Global justice is an issue in political philosophy arising from the concern about unfairness. It is sometimes understood as a form of internationalism .
91-434: Global Justice may refer to: Global justice , a concept Global Justice (Kim Possible) , a fictional organization Global justice movement Global Justice (organization) Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Global Justice . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change
182-464: A sentence forms the final explicit act of a judge -ruled process, and also the symbolic principal act connected to his function. The sentence can generally involve a decree of imprisonment , a fine and/or other punishments against a defendant convicted of a crime . Laws may specify the range of penalties that can be imposed for various offenses, and sentencing guidelines sometimes regulate what punishment within those ranges can be imposed given
273-579: A certain set of offense and offender characteristics. The most common purposes of sentencing in legal theory are: In civil cases the decision is usually known as a verdict , or judgment, rather than a sentence. Civil cases are settled primarily by means of monetary compensation for harm done (" damages ") and orders intended to prevent future harm (for example injunctions ). Under some legal systems an award of damages involves some scope for retribution, denunciation and deterrence, by means of additional categories of damages beyond simple compensation, covering
364-558: A certain way—that is, in a way faithful to the shared understandings of [its] members." It is unjust if not. Each society has its own, different standards, and only those inside it are bound by those standards and can properly criticise themselves. So, moral universalism is false, because objective ethical standards vary between cultures or societies. We should not apply the same criteria of distributive justice to strangers as we would to compatriots. Nation-states that express their peoples' shared and distinctive ethical understandings are
455-424: A city in his philosophy, which he describes through the metaphor of a chariot: it functions effectively when the charioteer, representative of reason, successfully controls the two horses, symbolizing spirit and desire. Continuing on these themes, Plato theorizes that those who love wisdom, or philosophers , are the most ideal to govern because only they truly comprehend the nature of the good. Just like one would seek
546-415: A disagreement (or trial in some cases). According to utilitarian thinkers including John Stuart Mill , justice is not as fundamental as we often think. Rather, it is derived from the more basic standard of rightness, consequentialism : what is right is what has the best consequences (usually measured by the total or average welfare caused). So, the proper principles of justice are those that tend to have
637-411: A doctor's expertise in matters of health rather than a farmer's, so should the city entrust its governance to someone knowledgeable about the good, rather than to politicians who might prioritize power over people's genuine needs. Socrates later used the parable of the ship to illustrate this point: the unjust city is like a ship in open ocean, crewed by a powerful but drunken captain (the common people),
728-461: A group of untrustworthy advisors who try to manipulate the captain into giving them power over the ship's course (the politicians), and a navigator (the philosopher), the latter of whom being the only one who knows how to get the ship to port. Advocates of divine command theory say justice, and indeed the whole of morality, is the authoritative command of God. Murder is wrong and must be punished, for instance, because God says it so. Some versions of
819-477: A measuring stick of right and wrong. Per the American political scientist Iris Marion Young "A widely accepted philosophical view continues to hold that the scope of obligations of justice is defined by membership in a common political community. On this account, people have obligations of justice only to other people with whom they live together under a common constitution, or whom they recognize as belonging to
910-486: A more prominent issue in political philosophy. In the contemporary global justice debate, the general issue of impartiality centres on the moral significance of borders and of shared citizenship. Three related questions, concerning the scope of justice, justice in the distribution of wealth and other goods, and the institutions responsible for justice, are central to the problem of global justice. When these questions are addressed in non ideal circumstances, they are part of
1001-558: A significant secondary role. Theories of distributive justice need to answer three questions: Distributive justice theorists generally do not answer questions of who has the right to enforce a particular favored distribution, while property rights theorists say that there is no "favored distribution". Rather, distribution should be based simply on whatever distribution results from lawful interactions or transactions (that is, transactions which are not illicit). In Anarchy, State, and Utopia , Robert Nozick said that distributive justice
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#17327907815011092-469: A single global community with a shared morality. Social justice is also distinct from egalitarianism , which is the idea that all people are equal in terms of status, value, or rights, as social justice theories do not all require equality. For example, sociologist George C. Homans suggested that the root of the concept of justice is that each person should receive rewards that are proportional to their contributions. Economist Friedrich Hayek said that
1183-541: A view of negative liberty, in the form of freedom from governmental interference. He further extends the concept of negative liberty in endorsing John Stuart Mills' harm principle: "the sole end for which mankind are warranted, individually and collectively, in interfering with the liberty of action of any of their number, is self-protection", which represents a classical liberal view of liberty. In political theory, liberalism includes two traditional elements: liberty and equality. Most contemporary theories of justice emphasize
1274-465: Is a form of fairness: an impartial distribution of goods. Rawls asks us to imagine ourselves behind a veil of ignorance that denies us all knowledge of our personalities, social statuses, moral characters, wealth, talents and life plans, and then asks what theory of justice we would choose to govern our society when the veil is lifted, if we wanted to do the best that we could for ourselves. We do not know who in particular we are, and therefore can not bias
1365-542: Is deductively valid to say that the existence of an objective morality implies the existence of God and vice versa. Jews , Christians , and Muslims traditionally believe that justice is a present, real, right, and, specifically, governing concept along with mercy , and that justice is ultimately derived from and held by God . According to the Bible , such institutions as the Mosaic Law were created by God to require
1456-495: Is either false, or merely says that nothing is forbidden to any state in pursuit of its interests. There is no obligation to help the poor, unless doing so helps to further a state's strategic aims. And the state system is taken as the fundamental and unchallengeable global institutional arrangement. The theoretical roots for this realist view are found in the tradition including Machiavelli and extending back to Glaucon's challenge to Socrates. International relations between states in
1547-404: Is fair based on what goods are to be distributed, between whom they are to be distributed, and what is the proper distribution. Egalitarians suggest justice can only exist within the coordinates of equality. Theories of retributive justice say justice is served by punishing wrongdoers, whereas restorative justice (also sometimes called "reparative justice") is an approach to justice that focuses on
1638-471: Is just, and what anyone else does or does not have or need is irrelevant. On the basis of this theory of distributive justice, Nozick said that all attempts to redistribute goods according to an ideal pattern, without the consent of their owners, are theft. In particular, redistributive taxation is theft. Some property rights theorists (such as Nozick) also take a consequentialist view of distributive justice and say that property rights based justice also has
1729-443: Is not a matter of the whole distribution matching an ideal pattern , but of each individual entitlement having the right kind of history . It is just that a person has some good (especially, some property right ) if and only if they came to have it by a history made up entirely of events of two kinds: If the chain of events leading up to the person having something meets this criterion, they are entitled to it: that they possess it
1820-473: Is not present, "While indeed 1.2 billion people in 1998 lived below the poverty line of $ 1.08 PPP 1993 per day, it is also true that there is now less misery than ever before," Less Misery is his standard for justice. He wrote in 2005, that "progress made over the last 200 years is miraculous". Five main positions—realism, particularism, nationalism, the society of states tradition, and cosmopolitanism (in two forms) — have been taken by contributors to
1911-504: Is only Universalistic if: Gillian Brock asks "Do we have an obligation to ensure people have their basic needs met and can otherwise lead “decent” lives, or should we be more concerned with global socio-economic equality?". 1.1 billion people — 18% of humanity — live below the World Bank 's $ 2/day. Is this distribution of wealth and other goods just? What is the root cause of poverty, and are there systemic injustices in
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#17327907815012002-409: Is possible within the boundaries of such groups, but not across them. If a society is egalitarian , for instance, its citizens can be morally wrong, and can meaningfully criticise each other, if they do not live up to their own egalitarian ideals; but they cannot meaningfully criticise another, caste -based society in the name of those ideals. "A given society is just if its substantive life is lived in
2093-399: Is proportionate to their contribution. They are in the right place, always striving to do their best, and reciprocating what they receive in a fair and equitable manner. This applies both at the individual level and at the organizational and societal levels. To illustrate these ideas, Plato describes a person as having three parts: reason, spirit, and desire. These parallel the three parts of
2184-744: Is support for the International Criminal Court . 130 Civil Society groups in Africa have recognized that the ICC operates unevenly but in the interest of reaching global justice remain supportive of it. In Cambodia the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia , some observers had said "the court will not truly be effective unless it can properly address the crucial issue of how reparations will be given to victims of
2275-455: Is the concept of cardinal virtues , of which it is one. Metaphysical justice has often been associated with concepts of fate , reincarnation or Divine Providence , i.e., with a life in accordance with a cosmic plan. The equivalence of justice and fairness has been historically and culturally established. In his A Theory of Justice , John Rawls used a social contract argument to show that justice, and especially distributive justice,
2366-488: Is the interest of the strong – merely a name for what the powerful or cunning ruler has imposed on the people. Advocates of the social contract say that justice is derived from the mutual agreement of everyone; or, in many versions, from what they would agree to under hypothetical conditions including equality and absence of bias. This account is considered further below, under ' Justice as Fairness '. The absence of bias refers to an equal ground for all people involved in
2457-410: Is their consequences, and that the measure of consequences is the welfare of humans (or even of all sentient creatures). The capacity to experience welfare and suffering is therefore the shared basis for moral standing. This means that the fact that some people are suffering terrible deprivations of welfare, caused by poverty, creates a moral demand that anyone who is able to help them do so. Neither
2548-448: Is too simple, because the ethical standards that apply between compatriots differ from those that apply between strangers (although some nationalists argue for the universal ethical standard that nations should have their own states). Distributive justice is an issue within nations but not necessarily between them. And a world-system of nation-states is the appropriate organiser of justice for all, in their distinct associational groups. In
2639-449: Is true, and therefore that all humans, and not merely compatriots or fellow-citizens, fall within the scope of justice. Their arguments typically appeal to consistency, as follows: Cosmopolitans differ, however, over which shared human characteristics are morally significant. Consequentialist cosmopolitans, amongst whom Peter Singer is prominent, argue that the proper standard of moral judgement for actions, practices or institutions
2730-409: Is usually understood as some combination of talent and hard work. According to needs -based theories, goods, especially such basic goods as food, shelter and medical care, should be distributed to meet individuals' basic needs for them. According to contribution -based theories, goods should be distributed to match an individual's contribution to the overall social good. Social justice encompasses
2821-606: The Israelites to live by and apply God's standards of justice. The Hebrew Bible describes God as saying about the Judeo-Christian-Islamic patriarch Abraham : "No, for I have chosen him, that he may charge his children and his household after him to keep the way of the Lord by doing righteousness and justice;...." ( Genesis 18:19, NRSV) . The Psalmist describes God as having "Righteousness and justice [as]
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2912-718: The UN . The relative strength of the local versus the global has decreased over recorded history. From the early modern period until the twentieth century, the preeminent political institution was the state , which is sovereign , territorial, claims a monopoly on the legitimate use of violence in its territory, and exists in an international system of other sovereign states. Over the same period political philosophers' interest in justice focused almost exclusively on domestic issues: how should states treat their subjects, and what do fellow- citizens owe one another? Justice in relations between states, and between individuals across state borders
3003-481: The world economy ? John Rawls has said that international obligations are between states as long as "states meet a minimal condition of decency" where as Thomas Nagel argues that obligations to the others are on an individual level and that moral reasons for restraint do not need to be satisfied for an individual to deserve equal treatment internationally. Peter Singer argues in Famine, Affluence, and Morality that
3094-429: The "ethics of process", a branch of political ethics . Are there, as the moral universalist argues, objective ethical standards that apply to all humans regardless of culture , race , gender , religion , nationality or other distinguishing features? Or do ethical standards only apply within such limited contexts as cultures , nations , communities, or voluntary associations? A Moral Conception of Social Justice
3185-648: The 2003 invasion of Iraq from this motive due to the human rights abuses Saddam had inflicted on countless members of the Kurdish and Shiite communities. Individual cosmopolitans also differ considerably in how they understand the requirements of distributive justice and the legitimacy of global institutions. Some, for instance Kai Nielsen , endorse world government; others, such as Simon Caney , do not. The extent to which cosmopolitans advocate global redistribution of resources also varies. For instance, Charles Beitz would seek to address resource inequalities through extending
3276-631: The Ancient Greek philosophers Plato , in his work The Republic , and Aristotle , in his Nicomachean Ethics and Politics . Religious explanations of justice can be grouped under the divine command theory , which holds that justice issues from God. Western thinkers later advanced different theories about where the foundations of justice lie. In the 17th century, philosophers such as John Locke said justice derives from natural law . Social contract theory, advocated by thinkers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau , says that justice derives from
3367-609: The Global Justice Ecology Project have noted that in 2007 industry insiders were given preferential treatment over "civil society observers and delegates from poorer countries whose visas were delayed." Thomas Pogge has contended that an "institutional order can not be just if it fails to meet the minimal human rights standard". That standard is based on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights . Mathias Risse has argued that an injustice
3458-461: The Rawlsian difference principle globally to advantage those least well off in the world, although the resources he would redistribute are natural resources rather than the broader category of societal goods (including such matters as talent). All cosmopolitans, however, believe that individuals, and not states, nations, or other groups, are the ultimate focus of universal moral standards. None of
3549-540: The West begins, in Plato 's Republic , with the question, 'What is Justice?' According to most contemporary theories of justice, justice is overwhelmingly important: John Rawls claims that "Justice is the first virtue of social institutions, as truth is of systems of thought." In classical approaches, evident from Plato through to Rawls , the concept of 'justice' is always construed in logical or 'etymological' opposition to
3640-718: The actions of wealthy individuals and states. Justice Justice , in its broadest sense, is the concept that individuals are to be treated in a manner that is equitable and fair. A society in which justice has been achieved would be one in which individuals receive what they "deserve". The interpretation of what "deserve" means draws on a variety of fields and philosophical branches including ethics , rationality , law , religion , equity and fairness. The state may be said to pursue justice by operating courts and enforcing their rulings. A variety of philosophical and moral theories have been advanced to inform understanding of justice. Early theories of justice were set out by
3731-499: The ancient Greek Diogenes of Sinope , have described themselves as citizens of the world . William Godwin ( Utilitarian thinker and anarchist ) argued that everyone has an impartial duty to do the most good he or she can, without preference for any one human being over another. The broader political context of the debate is the longstanding conflict between local institutions: tribes against states, villages against cities, local communities against empires, or nation-states against
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3822-463: The best consequences overall (perhaps executing a few suspected shoplifters live on television would be an effective deterrent to shoplifting, for instance). It also suggests that punishment might turn out never to be right, depending on the facts about what actual consequences it has. According to the utilitarian, justice requires the maximization of the total or average welfare across all relevant individuals. This may require sacrifice of some for
3913-508: The best consequences. These rules may turn out to be familiar ones such as keeping contracts ; but equally, they may not, depending on the facts about real consequences. Either way, what is important is those consequences, and justice is important, if at all, only as derived from that fundamental standard. Mill tries to explain our mistaken belief that justice is overwhelmingly important by arguing that it derives from two natural human tendencies: our desire to retaliate against those who hurt us, or
4004-440: The brain and that, "Fairness is activating the same part of the brain that responds to food in rats... This is consistent with the notion that being treated fairly satisfies a basic need". Research conducted in 2003 at Emory University involving capuchin monkeys demonstrated that other cooperative animals also possess such a sense and that " inequity aversion may not be uniquely human". Instrumental theories of justice look at
4095-489: The case of domestic justice, with parties in the original position representing individual members of a single society, he argued that it supported a redistributive , egalitarian liberal politics. In contrast, Rawls argues that when his method is applied to global justice, it supports a quite traditional, Kantian international ethics: duties of states to obey treaties and strict limits on warmaking , but no global repossession of private property. So, different justices apply to
4186-644: The concept connecting law to justice, since law cannot be applied without reference to justice. In that context, justice is seen as 'the rationale and the ethical foundation of equity'. One approach towards equity in justice is community policing . Marxism is a needs-based theory, expressed succinctly in Marx's slogan " from each according to his ability, to each according to his need ". Relational justice examines individual connections and societal relationships, focusing on normative and political aspects. Rawls' theory of justice aims to distribute social goods to benefit
4277-415: The concept of equality, including Rawls' theory of justice as fairness. For Ronald Dworkin, a complex notion of equality is the sovereign political virtue. Dworkin raises the question of whether society is under a duty of justice to help those responsible for the fact that they need help. Complications arise in distinguishing matters of choice and matters of chance, as well as justice for future generations in
4368-458: The concept of injustice. Such approaches cite various examples of injustice, as problems which a theory of justice must overcome. A number of post-World War II approaches do, however, challenge that seemingly obvious dualism between those two concepts. Justice can be thought of as distinct from benevolence , charity , prudence , mercy , generosity , or compassion , although these dimensions are regularly understood to also be interlinked. Justice
4459-404: The concept of social justice was meaningless, saying that justice is a result of individual behavior and unpredictable market forces. Social justice is closely related to the concept of relational justice, which is about the just relationship with individuals who possess features in common such as nationality, or who are engaged in cooperation or negotiation. In legal theory , equity is seen as
4550-424: The consequences of punishment for wrongdoing, looking at questions such as: In broad terms, utilitarian theories look forward to the future consequences of punishment, retributive theories look back to particular acts of wrongdoing and attempt to match them with appropriate punishment, and restorative theories look at the needs of victims and society and seek to repair the harms from wrongdoing. According to
4641-468: The decision in our own favor. So, the decision-in-ignorance models fairness, because it excludes selfish bias . Rawls said that each of us would reject the utilitarian theory of justice that we should maximize welfare (see below) because of the risk that we might turn out to be someone whose own good is sacrificed for greater benefits for others. Instead, we would endorse Rawls's two principles of justice : This imagined choice justifies these principles as
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#17327907815014732-508: The differences among social groups offers a better approach, one which acknowledges unjust power relations among individuals, groups, and institutional structures. Young Kim also takes a relational approach to the question of justice, but departs from Iris Marion Young's political advocacy of group rights and instead, he emphasizes the individual and moral aspects of justice. As to its moral aspects, he said that justice includes responsible actions based on rational and autonomous moral agency, with
4823-420: The domestic and international cases. Even if justice requires egalitarianism within states, it does not do so between them. And a system of cooperating but independent states is the just global institutional arrangement. Rawls describes this ideal as a 'realistic utopia'. Apart from Rawls , other notable exponents of this position include Hedley Bull . Cosmopolitans argue that some form of moral universalism
4914-434: The effect of maximizing the overall wealth of an economic system. They explain that voluntary (non-coerced) transactions always have a property called Pareto efficiency . The result is that the world is better off in an absolute sense and no one is worse off. They say that respecting property rights maximizes the number of Pareto efficient transactions in the world and minimized the number of non-Pareto efficient transactions in
5005-408: The extent that human welfare involves them. But even then, such demands as human rights would only be elements in the calculation of overall welfare, not uncrossable barriers to action. Retributive justice argues that consequentialism is wrong, as it argues that all guilty individuals deserve appropriate punishment, based on the conviction that punishment should be proportional to the crime and for all
5096-426: The feeling of self-defense and our ability to put ourselves imaginatively in another's place, sympathy. So, when we see someone harmed, we project ourselves into their situation and feel a desire to retaliate on their behalf. If this process is the source of our feelings about justice, that ought to undermine our confidence in them. It has been said that 'systematic' or 'programmatic' political and moral philosophy in
5187-430: The five main positions described above imply complete satisfaction with the current world order. Realists complain that states that pursue utopian moral visions through intervention and humanitarian aid , instead of minding their own strategic interests, do their subjects harm and destabilise the international system. Particularists object to the destruction of traditional cultures by cultural colonialism , whether under
5278-436: The foundation of [His] throne;...." (Psalms 89:14, NRSV). The New Testament also describes God and Jesus Christ as having and displaying justice, often in comparison with God displaying and supporting mercy ( Matthew 5:7). For advocates of the theory that justice is part of natural law (e.g., John Locke ), justice inheres in the nature of man. In Republic by Plato , the character Thrasymachus argues that justice
5369-405: The global justice debate. Realists, such as Charles Yeo , Hashim Tilab argue that there are no global ethical standards, and that to imagine that there are is a dangerous fantasy. States are the main actors in an international anarchy , and they either will or should always attempt to act rationally in their own interests. So, in response to the three central questions above: moral universalism
5460-405: The gods because it is morally good, or is it morally good because it is commanded by the gods?" The implication is that if the latter is true, then justice is beyond mortal understanding; if the former is true, then morality exists independently from the gods, and is therefore subject to the judgment of mortals. A response , popularized in two contexts by Immanuel Kant and C. S. Lewis , is that it
5551-405: The good of others, so long as everyone's good is taken impartially into account. Utilitarianism, in general, says that the standard of justification for actions, institutions, or the whole world, is impartial welfare consequentialism , and only indirectly, if at all, to do with rights , property , need , or any other non-utilitarian criterion. These other criteria might be indirectly important, to
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#17327907815015642-558: The guilty. However, it is sometimes said that retributivism is merely revenge in disguise. However, there are differences between retribution and revenge: the former is impartial and has a scale of appropriateness, whereas the latter is personal and potentially unlimited in scale. Restorative justice attempts to repair the harm that was done to the victims. It encourages active participation from victims and encourages offenders to take responsibility for their actions. Restorative justice fosters dialogue between victim and offender and shows
5733-452: The guise of economic liberalism or defence of human rights. Nationalists deplore the fact that so many people are stateless or live under inefficient and tyrannical regimes. Advocates of the society of states are concerned about rogue states and about the imperial ambitions of the powerful. Cosmopolitans believe that the contemporary world badly fails to live up to their standards, and that doing so would require considerable changes in
5824-517: The highest rates of victim satisfaction and offender accountability. Meta-analyses of the effectivity of restorative justice show no improvement in recidivism . Some modern philosophers have said that Utilitarian and Retributive theories are not mutually exclusive. For example, Andrew von Hirsch , in his 1976 book Doing Justice , suggested that we have a moral obligation to punish greater crimes more than lesser ones. However, so long as we adhere to that constraint then utilitarian ideals would play
5915-485: The individual as the proper bearer of rights and responsibilities. Politically, he maintains that the proper context for justice is a form of liberalism with the traditional elements of liberty and equality, together with the concepts of diversity and tolerance. The phrase " Justice delayed is justice denied " refers to the problem of slow justice. The right to speedy trial is in some jurisdictions enshrined. Higher quality justice tends to be speedy. In criminal law ,
6006-620: The jurisdictions of different territorial entities be? Thomas Pogge says that States can not achieve global justice by themselves "It has never been plausible that the interests of states—that is, the interests of governments—should furnish the only considerations that are morally relevant in international relations." Organizations like the World Trade Organization have advocated free trade but allow protectionism in affluent developed countries to this point according to Pogge and Moellendorf. Public polls have shown that there
6097-408: The just relationship between individuals and their society, often considering how privileges, opportunities, and wealth ought to be distributed among individuals. Social justice is also associated with social mobility , especially the ease with which individuals and families may move between social strata . Social justice is distinct from cosmopolitanism , which is the idea that all people belong to
6188-433: The law, not for equality of outcome . Classical liberalism opposes pursuing group rights at the expense of individual rights . In addition to equality, individual liberty serves as a core notion of classical liberalism. As to the liberty component, British social and political theorist, philosopher, and historian of ideas Isaiah Berlin identifies positive and negative liberty in "Two Concepts of Liberty", subscribing to
6279-461: The link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_Justice&oldid=932846818 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Global justice Norwegian philosopher Henrik Syse claims that global ethics and international justice in
6370-521: The meaning of what is "deserved". The main distinction is between theories that say the basis of just deserts ought to be held equally by everyone, and therefore derive egalitarian accounts of distributive justice – and theories that say the basis of just deserts is unequally distributed on the basis of, for instance, hard work, and therefore derive accounts of distributive justice by which some should have more than others. Studies at UCLA in 2008 have indicated that reactions to fairness are "wired" into
6461-410: The method of his A Theory of Justice to the question of global justice. His argument is that we can justify a global regime by showing that it would be chosen by representatives of Peoples in an imagined original position , which prevents them knowing which particular People they represent. This decision-in-ignorance models fairness because it excludes selfish bias. When Rawls applied this method in
6552-424: The mutual agreement of members of society to be governed in a political order. In the 19th century, utilitarian philosophers such as John Stuart Mill said that justice is served by what creates the best outcomes for the greatest number of people. Modern frameworks include concepts such as distributive justice , egalitarianism , retributive justice , and restorative justice . Distributive justice considers what
6643-425: The needs of victims and offenders. Justice, according to Plato , is about balance and harmony. It represents the right relationship between conflicting aspects within an individual or a community. He defines justice as everyone having and doing what they are responsible for or what belongs to them. In other words, a just person is someone who contributes to society according to their unique abilities and receives what
6734-407: The particularly badly off worldwide, but these are much less stringent and pressing than our duties to our fellow- citizens . Nationalism has traditionally included this assumption of differing moral obligations to those within and those outside the nation, reflected for example in the fact that the benefits of the welfare state are not available to citizens of other countries. So, moral universalism
6825-413: The physical distance between the rich and the poor, nor the fact that they are typically citizens of different countries, has any moral relevance. Human rights defenders of cosmopolitanism, such as Thomas Pogge and Simon Caney , argue that all humans have rights, perhaps those set out in the UN's Universal Declaration of Human Rights . It may be argued that these rights create a positive duty of
6916-428: The poor, but does not consider power relations, political structures, or social meanings. Even Rawls' self-respect is not compatible with distribution. Iris Marion Young charges that distributive accounts of justice fail to provide an adequate way of conceptualizing political justice in that they fail to take into account many of the demands of ordinary life and that a relational view of justice grounded upon understanding
7007-536: The principles of justice for us, because we would agree to them in a fair decision procedure. Rawls's theory distinguishes two kinds of goods – (1) the good of liberty rights and (2) social and economic goods, i.e. wealth, income and power – and applies different distributions to them – equality between citizens for (1), equality unless inequality improves the position of the worst off for (2). In one sense, theories of distributive justice may assert that everyone should get what they deserve. Theories vary on
7098-420: The proper institutions to enable local and different justices. For Charles Blattberg , however, there exists a particularist approach to global justice, one based upon what he calls a "global patriotism." Nationalists, such as David Miller and Yael Tamir , argue that demanding mutual obligations are created by a particular kind of valuable association, the nation . We may have humanitarian duties to aid
7189-550: The realist view exist in what Charles Beitz describes as a Hobbesian state of nature, a state of anarchic war where might makes right and which is realist in the sense that it advocates viewing states as they “really are,” rather than portraying them in idealistic circumstances or according to their purported ideals. Particularists, such as Michael Walzer and James Tully , argue that ethical standards arise out of shared meanings and practices, which are created and sustained by discrete cultures or societies. Moral and social criticism
7280-431: The redistribution of resources that he advocates. Law raises important and complex issues about equality, fairness, and justice. There is an old saying that ' All are equal before the law '. The belief in equality before the law is called legal egalitarianism. In criticism of this belief, the author Anatole France said in 1894, "In its majestic equality, the law forbids rich and poor alike to sleep under bridges, beg in
7371-679: The regime" while others supported it, "I think the case is going to be the most important trial in Cambodian history." said Youk Chhang the director of the Documentation Centre of Cambodia, One worldwide institution, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , responsible for creating agreements on climate change has been criticized for not acting fast enough. by Truthout. Anne Petermann and Orin Langelle of
7462-475: The rich have a moral obligation to give their money away to those who need it. What institutions — states , communes, federal entities, global financial institutions like the World Bank , international NGOs , multinational corporations , international courts , a world state —would best achieve the ideal of global justice? How might they gain our support, and whose responsibility is it to create and sustain such institutions? How free should movement between
7553-431: The rich to provide what they guarantee (security, a livelihood, etc.); or, alternatively, it may be argued that the rich are currently violating their negative duty not to impose a global order that systematically violates rights of the poor. Others defend neoconservative interventionist foreign policy from a view of cosmopolitanism for the added benefits to human rights that such intervention could bring. Some defended
7644-409: The same nation as themselves." English philosopher David Miller agreed, that obligations only apply to people living together or that are part of the same Nation. What we owe one another in the global context is one of the questions the global justice concept seeks to answer. There are positive and negative duties which may be in conflict with ones moral rules. Cosmopolitans , reportedly including
7735-402: The society of states tradition, states are seen as individual entities that can mutually agree on common interests and rules of interaction, including moral rules, in much the same way as human individuals can. Often, this idea of agreement between peers is formalised by a social contract argument. One prominent exemplar of the tradition is John Rawls . In The Law of Peoples , Rawls extends
7826-417: The streets, and steal loaves of bread." With this saying, France illustrated the fundamental shortcoming of a theory of legal equality that remains blind to social inequality; the same law applied to all may have disproportionately harmful effects on the least powerful. According to meritocratic theories, goods, especially wealth and social status , should be distributed to match individual merit , which
7917-478: The theory assert that God must be obeyed because of the nature of God's relationship with humanity, others assert that God must be obeyed because God is goodness itself, and thus doing God's command would be best for everyone. An early meditation on the divine command theory by Plato can be found in his dialogue, Euthyphro . Called the Euthyphro dilemma , it goes as follows: "Is what is morally good commanded by
8008-444: The utilitarian, justice is the maximization of the total or average welfare across all relevant individuals. Utilitarianism fights crime in three ways: So, the reason for punishment is the maximization of welfare, and punishment should be of whomever, and of whatever form and severity, are needed to meet that goal. This may sometimes justify punishing the innocent, or inflicting disproportionately severe punishments, when that will have
8099-497: The western tradition form part of the tradition of natural law : the topic has been organised and taught within Western culture since Latin times of Middle Stoa and Cicero, and the early Christian philosophers Ambrose and Augustine . Syse states This early natural-law theorising teaching centred around the idea of a ius naturale , i.e., a system of right which is natural and as such common to all people, available to humankind as
8190-425: The world (i.e. transactions where someone is made worse off). The result is that the world will have generated the greatest total benefit from the limited, scarce resources available in the world. Further, this will have been accomplished without taking anything away from anyone unlawfully. Equality before the law is one of the basic principles of classical liberalism . Classical liberalism calls for equality before
8281-587: Was put aside as a secondary issue or left to international relations theorists. Since the First World War , however, the state system has been transformed by globalization and by the creation of supranational political and economic institutions such as the League of Nations , the United Nations, and the World Bank . Over the same period, and especially since the 1970s, global justice became
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