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59-656: The Glass Age Development Committee was established in 1937 by Pilkington to promote the use of glass as a building material in the United Kingdom . It commissioned designs for many large-scale schemes, none of which were ever built. Initially its name was the Glass Age Town Planning Committee. The first committee consisted of the first-generation modern architects Maxwell Fry , Robert Furneaux Jordan , Raymond McGrath , Howard Robertson , George Grey Wornum and F. R. S. Yorke . Each

118-418: A limited liability company (LLC) may hold assets such as real estate, cars or boats. If a shareholder of a corporation is personally involved in a lawsuit or bankruptcy , these assets may be protected. A creditor of a shareholder of a Corp. or LLC cannot seize the assets of the company. However, the creditor may be able to seize ownership shares in the corporation, as they are considered a personal asset. In

177-410: A board of trustees appointed by the governor. The board filed a suit challenging the constitutionality of the legislation. The suit alleged that the college enjoyed the right to contract and the government changing that contract was not allowed. Chief Justice John Marshall delivered the majority opinion and affirmed that the right to contract exists between owners of private property rather than between

236-433: A broad impact, there are disputes about how those technologies and the businesses they thrive in fit under the umbrella of laws that govern regulations and taxation. In 1886 one such taxation dispute arose between Santa Clara County and Southern Pacific Railroad . The railroad thought the tax code was misapplied to some of their property and assets. In deciding the case, a unanimous court ruled that governments must abide by

295-413: A business such as loans, accounts payable, and legal judgments. In a corporation, however, shareholders , directors and officers typically are not liable for the company's debts and obligations. They are limited in liability to the amount they have invested in the corporation. For example, if a shareholder purchased $ 100 in stock, no more than $ 100 can be lost. On the other hand, a corporation (Corp.) or

354-448: A controlling interest, also became a major world supplier of toughened and laminated safety glass to the automotive, aerospace and building industries. A Monopolies Commission report in 1967, concluded that Pilkington and Triplex operations were efficient and entrepreneurial and, despite their high share of the UK glass trade, operated in a manner suited to consumers' best interests. At

413-403: A direct campaign. The articles of incorporation (also called a charter , certificate of incorporation or letters patent ) are filed with the appropriate state office, listing the purpose of the corporation, its principal place of business and the number and type of shares of stock. A registration fee is due, which is usually between $ 25 and $ 1,000, depending on the state. A corporate name

472-558: A face-to-face meeting. In the UK, the process of incorporation is generally called company formation. The United Kingdom is one of the quickest locations to incorporate, with a fully electronic process and a very fast turnaround by the national registrar of companies, the Companies House . The current Companies House record is five minutes to vet and issue a certificate of incorporation for an electronic application. There are many different types of UK companies: In Canada ,

531-491: A government and its citizens. The case was the first case in US history that asked fundamental questions about corporate entities and the protections they enjoy; it also was a precedent-setting case in extending "individual rights" to corporations. The railroad was an expensive multi-year project that greatly changed and altered both the physical and commercial landscape of the country. As with most new technology developments that have

590-491: A large British-based conglomerate group, which valued the company at $ 1.64 billion. Pilington's management rejected the offer and fought a successful defensive campaign in which various politicians took sides in the matter, thus BTR was compelled to withdraw its offer in February 1987. Pilkington aggressively protected its patents and trade secrets through a network of licensing agreements with glass manufacturers around

649-675: A major world supplier of toughened and laminated safety glass via its controlling interest in Triplex Safety Glass . During 1970, Pilkington was floated as a public company on the London Stock Exchange ; prior to this, the firm had been owned by a combination of descendants of the Pilkington family and several employee trusts . In late 1985, Pilkington was the subject of a hostile takeover bid from BTR Industries which it successfully warded off. During

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708-472: A means to observe this evolution. While these cases may seem arbitrary and decontextualized when examined individually, when viewed successively and within historical context, a narrative emerges that offers an explanation for why such views are upheld. In 1816, the New Hampshire state legislature passed a bill intended to turn privately owned Dartmouth College into a publicly owned university with

767-478: A relatively strong position in the conflict's aftermath. During the 1950s, Pilkington employees Alastair Pilkington (no family relation) and Kenneth Bickerstaff invented the float glass process; the firm leveraged licensing agreements for many other manufacturers to use this new process in exchange for royalty payments . Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, Pilkington invested heavily into its manufacturing sites and acquired numerous overseas competitors. It also became

826-699: A strong focus on exports and international developments throughout the British Empire and South America . The company also invested heavily into its manufacturing capabilities, such as a new plate glass works outside Doncaster in 1922, and introduced new production techniques. After the First World War , Pilkington was one of only two large glass manufacturers remaining in Britain, the other being Chance Brothers , which mostly produced cast glass. The two companies formed various agreements during

885-498: A view of corporations emerge that put them at odds with the normal working man. The election of Franklin D. Roosevelt was a manifestation of many populist sentiments the country might have felt. In 1933 a Florida case came before the court, again disputing taxation. In Liggett v. Lee the court ruled that there could be a corporate tax, essentially saying the structure of business was a justifiably discriminatory criterion for governments to consider when writing tax legislation. This

944-461: A way to use it to influence politics and policy. In response, Massachusetts passed a law limiting corporate donations strictly to issues related to their industry. The First National Bank of Boston challenged the law on First Amendment grounds and won. First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti allowed business to use financial speech in political causes of any nature. In 2010 amidst an outpouring of frustration and blame directed at Wall Street

1003-569: Is capable of continuing indefinitely. Its existence is not affected by the death of shareholders, directors, or officers of the corporation. Ownership in a Corp. or LLC is easily transferable to others, either in whole or in part. Some state laws are particularly corporate-friendly. For example, the transfer of ownership in a corporation incorporated in US-DE is not required to be filed or recorded. Legal opinion on corporations has evolved significantly throughout history, and Supreme Court cases provide

1062-412: Is generally made up of three parts: "distinctive element", "descriptive element", and a legal ending. All corporations must have a distinctive element, and in most filing jurisdictions, a legal ending to their names. Some corporations choose not to have a descriptive element. In the name "Tiger Computers, Inc.", the word "Tiger" is the distinctive element; the word "Computers" is the descriptive element; and

1121-562: The European Commission imposed a fine of €357 million on Pilkington, along with three other glass manufacturers, for its part in a five-year price-fixing scheme used in car windscreens. In 1988, Pilkington plc formed a new subsidiary, Pilkington Optronics, in order to group together the company's optronics businesses: Pilkington PE located in North Wales (formed in 1966), and Barr and Stroud (acquired in 1977) which

1180-625: The United States Department of Justice filed suit on the grounds that Pilkington had created a cartel by exercising control over the markets in which its licensees could sell float glass and construct float-glass manufacturing plants, and over the customers within each market to which each licensee could serve. It was claimed this was a violation of the Sherman Antitrust Act , because Pilkington's patents had expired and any trade secrets which it might have had in

1239-441: The float glass process, a revolutionary method of high-quality flat glass production by floating molten glass over a bath of molten tin , avoiding the costly need to grind and polish plate glass to make it clear. Pilkington allowed the float process to be used under licence by numerous manufacturers around the world. Amongst other benefits, these licensing arrangements often helped the company to further its interests, including

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1298-587: The interwar period to share the domestic market and to not undercut each other; furthermore, Pilkington agreed to purchase any shares in the firm that Chance's owners wished to sell, thus it gradually built up a sizable stake in the firm. In 1951, Chance became wholly owned by Pilkington. Pilkington found itself in a relatively strong position in the aftermath of the Second World War , having exclusively fulfilled Britain's wartime requirements and even managing to expand its export activities. While there

1357-507: The "Inc." is the legal ending. The legal ending indicates that it is in fact a legal corporation and not just a business registration or partnership . Incorporated, limited , and corporation, or their respective abbreviations (Inc., Ltd., Corp.) are the possible legal endings in the US. Usually, there are also corporate bylaws which must be filed with the state. Bylaws outline a number of important administrative details such as when annual shareholder meetings will be held, who can vote and

1416-537: The 1963 "Crystal Span" proposal for the replacement of London's Vauxhall Bridge with a seven-storey glass building straddling the River Thames , which was to have contained a shopping mall, luxury hotel, residential development and a museum to house the modern art collection now housed at Tate Modern . The Glass Age Development Committee is best known for its ambitious 1968 proposal for a glass and concrete offshore city housing 21,000 people, to be anchored off

1475-402: The 1990s, amid allegations that Pilkington had organised a cartel due to its hold on the float glass market, the US government and Pilkington filed a proposed consent decree that released other businesses from several licensing terms. In late 2005, the company received an initial takeover bid from NSG; a second and more generous bid was accepted by Pilkington's key shareholders. The acquisition

1534-468: The United States differ on a state by state basis. However, there are common pieces of information that states require to be included in the certificate of incorporation . A business purpose describes the incorporated tasks a company has to do or provide. The purpose can be general, indicating that the budding company has been formed to carry out "all lawful business" in the region. Alternatively,

1593-445: The United States, corporations can sometimes be taxed at a lower rate than individuals. Also, corporations can own shares in other corporations and receive corporate dividends 80% tax-free. There are no limits on the amount of losses a corporation may carry forward to subsequent tax years. A sole proprietorship, on the other hand, cannot claim a capital loss greater than $ 3,000 unless the owner has offsetting capital gains. A corporation

1652-502: The amount a buyer is willing to pay. An Inc. stipulates the exact number of shares the corporation is willing to authorize. It is mandatory for every corporation to have stock. If the corporation is willing to permit both preferred as well as common shares of stock, then this should have a mention in the articles of incorporation, along with the voting rights information. Generally, preferred shares provide its shareholders preferential payments of distribution of assets or dividends, in case

1711-481: The closure of its manufacturing facility in Taunton , Somerset, with the loss of 180 jobs. In June 2007, Thales sold the beryllium mirrors and structures business of Thales Optronics Limited to GSI Group Inc. for an undisclosed amount. In late 2005, the company received a takeover bid from a bigger Japanese company, NSG , which had previously built up a 20 percent stake in the business by 2002. The initial bid and

1770-428: The coast near Great Yarmouth and accessed from the mainland by hovercraft . The development was to have been called Sea City. The structure would have been 4,700 feet (1,400 m) long and 3,300 feet (1,000 m) wide, and would have rested on concrete islands supported by piers . It was intended that the development would have been economically self-sufficient thanks to boatbuilding workshops, fish farming , and

1829-423: The company shuts down its operations. A lot of small business owners only allow shares of common stock. There are a number of legal benefits that come with incorporation. One significant legal benefit is the protection of personal assets against the claims of creditors and lawsuits. Sole proprietors and general partners in a partnership are personally and jointly responsible for all the legal liability (LL) of

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1888-459: The dominant producer of sheet glass. Throughout the first half of the twentieth century, the company struck a series of market agreements with various domestic and European glass manufacturers of varying effectiveness. European competitors, particularly those based in Belgium , had applied considerable competitive pressure to Britain's glass making industry; Pilkington was less susceptible due to

1947-416: The early 1980s, Pilkington had licensed their use, and required the licensees to keep the details of the float glass process secret. Guardian Industries had tried to challenge Pilkington's dominance but had made a secret agreement to prevent new entrants into the market, with Guardian taking the lead to enable Pilkington, a British company, to reduce its exposure to United States antitrust law. In May 1994,

2006-596: The expansion of its presence in the European market and even gaining stakes in other manufacturers. During the 1960s and 1970s, Pilkington used the flow of float royalty payments to finance its investments in float glass plants across several countries, including Argentina, Australia, Canada and Sweden, and also to acquire major existing flat and safety glass producers and plants in the United States ( Libbey Owens Ford ), Germany and France. Pilkington, with its subsidiary Triplex Safety Glass , in which it gradually acquired

2065-478: The export of fresh water from an onboard desalination plant, while a lagoon in the centre of the development would support a tourist industry based on skin diving and water skiing . Pilkington Pilkington is a glass-manufacturing company which is based in Lathom , Lancashire , England. It includes several legal entities in the UK, and is a subsidiary of Japanese company Nippon Sheet Glass (NSG). It

2124-411: The final say with regards to the name chosen for the company. The name should not deceive or mislead consumers. Registered agents are responsible for receiving all legal and tax documentation on behalf of the corporation. Share per value refers to the stated minimum value and generally doesn't correspond to the actual share value. In reality, the value of a share is based on its fair market value or

2183-463: The firm's world headquarters, and completed in 1964, still dominates the town's skyline. Following the departure from the partnership of the last Greenall in 1845, the firm was renamed as Pilkington Brothers . During 1894, the business was incorporated under the Companies Act 1862 as Pilkington Brothers Limited . In 1903, it became the sole British manufacturer of plate glass as well as

2242-472: The first revised bid were not accepted, however, on 16 February 2006, NSG increased its offer for the 80 percent it did not already own to 165 pence per share (£1.8 billion or $ 3.14 billion in total) and this was accepted by Pilkington's major institutional shareholders, enabling NSG to compulsorily acquire by scheme of arrangement the smaller holdings of other shareholders, many of them being existing and retired employees, who had not wished to support

2301-402: The issue of corporate contributions came before the court again. In Citizens United v. FEC the court said there was virtually no distinction between monetary contributions and political speech, and because we do not limit political speech unless it is tantamount to bribery, corporations have the right as people to donate unlimited amounts of money to any political cause so long as it is not to

2360-535: The manner in which shareholders will be notified if there is need for an additional "special" meeting. Corporations can only deduct net operating losses going back two years and forward 20 years. Assuming a corporation has not sold stock to the public, conducting corporate business is straightforward. Often, it amounts to recording key corporate decisions (for example, borrowing money or buying real estate) and holding an annual meeting. These formalities can often be supplanted by written agreement and do not usually need

2419-726: The problems were as unrealistic as the solutions. The designs followed early CIAM ideals in sweeping away historical areas such as the Strand and Bond Street in London, and Princes Street in Edinburgh, in favour of extrusions of stacked floorplates walled in glass similar to the Miesian skyscrapers of c.  1920 . During the 1950s the Committee was formed of Geoffrey Jellicoe , Edward D. Mills and Ove Arup & Partners , and it

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2478-762: The process of incorporation can be done either at the federal or provincial level. Companies which incorporate with the federal government will generally need to register extra-provincially in the province that they elect to do business. Similarly, a provincial corporation may need to register extra-provincially if they are to have offices outside of their home province. Incorporated Canadian companies can generally use either Corp., Corporation, Inc., Incorporated, Incorporée, Limited, Limitée, Ltd., Ltée, Société par actions de régime fédéral, and S.A.R.F in their name, but this may vary from province to province. Note that there are two government structures operating within Canada. French system

2537-474: The process used by the licensees had long since become publicly known. On the same day, the US government and Pilkington filed a proposed consent decree , which enjoined Pilkington from enforcing these restrictions against its US licensees, or against US non-licensees, or against non-US licensees wishing to export either technology or glass products to the United States. The agreement came into force on 22 December 1994, and expired ten years later. During 2008,

2596-455: The purpose can be specific, furnishing a more detailed explanation of the products and/or services to be offered by their company. The chosen name should be followed with a corporate identifier such as "Corp.", "Inc.", or "Co.". A preliminary name availability search is advisable prior to the submission of the Articles of Incorporation. In the case of online incorporation, the state will have

2655-495: The remainder in 2000 to make it a wholly owned subsidiary. In 2000, Thomson-CSF was renamed Thales and Pilkington Optronics Ltd. became Thales Optronics Ltd . Soon afterward, Thomson-CSF acquired W Vinten Ltd , a British reconnaissance equipment manufacturer, including the Joint Reconnaissance Pod , who now operate as Thales Optronics (Bury St Edmunds) Ltd. In November 2006, Thales Optronics Limited announced

2714-590: The result that strike leaders were blacklisted . Anti-union legislation was introduced by central government. These events were recreated in Ken Loach 's film The Rank and File , although the BBC insisted on a change in the name and location of the company, so that the film is set at a Wilkinsons in the West Midlands. In late 1985, Pilkington was the subject of a hostile takeover bid from BTR Industries ,

2773-423: The same tax code enforcement for individuals that it did for corporations. While not explicitly stated in the case, it was implied that this case extended equal protection rights to corporations under the 14th amendment . The booming economy the railroad corporations helped build from the late 19th into the early 20th centuries came to a screeching halt in 1929. The Great Depression , as it came to be known, helped

2832-469: The second- and third-largest glass manufacturers in the world, respectively. An incomplete list: Pilkington has developed a self-cleaning coated float glass product, called Pilkington Activ. This self-cleaning glass has a coating which uses a method of photocatalysis to break down organic dirt with sunlight. The dirt is then washed away by the rain during a hydrophilic process. Incorporation (business) Specific incorporation requirements in

2891-475: The sole British manufacturer of plate glass as well as the dominant producer of sheet glass. After the First World War , Pilkington was one of only two large glass manufacturers remaining in Britain, the other being Chance Brothers ; the firm gradually expanded its stake in Chance, fully acquired it in 1951. The company performed strongly during the Second World War , fulfilling all wartime demands and emerged in

2950-485: The takeover. The combined company would compete for global leadership in the glass industry with the leading Japanese glassmaker Asahi Glass , which had around a quarter of the global market at the time of the deal. Pilkington had 19% and NSG around half that. The acquisition was completed in June 2006, after the European Commission stated that it would not be opposed. At the time of the merger, Pilkington and NSG had been

3009-555: The time, the majority of the company's shareholding was largely in the hands of various descendants of the original owners or employee trusts . During 1970, Pilkington was floated as a public company on the London Stock Exchange . A rank-and-file strike during 1970, sparked off by an error in wage packets, brought 8,000 workers out for nearly two months. The General and Municipal Workers Union and Trades Union Congress leadership failed to provide any support, as they were too closely bound to management and government circles, with

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3068-410: The world. The modern "float" technique (pouring the molten glass on a layer of very pure molten tin) became commercially widespread when Alastair Pilkington developed a practical version, patented in the late 1950s and early 1960s. As Pilkington plc owned all but one of the manufacturing plants around the world employing the float process, Pilkington had a monopoly . Although the patents had expired by

3127-415: Was a unique ruling handed down during a unique time in US history that denied a corporation freedom it sought in the courtroom. From 1940 to 1990 the percent of total GDP made up by financial service professionals increased by 300%. Along with that growth there was a growth in the profits this industry experienced as well. As the disposable income of banks and other financial institutions rose, they sought

3186-512: Was asked to "suggest solutions to certain problems of town planning in London , Edinburgh , Liverpool and Bournemouth ", using "all the structural and decorative resources of the Glass Age, but [to] produce practical schemes that could actually be built. An imaginative use of modern materials, rather than mere romantic fantasy was desired". This being a marketing tool led by Pilkington, most of

3245-518: Was based in Glasgow . Pilkington PE later became Thales Optics Ltd., which was divested from Thales in December 2005 as Qioptiq Ltd. Thomson-CSF acquired 50% of Pilkington Optronics in 1991. In 1995, Pilkington Optronics acquired Thorn EMI Electro Optics which was renamed Pilkington Thorn Optronics. Three years later, Thomson-CSF purchased another 40% of Pilkington Optronics from Pilkington and

3304-572: Was completed during June 2006; the combined company has since competed for global leadership of the glass industry. The company was founded in 1826 as a partnership between members of the Pilkington and Greenall families, based in St Helens, Lancashire, England. The venture used the trading name of St Helens Crown Glass Company . The company grew to become the biggest employer in St Helens. The distinctive blue-glass head office tower block on Alexandra Business Park, off Prescot Road, originally used as

3363-708: Was formerly an independent company listed on the London Stock Exchange and a constituent of the FTSE 100 Index . Established in 1826 as the St Helens Crown Glass Company , the company gradually grew to become the largest employer in St Helens, where it was originally based. It was renamed Pilkington Brothers in 1845 following the ending of the partnership with the Greenall family, the business continued to expand, becoming Pilkington Brothers Limited after its incorporation in 1894. In 1903, it became

3422-432: Was joined by other architects for individual projects. The design briefs were for Britain in the year 2000, but realistic in that they were to make use of technology that was already available. Notable schemes included a proposal in 1955 to demolish the entire area of Soho and rebuild it entirely in glass, a 1957 proposal for the replacement of St Giles Circus in London with a 150-foot (46 m) tall glass heliport , and

3481-569: Was no reintroduction of the pre-war quota arrangements and its historic undertakings with individual merchants were abandoned during 1950, the company still entered an export agreement with its competitors in the European mainland. Further reforms to its business practices were made in response to the enactment of the Restrictive Trade Practices Act 1956 . Between 1953 and 1957, Pilkington employees Alastair Pilkington (no family relation) and Kenneth Bickerstaff invented

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