare soon began anew. Charles sought to take advantage of the disarray of the Huguenots by ordering the siege of La Rochelle , but was unable to take the Protestant stronghold. Many of Charles' decisions were influenced by his mother, a fervent Roman Catholic who initially supported

1411-539: Is the cause of all of this? God's blood, you are the cause of it all!" Catherine responded by declaring she had a lunatic for a son. Charles' physical condition, tending towards tuberculosis , deteriorated to the point where, by spring of 1574, his hoarse coughing turned bloody and his hemorrhages grew more violent. Charles IX died at the Château de Vincennes on 30 May 1574, aged 23. Given that his younger brother Henry, Duke of Anjou , had recently been elected King of

1494-960: The Apuani , allied with the Carthaginians, providing soldiers to Hannibal's troops when he arrived in Northern Italy, hoping that the Carthaginian general would free them from the neighbouring Romans. Others, like the Taurini, took sides in support of the Romans. The pro-Carthaginian Ligurians took part in the Battle of the Trebia , which the Carthaginians won. Other Ligurians enlisted in the army of Hasdrubal Barca , when he arrived in Cisalpine Gaul (207 BC), in an attempt to rejoin

1577-535: The Edict of Roussillon , which standardised 1 January as the first day of the year throughout France. War again broke out in 1567 after Charles added 6,000 Swiss mercenaries to his personal guards. Huguenots, fearing a Catholic attack was imminent, tried to abduct the king at Meaux , seized various cities, and massacred Catholics at Nîmes in an action known as the Michelade . The Battle of Saint-Denis resulted in

1660-589: The Insubres . The Taurini chief town of Taurasia (modern-day Turin ) was captured by Hannibal's forces after a three-day siege. In 205 BC, Genua (modern-day Genoa ) was attacked and razed to the ground by Mago. Near the end of the Second Punic War, Mago was among the Ingauni , trying to block the Roman advance. At the Battle of Insubria , he suffered a defeat, and later, died of wounds sustained in

1743-712: The Statielli (172 BC) and the Velleiates (158 BC). The last Apuani resistance was subdued in 155 BC by consul Marcus Claudius Marcellus . The subjugation of the coastal Ligures and the annexation of the Alpes Maritimae took place in 14 BC, closely following the occupation of the central Alps in 15 BC. The last Ligurian tribes (e.g. Vocontii and Salluvii ) still autonomous, who occupied Provence, were subdued in 124 BC. Charles IX of France Charles IX (Charles Maximilien; 27 June 1550 – 30 May 1574)

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1826-518: The ascension of Henry of Navarre to the French throne as Henry IV , establishing the House of Bourbon as the new French royal dynasty. Charles Maximilien of France, third son of King Henry II of France and Catherine de' Medici , was born on 27 June 1550 at the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye . He was the fifth of ten children born to the royal couple. Styled since birth as Duke of Angoulême , he

1909-516: The battle of Clastidium was fought and allowed Rome to take the capital of the Insubres, Mediolanum (modern-day Milan ). To consolidate its dominion, Rome created the colonies of Placentia in the territory of the Boii and Cremona in that of the Insubres. With the outbreak of the second Punic war (218 BC) the Ligurian tribes had different attitudes. Some, like the tribes of the west Riviera and

1992-461: The 1st and 3rd centuries AD, was the central market, business place, place of justice and site of official religious rituals. A large open space was enclosed on two sides by porticos of columns. On the southern side was a semi-circular excedre, while on the north was the basilica, the large hall that was the palace of justice and seat of government. The basilica was 47 by 24 meters in size, supported by 24 large columns. The facade has disappeared, but

2075-590: The 1st century BC, known as "Les Antiques", a mausoleum and a triumphal arch . Between the 4th and 2nd centuries BC, the Salyens , the largest of the Celto-Ligurian tribes in Provence, built a rampart of stones on the peaks that surrounded the valley of Notre-Dame-de-Laval, and constructed an oppidum , or fortified town, around the spring in the valley, which was known for its healing powers. A shrine

2158-681: The Alps are the Salluvii , the Deciates , and the Oxubii (...) The coast of Liguria extends 211 miles, between the rivers Varus and Macra . Just like Strabo, Pliny the Elder situates Liguria between the rivers Varus and Magra . He also quotes the Ligurian peoples living on the other side of the banks of the Var and the Alps. He writes in his book "The Natural History" book III chapter 6 : Gaul

2241-574: The Apennines themselves. This zone corresponds to the current region of Liguria in Italy as well as to the former county of Nice which could be compared today to the Alpes Maritimes . The writer, naturalist and Roman philosopher Pliny the Elder writes in his book "The Natural History" book III chapter 7 on the Ligurians and Liguria: The more celebrated of the Ligurian tribes beyond

2324-621: The Catholics. Finally, the royal debt and the King's desire to seek a peaceful solution led to yet another truce, the Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye in August 1570, which again granted concessions to the Huguenots. On 26 November 1570, Charles married Elisabeth of Austria , with whom he fathered one daughter, Marie Elisabeth . In 1573, Charles fathered an illegitimate son, Charles, Duke of Angoulême , with his mistress, Marie Touchet . After

2407-469: The Consul Caecilius, and the remains of the main buildings demolished and replaced by more modest structures. In 49 BC, Julius Caesar captured Marseille and, after a period of destructive civil wars, the romanisation of Provence and Glanum began. The Glanum Dam , a curved stone arch dam, and the oldest known of its kind, and an aqueduct were built in the 1st century BC, to supply water for

2490-527: The French throne and husband to Queen Jeanne III of Navarre , was appointed Lieutenant-General of France. In 1560, a group of Huguenot nobles at Amboise had planned to try to abduct King Francis II and arrest the Catholic leaders Francis, Duke of Guise , and his brother Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine . The plot was discovered ahead of time, and the Guises were prepared, executing hundreds of Huguenots. This

2573-516: The Hellenic style of the nearby Greek colony of Marseille. They included a large building around a trapezoidal peristyle , or courtyard surrounded by columns; and a sacred well, or dromos , next to a small temple in the Tuscan style. The first Roman forum in Glanum was built around 20 BC, at about the time that Glanum was given the title of oppidum latinum . The second Roman forum, built between

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2656-534: The Iberian Peninsula (then under Carthaginian control ), and the territory of the Ligurians was on the road (they controlled the Ligurian coasts and the south-western Alps). Despite Roman efforts, only a few Ligurian tribes made alliance agreements with the Romans, notably the Genuates. The rest soon proved hostile. The hostilities were opened in 238 BC by a coalition of Ligurians and Boii Gauls, but

2739-455: The Julii family, both still standing. In the 1st century AD the city built a new forum and temples. Glanum was not as prosperous as the Roman colonies of Arelate , Avennio , and Cabellio , but by the 2nd century AD it was wealthy enough to build impressive shrines to the Emperors, to enlarge the forum , and to have extensive thermae and other public buildings clad in marble. The town

2822-632: The Ligures having expelled the Sicanians , an Iberian tribe, from the banks of the river Sicanus , in Iberia. Ligurian sepulchres of the Italian Riviera and of Provence, holding cremations, exhibit Etruscan and Celtic influences. In the third century BC, the Romans were in direct contact with the Ligurians. However, Roman expansionism was directed towards the rich territories of Gaul and

2905-769: The Massilians. But though the early writers of the Greeks call the Sallyes "Ligures", and the country which the Massiliotes hold, "Ligustica," later writers name them "Celtoligures," and attach to their territory all the level country as far as Luerio and the Rhodanus , Copper begins to be mined from the middle of the 4th millennium BC in Liguria with the Libiola and Monte Loreto mines dated to 3700 BC. These are

2988-607: The Placentia area by subduing the Celelates, Cerdicates, Ilvati and the Boii Gauls and occupying the oppidum of Clastidium. Genua was rebuilt by the proconsul Spurius Lucretius in the same year. Having defeated Carthage, Rome sought to expand northwards, and used Genua as a support base for raids, between 191 and 154 BC, against the Ligurian tribes of the hinterland, allied for decades with Carthage. A second phase of

3071-660: The Po Valley of the facies of the pile dwellings and of the dammed settlements , a society that followed the Polada culture , and is well suited in middle and late Bronze Age . The ancient name of the Po river (Padus in Latin) derived from the Ligurian name of the river: Bod-encus or Bod-incus. This word appears in the placename Bodincomagus , a Ligurian town on the right bank of the Po downstream near today's Turin. According to

3154-463: The Polada culture and Rhone culture , southern branches of the Unetice culture . It is said that the ligurians inhabited the Po valley around the 2,000 B.C., they not only appear in the legends of the Po valley, but would have left traces (linguistic and craft) found in the archaeological also in the area near the northern Adriatic coast. The Ligurians are credited with forming the first villages in

3237-405: The Romans celebrated fifteen triumphs and suffered at least one serious defeat. Historically, the beginning of the campaign dates back to 193 BC on the initiative of the Ligurian conciliabula (federations), who organized a major raid going as far as the right bank of the river Arno. Roman campaigns followed (191, 188 and 187 BC); these were victorious, but not decisive. In the campaign of 186 BC,

3320-527: The Romans wanted to permanently pacify Liguria to facilitate further conquests in Gaul. To that end, they prepared a large army of almost 36,000 soldiers, under the command of proconsuls Publius Cornelius Cethegus and Marcus Baebius Tamphilus , with the aim of putting an end to Ligurian independence. In 180 BC, the Romans inflicted a serious defeat on the Apuani Ligures, and deported 40,000 of them to

3403-402: The Romans were beaten by the Ligurians in the Magra valley. In this battle, which took place in a narrow and precipitous place, the Romans lost about 4000 soldiers, three eagle insignia of the second legion and eleven banners of the Latin allies. In addition, the consul Quintus Martius was also killed in the battle. It is thought that the place of the battle and the death of the consul gave rise to

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3486-442: The Second Punic War, however, hostilities were not over yet. Ligurian tribes and Carthaginian holdouts operating from the mountain territories continued to fight with guerrilla tactics. Thus, the Romans were forced into continuous military operations in northern Italy. In 201 BC, the Ingauni signed a peace treaty with Rome. It was only in 197 BC that the Romans, under the leadership of Minucius Rufus, succeeded in regaining control of

3569-426: The architecture and art of Glanum – villas were built in the Hellenic style. But by the 2nd century BC conflicts and wars arose between the Salyens and the Greeks of Marseille, who not having a powerful army, called upon the assistance of their Roman allies. In 125 BC the Salyens were defeated by the army of the Roman consul Marcus Fulvius Flaccus, and the following year decisively defeated by C. Sextus Calvinus. Many of

3652-412: The back wall and side walls still exist. Behind the basilica was the curia, where a statue of the Emperor was placed in a niche in the wall. In the center was a square room which served as a tribunal and as the chapel of the cult of the Emperor. The northern part of Glanum, at the bottom of the sloping site, was the residential quarter: the site of villas and of the extensive public baths. The baths were

3735-463: The battle. Genua was rebuilt in the same year. Ligurian troops were present at the Battle of Zama in 202 BC, which marked the final end of Carthage as a great power. In 200 BC, the Ligures and Boii sacked and destroyed the Roman colony of Placentia , effectively controlling the most important ford of the Po Valley. During the same period, the Romans were at war with the Apuani. Serious Roman efforts began in 182 BC, when both consular armies and

3818-435: The beginning of the Middle Bronze Age (16th-15th century BC), when north-western Italy appears closely linked regarding the production of bronze artifacts, including ornaments, to the western groups of the Tumulus culture ( Central Europe , 1600 BC - 1200 BC). The bearers of the Canegrate culture maintained its homogeneity for only a century, after which it melded with the Ligurian populations and with this union gave rise to

3901-405: The center of social life, and helped serve to romanize the local population. The sacred spring of Glanum is located at the southern and highest part of the town. The valley was closed by a stone wall, built in the late 2nd or early 1st centuries BC. This wall had a gate large enough for chariots, a square tower, and a smaller gate for pedestrians. To the left and right of the gate are vestiges of

3984-403: The city between 1898 and 1910, the Ligurian population that lived in Genoa maintained trade relations with the Etruscans and the Greeks, since several objects from these populations were found. In the 5th century BC the first town, or oppidum , was founded at the top of the hill today called Castello (Castle), which is now inside the medieval old town. Thucydides (5th century BC) speaks of

4067-498: The concessions given to the Huguenots. After the military leaders of both sides were either killed or captured in battles at Rouen , Dreux , and Orléans , the regent mediated a truce and issued the Edict of Amboise (1563). The war was followed by four years of an uneasy "armed peace", during which time Catherine united the factions in the successful effort to recapture Le Havre from the English. After this victory, Charles declared his legal majority in August 1563, formally ending

4150-405: The conclusion of the Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye in 1570, the king increasingly came under the influence of Admiral Gaspard de Coligny , who had succeeded the slain Prince of Condé as leader of Huguenots after the Battle of Jarnac in 1569. Catherine, however, became increasingly fearful of Coligny's unchecked power, especially since he was pursuing an alliance with England and the Dutch. Coligny

4233-405: The conflict followed (197-155 BC), characterized by the fact that the Apuani Ligurians entrenched themselves on the Apennines, from where they periodically descended to plunder the surrounding territories. The Romans, for their part, organized continuous expeditions to the mountains, hoping to surround and defeat the Ligurians (taking care not to be destroyed by ambushes). In the course of these wars,

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4316-425: The customs, such as displaying the severed heads of enemies at the city gate; and by the cooking utensils found in the ruins, which showed that the people of Glanis boiled their food in pots, rather than frying it in pans like other Mediterranean tribes. The people of Glanum were in early contact with the Greek colony of Massalia , present day Marseille , which had been founded in about 600 BC. The contact influenced

4399-429: The father and grandfather of the Julii. (The heads of the statues were lost at an earlier date, and replaced in the 18th century). The conical roof is decorated with carved fish scales, traditional for Roman mausoleums. The frieze beneath the conical roof is decorated with a rinceau featuring carvings of acanthus leaves, used in Roman mortuary architecture to represent eternal rebirth. The middle stage, or quadrifons,

4482-412: The first half of 2nd millennium BC perhaps for the arrival of new people from the transalpine regions of Switzerland and Southern Germany . Its influences are also found in the cultures of the Early Bronze Age of Liguria , Romagna , Corsica , Sardinia ( Bonnanaro culture ) and Rhone Valley. There are some commonalities with the previous Bell Beaker Culture including the usage of the bow and

4565-413: The first migratory wave of the proto-Celtic population from the northwest part of the Alps that, through the Alpine passes , penetrated and settled in the western Po valley between Lake Maggiore and Lake Como ( Scamozzina culture ). They brought a new funerary practice— cremation —which supplanted inhumation . It has also been proposed that a more ancient proto-Celtic presence can be traced back to

4648-400: The fuse that sparked the French Wars of Religion . Louis of Bourbon, Prince of Condé , brother of the Lieutenant-General and the suspected architect of the Amboise conspiracy , had already prepared for war and, taking Wassy as the pretext, assumed the role of a protector of Protestantism and began to seize and garrison strategic towns along the Loire Valley . In response, the monarchy revoked

4731-440: The king's fragile mental and physical constitution weakened drastically. His moods swung from boasting about the extremity of the massacre to exclamations that the screams of the murdered Huguenots kept ringing in his ears. Frantically, he blamed alternately himself – "What blood shed! What murders!", he cried to his nurse. "What evil counsel I have followed! O my God, forgive me... I am lost! I am lost!" – or his mother – "Who but you

4814-444: The marriage of his sister Margaret to Henry of Navarre , a major Protestant nobleman in the line of succession to the French throne, in a last desperate bid to reconcile his people. Facing popular hostility against this policy of appeasement and at the instigation of his mother Catherine de' Medici , Charles oversaw the massacre of numerous Huguenot leaders who gathered in Paris for the royal wedding, though his direct involvement

4897-400: The massacres weakened Huguenot power, they also reignited war, which only ceased after the Edict of Boulogne in 1573 granted Huguenots amnesty and limited religious freedom. However, the year 1574 saw a failed Huguenot coup at Saint-Germain and successful Huguenot uprisings in Normandy, Poitou and the Rhône valley, setting the stage for another round of war. In the aftermath of the massacre,

4980-402: The northern gate of the city, next to the mausoleum and was the visible symbol of Roman power and authority. It was built near the end of the reign of Augustus Caesar (who died in 14 AD). The upper portion of the arch, including the inscription, are missing. The sculptures decorating the arch illustrated both the civilization of Rome and the dire fate of her enemies. Glanum was laid out on

5063-412: The old monuments of Glanum were destroyed. Due to its commercially useful location on the Via Domitia , and the attraction of its healing spring, the town prospered again. The city produced its own silver coins and built new monuments. The prosperity lasted until 90 BC when the Salyens again rebelled against Rome. The public buildings of Glanum were again destroyed. The rebellion was crushed this time by

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5146-407: The older walls, dating from between the 6th and 3rd centuries BC, making a rampart 16 meters high. In Robert Holdstock 's fantasy novel Ancient Echoes , Glanum is a sentient, living, moving city which eventually settles at its present site in Provence. Celto-Ligurian The Ligures or Ligurians were an ancient people after whom Liguria , a region of present-day north-western Italy ,

5229-411: The oldest copper mines in the western Mediterranean basin. It was during this period of the Copper Age in Italy that we find throughout Liguria a large number of anthropomorphic stelae in addition to rock engravings. The Polada Culture (a location near Brescia , Lombardy , Italy) was a cultural horizon extended in the Po valley from eastern Lombardy and Veneto to Emilia and Romagna , formed in

5312-497: The place-name of Marciaso, or that of the Canal of March on Mount Caprione in the town of Lerici (near the ruins of the city of Luni ), which was later founded by the Romans. This mountain had a strategic importance because it controlled the valley of Magra and the sea. In 185 BC, the Ingauni and the Intimilii also rebelled and managed to resist the Roman legions for the next five years, before capitulating in 180 BC. The Apuani, and those of hinterland side still resisted. However,

5395-534: The preservation of the site, and to exploring beneath sites already discovered for older works. The Mausoleum of the Julii, located across the Via Domitia, to the north of, and just outside the city entrance, dates to about 40 BC, and is one of the best preserved mausoleums of the Roman era. A dedication is carved on the architrave of the building facing the old Roman road, which reads: SEX · M · L · IVLIEI · C · F · PARENTIBVS · SVEIS Sextius, Marcus and Lucius Julius, sons of Gaius, to their forebears It

5478-497: The regency. However, Catherine continued to play a principal role in politics, and often dominated her son. In March 1564, the King and his mother set out from Fontainebleau on a grand tour of France . Their tour spanned two years and brought them through Bar, Lyon , Salon-de-Provence (where they visited Nostradamus ), Carcassonne , Toulouse (where the King and his younger brother Henry were confirmed ), Bayonne , La Rochelle , and Moulins . During this trip, Charles IX issued

5561-478: The regions of Samnium . This deportation was followed by another one of 7,000 Ligurians in the following year. These were one of the few cases in which the Romans deported defeated populations in such a high number. In 177 BC other groups of Apuani Ligures surrendered to the Roman forces, and were eventually assimilated into Roman culture during the 2nd century BC, while the military campaign continued further north. The Frinatiates surrendered in 175 BC, followed by

5644-404: The river Varus , which proceeds from Mount Cema, one of the Alps. Transalpine Ligures are said to have inhabited the South Eastern portion of modern France, between the Alps and the Rhone river , from where they constantly battled against the Greek colony of Massalia. The consul, Quintus Opimius, defeats the Transalpine Ligurians, who had plundered Antipolis and Nicaea, two towns belonging to

5727-460: The site, discovering the baths, the basilica, and the residences of the northern part of the town. From 1928 to 1933, Henri Rolland (1887–1970) worked on the Iron Age sanctuary, to the south. From 1942 until 1969, Rolland took over the work and excavated the area from the forum to the sanctuary. The objects he discovered are on display today at the Hôtel de Sade in nearby Saint-Rémy. New excavation and exploration work began in 1982, devoted mainly to

5810-411: The street, Parisians mutilated the body. The mob action then erupted into the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre , a systematic slaughter of Huguenots that was to last five days. Henry of Navarre managed to avoid death by pledging to convert to Catholicism. Over the next few weeks, the disorder spread to more cities across France. In all, up to 10,000 Huguenots were killed in Paris and the provinces. Though

5893-418: The surroundings cleaned up and maintained. Some excavations were made around the monuments as early as the 16th and 17th centuries, finding sculptures and coins, and by the Marquis de Lagoy in the Vallons-de-Notre-Dame in the 19th century. The first systematic excavations began in 1921, directed by the architect of historic monuments Jules Formigé. From 1921 until 1941, the archaeologist Pierre de Brun worked on

5976-526: The town's fountains and public baths. In 27 BC, the Emperor Augustus created the Roman province of Gallia Narbonensis , and in this province Glanum was given the title of oppidum latinum , which gave residents the civil and political status of citizens of Rome. A triumphal arch was built outside the town in about 10 BC (the first such arch to be built in Gaul), as well as an impressive mausoleum of

6059-630: The troops of his brother Hannibal. In the port of Savo (modern-day Savona ), then capital of the Ligures Sabazi, triremes of the Carthaginian fleet of Mago Barca , brother of Hannibal, which were intended to cut the Roman trade routes in the Tyrrhenian Sea, found shelter. In the early stages of the war, the pro-Roman Ligurians suffered. The Taurini were on the path of Hannibal 's march into Italy, and in 218 BC, they were attacked by him, as he had allied with their long-standing enemies,

6142-512: The two peoples soon found themselves in disagreement and the military campaign came to a halt with the dissolution of the alliance. Meanwhile, a Roman fleet commanded by Quintus Fabius Maximus routed Ligurian ships on the coast (234-233 BC), allowing the Romans to control the coastal route to and from Gaul and to counter the Carthaginian expansion in Iberia , given that the Pisa - Luni - Genoa sea route

6225-451: The wedding, which was set for 18 August 1572. On 22 August, a failed attempt on Coligny's life put the city in a state of apprehension, as both visiting Huguenots and Parisian Catholics feared an attack by the other side. In this situation, in the early morning of 24 August 1572, the Duke of Guise moved to avenge his father and murdered Coligny in his lodgings. As Coligny's body was thrown into

6308-485: Was King of France from 1560 until his death in 1574. He ascended the French throne upon the death of his brother Francis II in 1560, and as such was the penultimate monarch of the House of Valois . Charles' reign saw the culmination of decades of tension between Protestants and Catholics. Civil and religious war broke out between the two parties after the massacre of Vassy in 1562. In 1572, following several unsuccessful attempts at brokering peace, Charles arranged

6391-533: Was also hated by Henry, Duke of Guise, who accused the Admiral of having ordered the assassination of his father Francis of Guise during the siege of Orléans in 1563. During the peace settlement, a marriage was arranged between Charles' sister Margaret of Valois and Henry of Navarre, the future King Henry IV, who was at that time heir to the throne of Navarre and one of the leading Huguenots. Many Huguenot nobles, including Admiral de Coligny, thronged into Paris for

6474-526: Was built at the spring to Glanis , a Celtic god. The town grew, and a second wall was built in the 2nd century BC. The town had a strong Celtic identity, shown by the names of the residents (Vrittakos, Eporix, Litumaros); by the names of the local gods (Glanis and his companions, the Glanicae, (similar to the Roman Matres ); and the goddesses Rosmerta and Epona ); by the statues and pottery; by

6557-562: Was created Duke of Orléans after the death of his elder brother Louis , his parents' second son, who had died in infancy on 24 October 1550. The royal children were raised under the supervision of the governor and governess of the royal children, Claude d'Urfé and Françoise d'Humières , under the orders of Diane de Poitiers . On 14 May 1564, Charles was presented the Order of the Garter by Henry Carey . Charles' father died in 1559, and

6640-733: Was followed by cases of Protestant iconoclasm and Catholic reprisals. The regent Catherine tried to foster reconciliation at the Colloquy at Poissy and, after that failed, made several concessions to the Huguenots in the Edict of Saint-Germain in January 1562. Nonetheless, the Massacre of Vassy , perpetrated on 1 March 1562, when the Duke of Guise and his troops attacked and killed or wounded over 100 Huguenot worshipers and citizens, brought France spiralling towards civil war. The massacre lit

6723-479: Was now safe. In 222 BC the Insubres , during a war with Romans occupied the oppidum of Clastidium, that at that time, it was an important locality of the Anamari (or Marici ), a Ligurian tribe that, probably for fear of the nearby warlike Insubres, had already accepted the alliance with Rome the year before. For the first time, the Roman army marched beyond the Po, expanding into Gallia Transpadana. In 222 BC,

6806-613: Was overrun and destroyed by the Alamanni in 260 AD and subsequently abandoned, its inhabitants moving a short distance north into the plain to found a city that eventually became modern day Saint-Rémy-de-Provence . Eventually Glanum became a source of stone and other building materials for Saint-Remy. Since the Roman system of drains and sewers was not maintained, the ruins became flooded and covered with mud and sediment. The mausoleum and triumphal arch, together known as "Les Antiques", were famous and were visited by King Charles IX , who had

6889-522: Was succeeded by Charles' elder brother, King Francis II . Francis II died in 1560. The ten-year-old Charles was immediately proclaimed king on 5 December 1560, and the Privy Council appointed his mother, Catherine de' Medici , as governor of France ( gouvernante de France ), with sweeping powers, at first acting as regent for her young son. On 15 May 1561, Charles was consecrated in the cathedral at Reims . Antoine of Bourbon , himself in line to

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