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28-449: In Medieval England, a gleeman was a reciter of poetry. Like a scop , a gleeman performed poetry to the accompaniment of a harp or " glee wood ". Gleemen occasionally attached themselves to a particular court , but were most often wandering entertainers; this is unlike scops, who were more static. Gleemen were also less likely to compose or perform their own poetry and relied on the work of others for their material. A source cited that

56-617: A diminutive or, in Chinese , adding the word " cursor " ( 标 ), making shǔbiāo "mouse cursor" ( simplified Chinese : 鼠标 ; traditional Chinese : 鼠標 ; pinyin : shǔbiāo ). Another example is the Spanish word ratón that means both the animal and the computer mouse. The common English phrase " flea market " is a loan translation of the French marché aux puces ("market with fleas"). At least 22 other languages calque

84-480: A culture of patronage. Even in ancient England, their skill was considered divine and their person as sacred. They were accorded honor and reward everywhere they performed. Both in Ireland and Scotland, every chief or Regulus had his own bard, who not only entertained but also served as an ambassador. This history article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This poetry -related article

112-482: A fiction", because when the Beowulf text is read out, the narrator is absent. So, while the poem feels like a scop's "oral utterance .. using the traditional medium of heroic poetry", it is actually "a literate work, which offers a meditation on its [centuries old] heroic world rather than itself coming directly from such a world". Calque In linguistics , a calque ( / k æ l k / ) or loan translation

140-751: A practice known as interpretatio germanica : the Latin "Day of Mercury ", Mercurii dies (later mercredi in modern French ), was borrowed into Late Proto-Germanic as the "Day of Wōđanaz " ( Wodanesdag ), which became Wōdnesdæg in Old English , then "Wednesday" in Modern English. Since at least 1894, according to the Trésor de la langue française informatisé , the French term calque has been used in its linguistic sense, namely in

168-567: A publication by Louis Duvau: Un autre phénomène d'hybridation est la création dans une langue d'un mot nouveau, dérivé ou composé à l'aide d'éléments existant déja dans cette langue, et ne se distinguant en rien par l'aspect extérieur des mots plus anciens, mais qui, en fait, n'est que le calque d'un mot existant dans la langue maternelle de celui qui s'essaye à un parler nouveau. [...] nous voulons rappeler seulement deux ou trois exemples de ces calques d'expressions, parmi les plus certains et les plus frappants. Another phenomenon of hybridization

196-415: A similar phrase might have arisen in both languages independently. This is less likely to be the case when the grammar of the proposed calque is quite different from that of the borrowing language, or when the calque contains less obvious imagery. One system classifies calques into five groups. This terminology is not universal: Some linguists refer to a phonological calque , in which the pronunciation of

224-515: A word is imitated in the other language. For example, the English word "radar" becomes the similar-sounding Chinese word 雷达 ( pinyin : léidá ), which literally means "to arrive (as fast) as thunder". Partial calques, or loan blends, translate some parts of a compound but not others. For example, the name of the Irish digital television service Saorview is a partial calque of that of

252-555: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Scop A scop ( / ʃ ɒ p / or / s k ɒ p / ) was a poet as represented in Old English poetry . The scop is the Old English counterpart of the Old Norse skald , with the important difference that "skald" was applied to historical persons, and scop is used, for the most part, to designate oral poets within Old English literature. Very little

280-898: Is a word or phrase borrowed from another language by literal word-for-word or root-for-root translation . When used as a verb , “to calque” means to borrow a word or phrase from another language while translating its components, so as to create a new lexeme in the target language. For instance, the English word skyscraper has been calqued in dozens of other languages, combining words for "sky" and "scrape" in each language, as for example Wolkenkratzer in German, arranha-céu in Portuguese, grattacielo in Italian, gökdelen in Turkish, and matenrou(摩天楼) in Japanese. Calquing

308-425: Is distinct from phono-semantic matching : while calquing includes semantic translation, it does not consist of phonetic matching—i.e., of retaining the approximate sound of the borrowed word by matching it with a similar-sounding pre-existing word or morpheme in the target language. Proving that a word is a calque sometimes requires more documentation than does an untranslated loanword because, in some cases,

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336-402: Is known about scops, and their historical existence is questioned by some scholars. The scop, like the similar gleeman , was a reciter of poetry. The scop, however, was typically attached to a court on a relatively permanent basis. There, he most likely received rich gifts for his performances. The performances often featured the recitation of recognisable texts such as the "old pagan legends of

364-444: Is the creation in a language of a new word, derived or composed with the help of elements already existing in that language, and which is not distinguished in any way by the external aspect of the older words, but which, in fact, is only the copy ( calque ) of a word existing in the mother tongue of the one who tries out a new language. [...] we want to recall only two or three examples of these copies ( calques ) of expressions, among

392-502: The Exeter Book , which draw on the idea of the mead-hall poet of the heroic age and, along with the anonymous heroic poem Beowulf express some of the strongest poetic connections to oral culture in the literature of the period. The scholar and translator of Old English poetry Michael Alexander , introducing his 1966 book of The Earliest English Poems , treats the scop as a reality within an oral tradition. He writes that since all

420-565: The Oxford English Dictionary favours association of scop with that root. The question cannot be decided formally since the Proto-Germanic forms coincided in zero grade , and by the time of the surviving sources (from the late 8th century), the association with both roots may have influenced the word for several centuries. The scholar of literature Seth Lerer suggests that "What we have come to think of as

448-587: The Anglo-Saxon oral poet is based on the Old Norse Skald , it can be seen as a link to the heroic past of the Germanic peoples. There is no proof that the "scop" existed, and it could be a literary device allowing poetry to give an impression of orality and performance. This poet figure recurs throughout the literature of the period, whether real or not. Examples are the poems Widsith and Deor , in

476-525: The French expression directly or indirectly through another language. The word loanword is a calque of the German noun Lehnwort . In contrast, the term calque is a loanword, from the French noun calque ("tracing, imitation, close copy"). Another example of a common morpheme-by-morpheme loan-translation is of the English word " skyscraper ", a kenning -like term which may be calqued using

504-456: The Germanic tribes." However, the scop's duties also included composing his own poetry in different situations, the eulogizing of his master. While some scops moved from court to court, they were (generally speaking) less nomadic than the gleemen and had positions of greater security. Old English scop and its cognate Old High German scoph, scopf, scof (glossing poeta and vates ; also poema ) may be related to

532-624: The Old Norse skald lives on in a Modern English word of a similarly deprecating meaning, scold . There is a homonymous Old High German scopf meaning "abuse, derision" ( Old Norse skop , meaning "mocking, scolding", whence scoff ), a third meaning "tuft of hair", and yet another meaning "barn" (cognate to English shop ). They may all derive from a Proto-Germanic * skupa . The association with jesting or mocking was, however, strong in Old High German. There

560-476: The UK service " Freeview ", translating the first half of the word from English to Irish but leaving the second half unchanged. Other examples include " liverwurst " (< German Leberwurst ) and " apple strudel " (< German Apfelstrudel ). The " computer mouse " was named in English for its resemblance to the animal . Many other languages use their word for "mouse" for the "computer mouse", sometimes using

588-451: The harp who were credited with composing and preserving "many fine old songs". Prior to the emergence of medieval itinerant poets, there were already strolling minstrels in ancient Greece . An account also identified these strolling songsters as Rhapsodists during Homer 's time. These were more than entertainers, with an account describing them as men who recorded honorable feats and aristocratic genealogies . They were thus supported by

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616-408: The inherently 'oral' quality of Old English Poetry   ... [may] be a literary fiction of its own." Scholars of Early English have different opinions on whether the Anglo-Saxon oral poet ever really existed. Much of the poetry that survives does have an oral quality to it, but some scholars argue that it is a trait carried over from an earlier Germanic period. If, as some critics believe, the idea of

644-538: The material is traditional, the oral poet achieves mastery of alliterative verse when the use of descriptive half-line formulae has become "instinctive"; at that point he can compose "with and through the form rather than simply in it". At that point, in Alexander's view, the scop "becomes invisible, and metre becomes rhythm". The nature of the scop in Beowulf is addressed by another scholar-translator, Hugh Magennis , in his book Translating Beowulf . He discusses

672-512: The number of itinerant poets were augmented by disgraced courtiers , clairvoyants , and even the deformed as these entertainers formed troupes and catered to the whims of individual patrons . An example of a notable itinerant poet was Till Eulenspiegel , a fictional character famous in the 12th century. These examples, however, do indicate that itinerant poets were merely fools working to elicit laughter with their acts. There are those suggested as geniuses such as Scottish bards and performers of

700-407: The poem's lines 867–874, which describe, in his prose gloss, "a man   ... mindful of songs, who remembered a multitude of stories from the whole range of ancient traditions, found new words, properly bound together". He notes that this offers "an image of the poetic tradition in which Beowulf participates", an oral culture: but that "in fact this narrator and this audience are [in this instance]

728-591: The verb scapan "to create, form" (Old Norse skapa , Old High German scaffan ; Modern English shape ), from Proto-Germanic * skapiz "form, order" (from a PIE *(s)kep- "cut, hack"), perfectly parallel to the notion of craftsmanship expressed by the Greek poetēs itself; Köbler (1993, p. 220) suggests that the West Germanic word may indeed be a calque of Latin poeta . While skop became English scoff ,

756-483: The word for "sky" or "cloud" and the word, variously, for "scrape", "scratch", "pierce", "sweep", "kiss", etc. At least 54 languages have their own versions of the English word. Some Germanic and Slavic languages derived their words for "translation" from words meaning "carrying across" or "bringing across", calquing from the Latin translātiō or trādūcō . The Latin weekday names came to be associated by ancient Germanic speakers with their own gods following

784-417: Was a skopfari glossing both poeta and comicus and a skopfliod glossing canticum rusticum et ineptum and psalmus plebeius . Skopfsang , on the other hand, is of a higher register, glossing poema, poesis, tragoedia . The words involving jesting are derived from another root, Proto-Indo-European * skeub - "push, thrust", related to English shove, shuffle , and

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