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100-446: As a novel glass forming technique created in the middle of the 1st century BC, glassblowing exploited a working property of glass that was previously unknown to glassworkers; inflation, which is the expansion of a molten blob of glass by introducing a small amount of air into it. That is based on the liquid structure of glass where the atoms are held together by strong chemical bonds in a disordered and random network, therefore molten glass

200-407: A bubblegram in a solid. In medical ultrasound imaging, small encapsulated bubbles called contrast agent are used to enhance the contrast. In thermal inkjet printing, vapor bubbles are used as actuators. They are occasionally used in other microfluidics applications as actuators. The violent collapse of bubbles ( cavitation ) near solid surfaces and the resulting impinging jet constitute

300-452: A Crusader fort partly rebuilt by Zahir al-Umar in the 18th century, and over sixty different mosaics dating from the third to the sixth century CE. In Ancient Greek, the city was called Sepphoris from its Hebrew name Tzipori , understood to be a variant of the Hebrew word for bird, tzipor – perhaps, as a Talmudic gloss suggests, because it is "perched on the top of a mountain, like

400-581: A bird". Herod Antipas named it Autocratoris (Αὐτοκρατορίδα). Autocrator in Greek means Imperator and it seems that Antipas named the city after the imperial title to honor the Augustus . Sepphoris issued its first coins at the time of the First Jewish War , in c. 68 CE, while Vespasian's army was reconquering the region from the rebels. The inscriptions on the coins are honouring both

500-422: A bubble. Research on the origin of life on Earth suggests that bubbles may have played an integral role in confining and concentrating precursor molecules for life, a function currently performed by cell membranes . Bubble lasers use bubbles as the optical resonator. They can be used as highly sensitive pressure sensors. When bubbles are disturbed (for example when a gas bubble is injected underwater),

600-445: A bubble. Next, the glassworker can gather more glass over that bubble to create a larger piece. Once a piece has been blown to its approximate final size, the bottom is finalized. Then, the molten glass is attached to a stainless steel or iron rod called a "punty" for shaping and transferring the hollow piece from the blowpipe to provide an opening and to finalize the top. The bench is a glassblower's workstation; it includes places for

700-565: A center of Jewish religious and spiritual life. Rabbi Yehuda Hanasi , the compiler of the Mishnah , a commentary on the Torah , moved to Sepphoris, along with the Sanhedrin , the highest Jewish religious court. Before moving to Tiberias by 220, some Jewish academies of learning, yeshivot , were also based there. Galilee was predominantly populated by Jews from the end of the 2nd century to

800-586: A century earlier, considers that the city's name was changed to Diocaesarea in 129/30, just prior to the Bar Kokhba revolt , in Hadrian 's time. This gesture was done in honour of the visiting Roman emperor and his identification with Zeus Olympias, reflected in Hadrian's efforts in building temples dedicated to the supreme Olympian god. Celdrán (1995) places this name change a few decades later, during

900-528: A craftsman in Nazareth , may have travelled to Sepphoris for work purposes, possibly with his father and brothers . Casey states that this is entirely possible, but is likewise impossible to historically verify. Jesus does not seem to have visited Sepphoris during his public ministry and none of the sayings recorded in the Synoptic Gospels mention it. The inhabitants of Sepphoris did not join

1000-454: A diamond shape when partially open. These are used for cutting off masses of glass. There are many ways to apply patterns and color to blown glass, including rolling molten glass in powdered color or larger pieces of colored glass called " frit ". Complex patterns with great detail can be created through the use of cane (rods of colored glass) and murrine (rods cut in cross-sections to reveal patterns). These pieces of color can be arranged in

1100-544: A fifth-century basilica is excavated at the site honouring the birth of Mary. The town was later conquered by Arab Rashidun forces during the 7th-century Muslim conquest of the Levant and remained under successive Muslim rule until the Crusades . Before the 1948 Arab–Israeli War , Saffuriya was a Palestinian Arab village with a population of approximately 5,000 people at the time of its depopulation . Moshav Tzippori

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1200-468: A flame of oxygen and propane or natural gas. The modern torch permits working both the soft glass from the furnace worker and the borosilicate glass (low-expansion) of the scientific glassblower . This latter worker may also have multiple headed torches and special lathes to help form the glass or fused quartz used for special projects. Glassblowing was invented by Syrian craftsmen from Hama and Aleppo between 27 BC and 14 AD. The ancient Romans copied

1300-582: A great variety of glass objects, ranging from drinking cups to window glass. An outstanding example of the free-blowing technique is the Portland Vase , which is a cameo manufactured during the Roman period. An experiment was carried out by Gudenrath and Whitehouse with the aim of re-creating the Portland Vase. A full amount of blue glass required for the body of the vase was gathered on the end of

1400-576: A group of villages within the sanjak of Safad, which was part of the Qaysi faction, and that had rebelled against the Ottoman authorities. In 1596, the population was recorded as consisting of 366 families and 34 bachelors, all Muslim. Saffuriyya was larger than neighboring Nazareth but smaller than Kafr Kanna . The villagers paid a fixed tax rate of 25% on various agricultural products, including wheat, barley, olive trees, goats and beehives, in addition to

1500-608: A history of anti- Yishuv activities and supported the Arab Liberation Army during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War . On 1 July 1948, the village was bombarded by Israeli aircraft. On 16 July it was captured by Israeli forces along with the rest of the Lower Galilee in Operation Dekel . The villagers put up some resistance and managed to destroy several armoured cars in an ambush. Following the collapse of

1600-418: A hot flame at a workbench to manipulate preformed glass rods and tubes. These stock materials took form as laboratory glassware , beads, and durable scientific "specimens"—miniature glass sculpture. The craft, which was raised to an art form in the late 1960s by Hans Godo Frabel (later followed by lampwork artists such as Milon Townsend and Robert Mickelson), is still practiced today. The modern lampworker uses

1700-516: A misreading of Talmudic sources. Aside from being a center of spiritual and religious studies, it developed into a busy metropolis for commerce due to its proximity to important trade routes through Galilee. Hellenistic and Jewish influences seemed blended together in daily town life while each group, Jewish, pagan and Christian, maintained its distinct identity. In the aftermath of the Jewish revolt against Constantius Gallus of 351–352, Diocaesarea,

1800-496: A molten portion of glass called a "gather" which has been spooled at one end of the blowpipe. This has the effect of forming an elastic skin on the interior of the glass blob that matches the exterior skin caused by the removal of heat from the furnace. The glassworker can then quickly inflate the molten glass to a coherent blob and work it into a desired shape. Researchers at the Toledo Museum of Art attempted to reconstruct

1900-499: A native of Saffuriyya expelled from the town, and their relationship to the landscape of Saffuriya before 1948, are the subject of Adina Hoffman 's My Happiness Bears No Relation to Happiness (Yale University Press, 2009). The area remained under martial law until the general lifting of martial law in Israel in 1966. Most of the remains of Saffuriya were removed in a late-1960s program to clear depopulated Arab villages. The site of

2000-471: A pattern on a flat surface, and then "picked up" by rolling a bubble of molten glass over them. One of the most exacting and complicated caneworking techniques is "reticello", which involves creating two bubbles from cane, each twisted in a different direction and then combining them and blowing out the final form. Lampworkers , usually but not necessarily work on a much smaller scale, historically using alcohol lamps and breath- or bellows -driven air to create

2100-465: A predominantly Jewish, serving as a spiritual and cultural center, though it also housed a Christian bishopric and maintained a multi-ethnic population. Remains of a synagogue dated to the first half of the fifth century were discovered on the northern side of town. Since late antiquity, Sepphoris was believed to be the birthplace of Mary, mother of Jesus , and the village where Saints Anna and Joachim are often said to have resided, where today

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2200-442: A press for olive oil or grape syrup and "occasional revenues"; a total of 31,244 akçe . 3/24 of the revenuer went to a Waqf . A number of important scholars came from the village during this period, including the historian, poet and jurist al-Hasan al-Burini (d. 1615), the qadi (head judge), al-Baq'a al-Saffuri (d. 1625) and the poet and qadi Ahmad al-Sharif (d. 1633). It is reported that in 1745 Zahir al-Umar, who grew up in

2300-414: A set of progressively cooler chambers for each of the three purposes. The major tools used by a glassblower are the blowpipe (or blow tube), punty (or punty rod, pontil , or mandrel), bench, marver , blocks, jacks, paddles, tweezers, newspaper pads, and a variety of shears. The tip of the blowpipe is first preheated; then dipped in the molten glass in the furnace. The molten glass is "gathered" onto

2400-468: A small furnace and creating blown glass art. Littleton promoted the use of small furnaces in individual artists' studios. This approach to glassblowing blossomed into a worldwide movement, producing such flamboyant and prolific artists as Dale Chihuly , Dante Marioni , Fritz Driesbach and Marvin Lipofsky as well as scores of other modern glass artists. Today there are many different institutions around

2500-530: Is Excited bubbles trapped underwater are the major source of liquid sounds , such as inside our knuckles during knuckle cracking, and when a rain droplet impacts a surface of water. Injury by bubble formation and growth in body tissues is the mechanism of decompression sickness , which occurs when supersaturated dissolved inert gases leave the solution as bubbles during decompression . The damage can be due to mechanical deformation of tissues due to bubble growth in situ, or by blocking blood vessels where

2600-461: Is a globule of a gas substance in a liquid. In the opposite case, a globule of a liquid in a gas, is called a drop . Due to the Marangoni effect , bubbles may remain intact when they reach the surface of the immersive substance. Bubbles are seen in many places in everyday life, for example: Bubbles form and coalesce into globular shapes because those shapes are at a lower energy state. For

2700-532: Is also known as " cristallo ". The technique of glassblowing, coupled with the cylinder and crown methods, was used to manufacture sheet or flat glass for window panes in the late 17th century. The applicability of glassblowing was so widespread that glass was being blown in many parts of the world, for example, in China, Japan and the Islamic Lands. The Nøstetangen Museum at Hokksund , Norway, shows how glass

2800-599: Is an archaeological site and former Palestinian village located in the central Galilee region of Israel , 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) north-northwest of Nazareth . It lies 286 meters (938 ft) above sea level and overlooks the Beit Netofa Valley . The site holds a rich and diverse historical and architectural legacy that includes remains from the Hellenistic , Roman , Byzantine , early Islamic , Crusader , Mamluk and Ottoman periods. Sepphoris

2900-462: Is believed to have been paved by the Romans around this time. The new population was loyal to Rome. Maurice Casey writes that, although Sepphoris during the early first century was "a very Jewish city", some of the people there did speak Greek . A lead weight dated to the first century bears an inscription in Greek with three Jewish names. Several scholars have suggested that Jesus, while working as

3000-418: Is generally believed that these may well have been used as Mikva'ot , Jewish ritual baths. The Roman theatre sits on the northern slope of the hill, and is about 45 m in diameter, seating 4500. Most of it is carved into the hillside, but some parts are supported by separate stone pillars. The theatre shows evidence of ancient damage, possibly from the earthquake in 363. Liquid bubble A bubble

3100-476: Is placed on the end of the blowpipe, and is then inflated into a wooden or metal carved mold. In that way, the shape and the texture of the bubble of glass is determined by the design on the interior of the mold rather than the skill of the glassworker. Two types of mold, namely single-piece molds and multi-piece molds, are frequently used to produce mold-blown vessels. The former allows the finished glass object to be removed in one movement by pulling it upwards from

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3200-463: Is simply referred to as "the furnace". The second is called the "glory hole", and is used to reheat a piece in between steps of working with it. The final furnace is called the "lehr" or "annealer", and is used to slowly cool the glass, over a period of a few hours to a few days, depending on the size of the pieces. This keeps the glass from cracking or shattering due to thermal stress . Historically, all three furnaces were contained in one structure, with

3300-435: Is slightly lower in blown vessels than those manufactured by casting. Lower concentration of natron would have allowed the glass to be stiffer for blowing. During blowing, thinner layers of glass cool faster than thicker ones and become more viscous than the thicker layers. That allows production of blown glass with uniform thickness instead of causing blow-through of the thinned layers. A full range of glassblowing techniques

3400-414: Is viscous enough to be blown and gradually hardens as it loses heat. To increase the stiffness of the molten glass, which in turn makes the process of blowing easier, there was a subtle change in the composition of glass. With reference to their studies of the ancient glass assemblages from Sepphoris of Israel, Fischer and McCray postulated that the concentration of natron , which acts as flux in glass,

3500-671: The 1945 statistics , the population was 4,330; 4,320 Muslims and 10 Christians, and the total land area was 55,378 dunams . By 1948, Saffuriya was the largest village in the Galilee both by land size and population. The land in the area was considered highly fertile. In 1944/45 a total of 21,841 dunams of village land was used for cereals, 5,310 dunams were irrigated or used for orchards, mostly olive trees, while 102 dunams were classified as built-up land. Multiple olive oil factories were located nearby, and children attended one of two schools, divided by gender. The Arab village had

3600-540: The Indian subcontinent in the form of Indo-Pacific beads which uses glass blowing to make cavity before being subjected to tube drawn technique for bead making dated more than 2500 BP. Beads are made by attaching molten glass gather to the end of a blowpipe, a bubble is then blown into the gather. The invention of glassblowing coincided with the establishment of the Roman Empire in the 1st century BC, which enhanced

3700-485: The Jewish revolt against Roman rule of 66 CE. The Roman legate in Syria, Cestius Gallus , killed some 2,000 "brigands and rebels" in the area. The Jerusalemite Josephus , a son of Jerusalem's priestly elite had been sent north to recruit the Galilee into the rebellion's fold, but was only partially successful. He made two attempts to capture Sepphoris, but failed to conquer it, the first time because of fierce resistance,

3800-574: The Muslim conquest of the region , a new village rose on the ruins of ancient Zippori/Sepphoris, known by the name Saffuriya. Saffuriya's main development occurred during the Mamluk period (13th–16th centuries). Various Islamic dynasties controlled the site, with an interlude during the Crusades, from the 630s and up until World War I. The ninth-century Islamic scholar Ya'qubi noted that Saffuriyyah

3900-864: The Renaissance in the demise of the Roman Empire in the 5th century AD. During the early medieval period, the Franks manipulated the technique of glassblowing by creating the simple corrugated molds and developing the claws decoration techniques. Blown glass objects, such as the drinking vessels that imitated the shape of the animal horn were produced in the Rhine and Meuse valleys, as well as in Belgium. The Byzantine glassworkers made mold-blown glass decorated with Christian and Jewish symbols in Jerusalem between

4000-534: The 1963 historical novel The Glass-Blowers . The subject of mystery novelist Donna Leon 's Through a Glass, Darkly is the investigation of a crime in a Venetian glassworks on the island of Murano . Sepphoris Sepphoris ( / s ɪ ˈ f ɔːr ɪ s / sif- OR -iss ; Ancient Greek : Σεπφωρίς , romanized :  Sépphōris ), known in Hebrew as Tzipori ( צִפּוֹרִי Ṣīppōrī ) and in Arabic as Saffuriya ( صفورية Ṣaffūriya )

4100-575: The 4th century CE. As late as the third-fourth centuries, Sepphoris is believed to have been settled by one of the twenty-four priestly courses , Jedayah by name, a course mentioned in relation to the town itself in both the Jerusalem Talmud ( Taanit 4:5) and in the Caesarea Inscription . Others, however, cast doubt about Sepphoris ever being under a "priestly oligarchy" by the third century, and that it may simply reflect

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4200-620: The Arab village was planted with pine trees. By 2011, five books about the Palestinian village history had been published. On 20 February 1949, the Israeli moshav of Tzippori was founded southeast of the older village. The pomegranate and olive trees were replaced with crops for cattle fodder. Saffuriya is among the Palestinian villages for which commemorative Marches of Return have taken place, typically as part of Nakba Day , such as

4300-586: The Christians were all Roman Catholics. By the 1931 census the population had increased to 3,147; 3,136 Muslims and 11 Christians, in a total of 747 houses. In summer of 1931, archaeologist Leroy Waterman began the first excavations at Saffuriya, digging up part of the school playground, formerly the site of the Crusader fort. A local council was established in 1923. The expenditure of the council grew from 74 Palestine pound in 1929 to 1,217 in 1944. In

4400-528: The Mediterranean areas resulted in the substitution of glassblowing for earlier Hellenistic casting, core-forming and mosaic fusion techniques. The earliest evidence of blowing in Hellenistic work consists of small blown bottles for perfume and oil retrieved from the glass workshops on the Greek island of Samothrace and at Corinth in mainland Greece which were dated to the 1st century AD. Later,

4500-775: The Phoenician glassworkers exploited their glassblowing techniques and set up their workshops in the western territories of the Roman Empire, first in Italy by the middle of the 1st century AD. Rome, the heartland of the empire, soon became a major glassblowing center, and more glassblowing workshops were subsequently established in other provinces of Italy, for example Campania , Morgantina and Aquileia . A great variety of blown glass objects, ranging from unguentaria (toiletry containers for perfume) to cameo , from tableware to window glass, were produced. From there, escaping craftsmen (who had been forbidden to travel) otherwise advanced to

4600-432: The Roman Empire. Mold-blown glass vessels manufactured by the workshops of Ennion and other contemporary glassworkers such as Jason, Nikon, Aristeas, and Meges, constitutes some of the earliest evidence of glassblowing found in the eastern territories. Eventually, the glassblowing technique reached Egypt and was described in a fragmentary poem printed on papyrus which was dated to the 3rd century AD. The Roman hegemony over

4700-686: The accessibility and availability of the resources before the introduction of the metal blowpipes. Hollow iron rods, together with blown vessel fragments and glass waste dating to approximately 4th century AD, were recovered from the glass workshop in Mérida of Spain, as well as in Salona in Croatia. The glass blowing tradition was carried on in Europe from the medieval period through the Middle Ages to

4800-493: The accompanying refraction and internal reflection even though both the immersed and immersing mediums are transparent. The above explanation only holds for bubbles of one medium submerged in another medium (e.g. bubbles of gas in a soft drink); the volume of a membrane bubble (e.g. soap bubble) will not distort light very much, and one can only see a membrane bubble due to thin-film diffraction and reflection . Nucleation can be intentionally induced, for example, to create

4900-433: The acropolis enclosed by the city's wall. After Herod's death in 4 BCE, a rebel named Judas, son of a local bandit, Ezekias, attacked Sepphoris, then the administrative center of the Galilee, and, sacking its treasury and weapons, armed his followers in a revolt against Herodian rule. The Roman governor in Syria, Varus is reported by Josephus – perhaps in an exaggeration, since archaeology has failed to verify traces of

5000-493: The adoption and the application of mold-blowing technique by the glassworkers. Besides, blown flagons and blown jars decorated with ribbing, as well as blown perfume bottles with letters CCAA or CCA which stand for Colonia Claudia Agrippiniensis, were produced from the Rhineland workshops. Remains of blown blue-green glass vessels, for example bottles with handles, collared bowls and indented beakers, were found in abundance from

5100-428: The ancient free-blowing technique by using clay blowpipes. The result proved that short clay blowpipes of about 30–60 cm (12–24 in) facilitate free-blowing because they are simple to handle and to manipulate and can be re-used several times. Skilled workers are capable of shaping almost any vessel forms by rotating the pipe, swinging it and controlling the temperature of the piece while they blow. They can produce

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5200-535: The bare hand, can be used to shape the piece. Jacks are tools shaped somewhat like large tweezers with two blades, which are used for forming shape later in the creation of a piece. Paddles are flat pieces of wood or graphite used for creating flat spots such as a bottom. Tweezers are used to pick out details or to pull on the glass. There are two important types of shears, straight shears and diamond shears. Straight shears are essentially bulky scissors, used for making linear cuts. Diamond shears have blades that form

5300-624: The bishop experienced unrest among the local Muslim farmers. Saffuriyyah was captured between 1263 and 1266 by the Mamluk sultan Baybars . Saffuriya (Arabic: صفورية , also transliterated Safurriya and Suffurriye ), came under the rule of the Ottoman Empire after it defeated the Mamluks at the Battle of Marj Dabiq in 1516. An Ottoman firman of 1572 describes Saffuriyya as one of

5400-441: The blowpipe and was subsequently dipped into a pot of hot white glass. Inflation occurred when the glassworker blew the molten glass into a sphere which was then stretched or elongated into a vase with a layer of white glass overlying the blue body. Mold-blowing was an alternative glassblowing method that came after the invention of free-blowing, during the first part of the second quarter of the 1st century AD. A glob of molten glass

5500-636: The city reportedly thrived as a center of learning, with a diverse, multiethnic and multireligious population of some 30,000 living in relatively peaceful coexistence. The Roman client king , Herod the Great recaptured Sepphoris in 37 BCE after it had been garrisoned by the Parthian proxy, the Hasmonean Antigonus II Mattathias . Herod seemingly built a royal palace-fortress that doubled as an arsenal, likely positioned within

5600-497: The city's name was changed to Diocaesarea in 129/30, just prior to the Bar Kokhba revolt , in Hadrian 's time. This gesture was done in honour of the visiting Roman emperor and his identification with Zeus Olympias, reflected in Hadrian's efforts in building temples dedicated to the supreme Olympian god. Following the Bar Kokhba revolt of 132–135, many Jewish refugees from devastated Judea settled there, turning it into

5700-612: The city, Josephus went on to Jotapata , which did seem interested in the rebellion, – the Siege of Yodfat ended on 20 July 67 CE. Towns and villages that did not rebel were spared and in Galilee they were the majority. Coins minted in the city at the time of the revolt carried the inscription Neronias and Eirenopolis , "City of Peace". After the revolt, coins bore depictions of laurel wreaths, palm trees, caduceuses and ears of barley, which appear on Jewish coinage albeit not exclusively. George Francis Hill and Peter Schäfer consider that

5800-515: The conflagration – to have burnt the city down, and sold its inhabitants into slavery. After Herod's son, Herod Antipas was made tetrarch , or governor, he proclaimed the city's new name to be Autocratoris , and rebuilt it as the "Ornament of the Galilee " (Josephus, Ant. 18.27). Antipas expanded upon Herod's palace/arsenal, and built a city wall. An ancient route linking Sepphoris to Legio , and further south to Sebastia ( ancient Samaria ),

5900-695: The demonstrations organized by the Association for the Defence of the Rights of the Internally Displaced (ADRID). Much of the town has been excavated, revealing Jewish homes along a main cobblestone street. Several images have been found carved into the stones of the street, including that of a menorah , and another image that resembles some ancient game reminiscent of tic-tac-toe . Stepped pools have been uncovered throughout Sepphoris, and it

6000-510: The dissolution of gas in the liquid by injecting bubbles. Bubbles are used by chemical and metallurgic engineer in processes such as distillation, absorption, flotation and spray drying. The complex processes involved often require consideration for mass and heat transfer and are modeled using fluid dynamics . The star-nosed mole and the American water shrew can smell underwater by rapidly breathing through their nostrils and creating

6100-535: The emission of sound at the bubble's natural frequency. For air bubbles in water, large bubbles (negligible surface tension and thermal conductivity ) undergo adiabatic pulsations, which means that no heat is transferred either from the liquid to the gas or vice versa. The natural frequency of such bubbles is determined by the equation: where: For air bubbles in water, smaller bubbles undergo isothermal pulsations. The corresponding equation for small bubbles of surface tension σ (and negligible liquid viscosity )

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6200-509: The emperor in Rome, Nero (r. 54–68), and his general, Vespasian, as they read 'ΕΠΙ ΟΥΕCΠΑΙΑΝΟΥ ΕΙΡΗΝΟΠΟΛΙC ΝΕΡΩΝΙΑ CΕΠΦΩ' meaning 'Under Vespasian, ' Eirenopolis-Neronias-Sepphoris' . The name 'Neronias' honours Nero, while the name 'Eirenopolis' declares Sepphoris to be a 'city of peace' ( Koinē Greek : Εἰρήνη , romanized:  Eirēnē means tranquillity and peace, and polis is a city). Pancracio Celdrán interprets this name choice as

6300-401: The end of the blowpipe in much the same way that viscous honey is picked up on a honey dipper . This glass is then rolled on the marver , which was traditionally a flat slab of marble, but today is more commonly a fairly thick flat sheet of steel. This process, called "marvering", forms a cool skin on the exterior of the molten glass blob, and shapes it. Then air is blown into the pipe, creating

6400-456: The epicenter of the revolt, was razed. Philostorgius , speaking of these times, wrote: "The Jews of Diocæsarea (Sepphoris) also took up arms and invaded Palestine and the neighboring territories, with the design of shaking off the Roman yoke. On hearing of their insurrection, Gallus Caesar, who was then in Antioch , sent troops against them, defeated them, and destroyed Diocæsarea." Diocaesarea

6500-456: The foliage relief frieze of four vertical plants. Meanwhile, Taylor and Hill tried to reproduce mold-blown vessels by using three-part molds made of different materials. The result suggested that metal molds, in particular bronze, are more effective in producing high-relief design on glass than plaster or wooden molds. The development of the mold-blowing technique has enabled the speedy production of glass objects in large quantity, thus encouraging

6600-410: The glass appears to be a bright orange color. Though most glassblowing is done between 870 and 1,040 °C (1,600 and 1,900 °F), "soda-lime" glass remains somewhat plastic and workable at as low as 730 °C (1,350 °F). Annealing is usually done between 371 and 482 °C (700 and 900 °F). Glassblowing involves three furnaces . The first, which contains a crucible of molten glass,

6700-444: The glassblower to sit, for the handheld tools, and two rails that the pipe or punty rides on while the blower works with the piece. Blocks are ladle-like tools made from water-soaked fruitwood , and are used similarly to the marver to shape and cool a piece in the early steps of creation. In similar fashion, pads of water-soaked newspaper (roughly 15 cm (6 in) square, 1.3 to 2.5 centimetres (0.5 to 1 in) thick), held in

6800-600: The kingdom, and the town was called in Old French: le Saforie or Sephoris . In 1187, the field army of the Latin kingdom marched from their well-watered camp at Sephoris to be cut off and destroyed at the Battle of Hattin by the Ayyubid sultan, Saladin . In 1255, the village and its fortifications were back in Crusader hands, as a document from that year shows it belonged to the archbishop of Nazareth , but by 1259,

6900-512: The late 6th century and the middle of the 7th century AD. Mold-blown vessels with facets, relief and linear-cut decoration were discovered at Samarra in the Islamic lands. Renaissance Europe witnessed the revitalization of glass industry in Italy. Glassblowing, in particular the mold-blowing technique, was employed by the Venetian glassworkers from Murano to produce the fine glassware which

7000-520: The local glass workshops at Poetovio and Celeia in Slovenia. Surviving physical evidence, such as blowpipes and molds which are indicative of the presence of blowing, is fragmentary and limited. Pieces of clay blowpipes were retrieved from the late 1st century AD glass workshop at Avenches in Switzerland. Clay blowpipes, also known as mouthblowers, were made by the ancient glassworkers due to

7100-425: The mass production and widespread distribution of glass objects. The transformation of raw materials into glass takes place at around 1,320 °C (2,400 °F); the glass emits enough heat to appear almost white hot. The glass is then left to "fine out" (allowing the bubbles to rise out of the mass), and then the working temperature is reduced in the furnace to around 1,090 °C (2,000 °F). At this stage,

7200-414: The mechanism used in ultrasonic cleaning . The same effect, but on a larger scale, is used in focused energy weapons such as the bazooka and the torpedo . Pistol shrimp also uses a collapsing cavitation bubble as a weapon. The same effect is used to treat kidney stones in a lithotripter . Marine mammals such as dolphins and whales use bubbles for entertainment or as hunting tools. Aerators cause

7300-519: The middle of the 1st century BCE, after the campaigns of Pompey , it fell under Roman rule in 63 BCE. Around 57 BCE, the city became one of the five synods of Roman influence in the Near East. It appears that Sepphoris remained predominantly Jewish through late antiquity . In the centuries between the rule of Herod Antipas (4 BCE - c. 39 CE) and the end of the Byzantine era in the 630s,

7400-408: The neighbouring province of Cyprus. Ennion for example, was among the most prominent glassworkers from Lebanon of the time. He was renowned for producing the multi-paneled mold-blown glass vessels that were complex in their shapes, arrangement and decorative motifs. The complexity of designs of these mold-blown glass vessels illustrated the sophistication of the glassworkers in the eastern regions of

7500-464: The physics and chemistry behind it, see nucleation . Bubbles are visible because they have a different refractive index (RI) than the surrounding substance. For example, the RI of air is approximately 1.0003 and the RI of water is approximately 1.333. Snell's Law describes how electromagnetic waves change direction at the interface between two mediums with different RI; thus bubbles can be identified from

7600-471: The remaining 550 were resettled in neighboring Arab villages such as 'Illut . Many settled in Nazareth in a quarter now known as the al-Safafira quarter because of the large number of Saffuriyya natives living there. As the Israeli government considers them present absentee , they cannot go back to their old homes and have no legal recourse to recover them. The works of the poet Taha Muhammad Ali ,

7700-466: The resistance, all but 80 of the villagers fled. Some made their way northwards toward Lebanon , finally settling there in the refugee camps of Ain al-Hilweh and Shatila and the adjacent Sabra neighborhood . Others fled south to Nazareth and the surrounding countryside. After the attack, the villagers returned but were evicted again in September 1948. On 7 January 1949, 14 residents were deported and

7800-606: The rest of Europe by building their glassblowing workshops in the north of the Alps (which is now Switzerland), and then at sites in northern Europe in present-day France and Belgium. One of the most prolific glassblowing centers of the Roman period was established in Cologne on the river Rhine in Germany by the late 1st century BC. Stone base molds and terracotta base molds were discovered from these Rhineland workshops, suggesting

7900-458: The result of the city's cultural synthesis between three elements – Jewish faith, moderated by the exposure to Greek philosophy and made more tolerant than other, more fanatic contemporary orthodox Jewish places, and a pragmatism which suited the Roman ideology. Celdrán notes that the name Sepphoris was reinstated before the end of Antoninus Pius's rule. Peter Schäfer (1990), also citing G. F. Hill 's conclusions based on his numismatic work done

8000-484: The second because a garrison came to assist in the city's defence. Around the time of the rebellion Sepphoris had a Roman theater, and in later periods, bath-houses and mosaic floors depicting human figures. Sepphoris and Jerusalem may be seen to symbolize a cultural divide between those that sought to avoid any contact with the surrounding Roman culture and those who within limits, were prepared to adopt aspects of that culture. Rejected by Sepphoris and forced to camp outside

8100-414: The single-piece mold and is largely employed to produce tableware and utilitarian vessels for storage and transportation. Whereas the latter is made in multi-paneled mold segments that join together, thus permitting the development of more sophisticated surface modeling, texture and design. The Roman leaf beaker which is now on display in the J. Paul Getty Museum was blown in a three-part mold decorated with

8200-601: The site of Sepphoris was inhabited during the Iron Age, 1,000–586 BCE . Actual occupation and building work can be verified from the 4th century BCE, with the Hellenistic period . In 104 BCE, the Judean priestly dynasty of the Hasmoneans conquered Galilee under the leadership of either Alexander Jannaeus or Aristobulus I and at this time the town may have been administered by a quarter-master, probably Jewish, and by

8300-500: The slope of a hill. The village contained the remains of the Church of St. Anna and a square tower, said to have been built in the mid-18th century. The village had an estimated 2,500 residents, who cultivated 150 faddans (1 faddan = 100–250 dunams), on some of this land they had planted olive trees. A population list from about 1887 showed that Sepphoris had about 2,940 inhabitants; all Muslims. In 1900, an elementary school for boys

8400-561: The spread and dominance of this new technology. Glassblowing was greatly supported by the Roman government (although Roman citizens could not be "in trade", in particular under the reign of Augustus ), and glass was being blown in many areas of the Roman world. On the eastern borders of the Empire, the first large glass workshops were set up by the Phoenicians in the birthplace of glassblowing in contemporary Lebanon and Israel as well as in

8500-485: The technique consisting of blowing air into molten glass with a blowpipe making it into a bubble. Hence, tube blowing not only represents the initial attempts of experimentation by glassworkers at blowing glass, it is also a revolutionary step that induced a change in conception and a deep understanding of glass. Such inventions swiftly eclipsed all other traditional methods, such as casting and core-forming, in working glass. Evidence of glass blowing comes even earlier from

8600-427: The time of Emperor Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161), when the city minted coins using this name, and interprets it as proof of the city's high degree of Hellenisation. The city's coins during that period bore the inscription " ΔΙΟΚΑΙCΑΡΙΑ ΙΕΡΑ ΑCYΛΟC ΚΑΙ ΑΥΤΟΝΟΜΟC " ("of Diocaesarea, Holy City of Shelter, Autonomous"). Celdrán notes that the name Sepphoris was reinstated before the end of Antoninus Pius's rule. This name

8700-507: The town, built a fort on the hill overlooking Saffuriya. A map from Napoleon's invasion of 1799 by Pierre Jacotin showed the place, named as Safoureh. In the early 19th century, the British traveller J. Buckingham noted that all the inhabitants of Saffuriya were Muslim, and that the house of St. Anna had been completely demolished. In the late 19th century, Saffuriyya was described as village built of stone and mud, situated along

8800-425: The use of glass components in high-tech applications. Using machininery to shape and form glass enables to manufacture glass products of the highest quality and accuracy. As a result, glass is often used in semiconductor, analytical, life science, industrial, and medical applications. The writer Daphne du Maurier was descended from a family of glass-blowers in 18th century France, and she wrote about her forebears in

8900-433: The wall oscillates. Although it is often visually masked by much larger deformations in shape, a component of the oscillation changes the bubble volume (i.e. it is pulsation) which, in the absence of an externally-imposed sound field, occurs at the bubble's natural frequency . The pulsation is the most important component of the oscillation, acoustically, because by changing the gas volume, it changes its pressure, and leads to

9000-405: The world that offer glassmaking resources for training and sharing equipment. Working with large or complex pieces requires a team of several glassworkers, in a complex choreography of precisely timed movements. This practical requirement has encouraged collaboration among glass artists, in both semi-permanent and temporary working groups. In addition, recent developments in technology allow for

9100-555: Was a significant town in ancient Galilee. Originally named for the Hebrew word for bird, the city was also known as Eirenopolis and Diocaesarea during different periods of its history. In the first century CE, it was a Jewish city, and following the Bar Kokhba revolt of 132–135, Sepphoris was one of the Galilean centers where rabbinical families from neighboring Judea relocated. In late antiquity , Sepphoris appears to have been

9200-587: Was also the center of a Christian bishopric. Three of its early bishops are known by name: Dorotheus (mentioned in 451), Marcellinus (mentioned in 518), and Cyriacus (mentioned in 536). As a diocese that is no longer residential, it is listed in the Annuario Pontificio among titular sees . The fourth century saw Jewish Zippori losing its centrality as the main Jewish city of the Galilee in favour of Tiberias, and its population dwindled away. With

9300-434: Was developed within decades of its invention. The two major methods of glassblowing are free-blowing and mold-blowing. This method held a pre-eminent position in glassforming ever since its introduction in the middle of the 1st century BC until the late 19th century, and is still widely used as a glassforming technique, especially for artistic purposes. The process of free-blowing involves the blowing of short puffs of air into

9400-434: Was established adjacent to the site in 1949. It falls under the jurisdiction of Jezreel Valley Regional Council , and in 2022 had a population of 1,030. The area where the remains of the ancient city have been excavated, occupied until 1948 by the Arab village, was designated an archaeological reserve named Tzipori National Park in 1992. Notable structures at the site include a Roman theatre , two early Christian churches,

9500-567: Was founded, and later, a school for girls. Though it lost its centrality and importance as a cultural center under the Ottomans (1517–1918) and the British Mandate (1918–1948), the village thrived agriculturally. Saffuriyya's pomegranates , olives and wheat were famous throughout the Galilee. According to the British Mandate 's 1922 census of Palestine , Saffuriyeh had 2,582 inhabitants; 2,574 Muslims and 8 Christians, where

9600-433: Was further affected by the Galilee earthquake of 363 , but rebuilt soon afterwards, and retained its importance in the greater Jewish community of Galilee, both socially, commercially, and spiritually. Towards the end of the 4th century, church father Epiphanius described Sepphoris as predominantly Jewish, a view strongly supported by rabbinic literature , which sheds lights on the town's sages and synagogues. The town

9700-482: Was made according to ancient tradition. The Nøstetangen glassworks had operated there from 1741 to 1777, producing table-glass and chandeliers in the German and English styles. The " studio glass movement " began in 1962 when Harvey Littleton , a ceramics professor, and Dominick Labino , a chemist and engineer, held two workshops at the Toledo Museum of Art , during which they started experimenting with melting glass in

9800-572: Was not used by Jewish writers, who continued to refer to it as Zippori. The Hebrew Bible makes no mention of the city, although in Jewish tradition it is thought to be the city Kitron mentioned in the Book of Judges ( 1:30 Archived 10 September 2019 at the Wayback Machine ). According to Mishna 'Arakhin 9:6 , the old fortress of Zippori was encompassed by a wall during the era of Joshua . Evidence from ceramic remains indicates

9900-593: Was replaced by Abbasid rule. At the end of the 11th century, the First Crusade invaded the region and established Crusader states , with the Kingdom of Jerusalem replacing Muslim rule over Saffuriya. During the Crusader period, Sephoris changed hands several times. The Crusaders built a fort and watchtower atop the hill overlooking the town, and a church dedicated to Saint Anne , the mother of Mary, mother of Jesus . This became one of their local bases in

10000-632: Was taken during the first conquest by the Arab armies in Palestine. in 634. Later, the city was incorporated into the expanding Umayyad Caliphate , and al-jund coins were minted by the new rulers. A stone-built aqueduct dating to the early Umayyad period (7th century CE) has been excavated. Saffuriya was engaged in trade with other parts of the empire at the time; for example, cloaks made in Saffuriyya were worn by people in Medina . Umayyad rule

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