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152-472: The tobacco industry was a leading component of Detroit's economy during the latter half of the nineteenth century, and by the 1890s was the largest industry in the city. Globe Tobacco, which was one of the largest five manufacturers in the city, was established in 1871 by O. P. Hazard, Thomas McGraw, Hiram Walker , and William Moore. The company was originally located on Atwater Street, and by 1878 manufactured about 300,000 pounds of tobacco annually. The company

304-484: A pastoral letter issued on 20 March 1545, Las Casas refused absolution to slave owners and encomenderos even on their death bed, unless all their slaves had been set free and their property returned to them. Las Casas furthermore threatened that anyone who mistreated Indians within his jurisdiction would be excommunicated. He also came into conflict with the Bishop of Guatemala Francisco Marroquín , to whose jurisdiction

456-635: A Christian viewpoint. He wrote: "I have declared and demonstrated openly and concluded, from chapter 22 to the end of this whole book, that all people of these our Indies are human, so far as is possible by the natural and human way and without the light of faith – had their republics, places, towns, and cities most abundant and well provided for, and did not lack anything to live politically and socially, and attain and enjoy civil happiness.... And they equaled many nations of this world that are renowned and considered civilized, and they surpassed many others, and to none were they inferior. Among those they equaled were

608-618: A Dominican preacher Fray Antonio de Montesinos preached a fiery sermon that implicated the colonists in the genocide of the native peoples. He is said to have preached: "Tell me by what right of justice do you hold these Indians in such a cruel and horrible servitude? On what authority have you waged such detestable wars against these people who dealt quietly and peacefully on their own lands? Wars in which you have destroyed such an infinite number of them by homicides and slaughters never heard of before. Why do you keep them so oppressed and exhausted, without giving them enough to eat or curing them of

760-534: A chaplain, Las Casas participated in Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar 's and Pánfilo de Narváez ' conquest of Cuba . He participated in campaigns at Bayamo and Camagüey and in the massacre of Hatuey . He witnessed many atrocities committed by Spaniards against the native Ciboney and Guanahatabey peoples. He later wrote: "I saw here cruelty on a scale no living being has ever seen or expects to see." Las Casas and his friend Pedro de la Rentería were awarded

912-476: A contemporary lawsuit that demonstrated he was born a decade later than had been supposed. Subsequent biographers and authors have generally accepted and reflected this revision. His father, Pedro de las Casas, a merchant, descended from one of the families that had migrated from France to found the Christian Seville ; his family also spelled the name Casaus . According to one biographer, his family

1064-419: A curved wooden tool or deer antler. After making two holes to the right and left, the planter would move forward two feet, select plants from his/her bag, and repeat. Various mechanical tobacco planters like Bemis, New Idea Setter, and New Holland Transplanter were invented in the late 19th and 20th centuries to automate the process: making the hole, watering it, guiding the plant in—all in one motion. Tobacco

1216-536: A deacon and then traveled to Rome, where he was ordained a secular priest in 1507. In September 1510, a group of Dominican friars arrived in Santo Domingo led by Pedro de Córdoba ; appalled by the injustices they saw committed by the slave owners against the Indians, they decided to deny slave owners the right to confession . Las Casas was among those denied confession for this reason. In December 1511,

1368-502: A decade earlier and sent to the attention of then-prince Philip II of Spain , contained accounts of the abuses committed by some Spaniards against Native Americans during the early stages of colonization. In 1555 his old Franciscan adversary Toribio de Benavente Motolinia wrote a letter in which he described Las Casas as an ignorant, arrogant troublemaker. Benavente described indignantly how Las Casas had once denied baptism to an aging Indian who had walked many leagues to receive it, only on

1520-470: A different avenue of change. He put his faith in his coming audience with the king, but it never came, for King Ferdinand died on 25 January 1516. The regency of Castile passed on to Ximenez Cisneros and Adrian of Utrecht who were guardians for the under-age Prince Charles . Las Casas was resolved to see Prince Charles who resided in Flanders , but on his way there he passed Madrid and delivered to

1672-519: A general ordinance against slavery was reversed by the Crown. For this reason it was a pressing matter for Bartolomé de las Casas to plead once again for the Indians with Charles V who was by now Holy Roman Emperor and no longer a boy. He wrote a letter asking for permission to stay in Spain a little longer to argue for the emperor that conversion and colonization were best achieved by peaceful means. When

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1824-498: A glut in the tobacco market. This surplus has resulted in lower prices, which are devastating to small-scale tobacco farmers. According to the World Bank, between 1985 and 2000, the inflation-adjusted price of tobacco dropped 37%. Tobacco is the most widely smuggled legal product. Tobacco production requires the use of large amounts of pesticides . Tobacco companies recommend up to 16 separate applications of pesticides just in

1976-496: A group of Hieronymite monks to take over the government of the islands. Three Hieronymite monks, Luis de Figueroa , Bernardino de Manzanedo, and Alonso de Santo Domingo, were selected as commissioners to take over the authority of the Indies. Las Casas had a considerable part in selecting them and writing the instructions under which their new government would be instated, largely based on Las Casas's memorial . Las Casas himself

2128-463: A joint encomienda which was rich in gold and slaves, located on the Arimao River close to Cienfuegos . During the next few years, he divided his time between being a colonist and his duties as an ordained priest. In 1514, Las Casas was studying a passage in the book Ecclesiasticus ( Sirach ) 34:18–22 for a Pentecost sermon and pondering its meaning. Las Casas was finally convinced that all

2280-435: A long court fight against Bishop Fonseca and his supporters Gonzalo de Oviedo and Bishop Quevedo of Tierra Firme . Las Casas's supporters were Diego Columbus and the new chancellor Gattinara. Las Casas's enemies slandered him to the king, accusing him of planning to escape with the money to Genoa or Rome . In 1520 Las Casas's concession was finally granted, but it was a much smaller grant than he had initially proposed; he

2432-637: A new kind of peaceful colonialism on the coast of Venezuela , but this venture failed. He then entered the Dominican Order and became a friar, leaving public life for a decade. He traveled to Central America , acting as a missionary among the Maya of Guatemala and participating in debates among colonial churchmen about how best to bring the natives to the Christian faith. Travelling back to Spain to recruit more missionaries, he continued lobbying for

2584-407: A new plan for reforming the governmental system of the Indies. Las Casas suggested a plan where the encomienda would be abolished and Indians would be congregated into self-governing townships to become tribute-paying vassals of the king. He still suggested that the loss of Indian labor for the colonists could be replaced by allowing importation of African slaves . Another important part of the plan

2736-670: A new resolution to be presented to viceroy Mendoza. His last act as Bishop of Chiapas was writing a confesionario , a manual for the administration of the sacrament of confession in his diocese, still refusing absolution to unrepentant encomenderos. Las Casas appointed a vicar for his diocese and set out for Europe in December 1546, arriving in Lisbon in April 1547 and in Spain on November 1547. Las Casas returned to Spain, leaving behind many conflicts and unresolved issues. Arriving in Spain he

2888-566: A number of friars to Guatemala , where they began to prepare to undertake a mission among the Maya Indians. They stayed in the convent founded some years earlier by Fray Domingo Betanzos and studied the Kʼicheʼ language with Bishop Francisco Marroquín , before traveling into the interior region called Tuzulutlan, "The Land of War", in 1537. Also in 1536, before venturing into Tuzulutlan, Las Casas went to Oaxaca , Mexico , to participate in

3040-547: A number of such animals have evolved the ability to feed on Nicotiana species without being harmed. Nonetheless, tobacco is unpalatable to many species due to its other attributes. For example, although the cabbage looper is a generalist pest, tobacco's gummosis and trichomes can harm early larvae survival. As a result, some tobacco plants (chiefly N. glauca ) have become established as invasive weeds in some places. The types of tobacco include: Tobacco, alongside its related products , can be infested by parasites such as

3192-494: A royal hospital built with four wings in the shape of a cross, where up to 200 sick Indians could be cared for at a time. He described in detail social arrangements, distribution of work, how provisions would be divided and even how table manners were to be introduced. Regarding expenses, he argued that "this should not seem expensive or difficult, because after all, everything comes from them [the Indians] and they work for it and it

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3344-450: A second stage of curing, known as fermenting or sweating . Cavendish undergoes fermentation pressed in a casing solution containing sugar and/or flavoring. Production of tobacco leaf increased by 40% between 1971, when 4.2 million tons of leaf were produced, and 1997, when 5.9 million tons of leaf were produced. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of

3496-481: A series of discussions and debates among the bishops of the Dominican and Franciscan orders . The two orders had very different approaches to the conversion of the Indians. The Franciscans used a method of mass conversion, sometimes baptizing many thousands of Indians in a day. This method was championed by prominent Franciscans such as Toribio de Benavente , known as "Motolinia", and Las Casas made many enemies among

3648-634: A small group of peasants, paying for the venture with money borrowed from his brother in-law. Arriving in Puerto Rico , in January 1521, he received the terrible news that the Dominican convent at Chiribichi had been sacked by Indians, and that the Spaniards of the islands had launched a punitive expedition, led by Gonzalo de Ocampo, into the very heart of the territory that Las Casas wanted to colonize peacefully. The Indians had been provoked to attack

3800-477: A suggestion by his friend and mentor Pedro de Córdoba , Las Casas petitioned a land grant to be allowed to establish a settlement in northern Venezuela at Cumaná . Founded in 1515, there was already a small Franciscan monastery in Cumana, and a Dominican one at Chiribichi, but the monks there were being harassed by Spaniards operating slave raids from the nearby Island of Cubagua . To make the proposal palatable to

3952-615: A way that it presupposed that violent conquest would still be carried out, and he encouraged once again beginning a phase of peaceful colonization by peasants instead of soldiers. Before Las Casas returned to Spain, he was also appointed as Bishop of Chiapas , a newly established diocese of which he took possession in 1545 upon his return to the New World. He was consecrated in the Dominican Church of San Pablo on 30 March 1544. As Archbishop Loaysa strongly disliked Las Casas,

4104-584: Is apologetic because it is written as a defense of the cultural level of the Indians, arguing throughout that indigenous peoples of the Americas were just as civilized as the Roman , Greek and Egyptian civilizations – and more civilized than some European civilizations. It was in essence a comparative ethnography comparing practices and customs of European and American cultures and evaluating them according to whether they were good or bad, seen from

4256-467: Is activated by light. In the United States, tobacco is often fertilized with the mineral apatite , which partially starves the plant of nitrogen , to produce a more desired flavor. After the plants are about 8 inches (20 cm) tall, they are transplanted into the fields. Farmers used to have to wait for rainy weather to plant. A hole is created in the tilled earth with a tobacco peg, either

4408-482: Is an eye-witness account. It was in the History of the Indies that Las Casas finally regretted his advocacy for African slavery, and included a sincere apology, writing, "I soon repented and judged myself guilty of ignorance. I came to realize that black slavery was as unjust as Indian slavery... and I was not sure that my ignorance and good faith would secure me in the eyes of God." (Vol II, p. 257) "History of

4560-423: Is cultivated annually, and can be harvested in several ways. In the oldest method, still used, the entire plant is harvested at once by cutting off the stalk at the ground with a tobacco knife; it is then speared onto sticks, four to six plants a stick, and hung in a curing barn. In the 19th century, bright tobacco began to be harvested by pulling individual leaves off the stalk as they ripened. The leaves ripen from

4712-491: Is cultivated similarly to other agricultural products. Seeds were at first quickly scattered onto the soil. However, young plants came under increasing attack from flea beetles ( Epitrix cucumeris or E. pubescens ), which caused destruction of half the tobacco crops in United States in 1876. By 1890, successful experiments were conducted that placed the plant in a frame covered by thin cotton fabric. Modern tobacco seeds are sown in cold frames or hotbeds, as their germination

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4864-399: Is located in the center bay on the south side, and is flanked by two concrete spheres. Large arched windows are located on the first floor in the other bays. Pilasters run between the first story and the fourth, starting win a limestone block base and ending in forms that continue into round-arched windows on the fifth story. Brick denticulation separates the sixth floor from the lower ones, and

5016-585: Is seen as a gift from the Creator , with the ceremonial tobacco smoke carrying one's thoughts and prayers to the Creator. Some Native Americans consider tobacco to be a medicine and advocate for its respectful usage, rather than a commercial one. Following the arrival of the Europeans to the Americas, tobacco became increasingly popular as a trade item. Francisco Hernández de Toledo , Spanish chronicler of

5168-447: Is still done by hand. In the U.S., North Carolina and Kentucky are the leaders in tobacco production, followed by Tennessee , Virginia , Georgia , South Carolina and Pennsylvania . Curing and subsequent aging allow for the slow oxidation and degradation of carotenoids in tobacco leaf. This produces certain compounds in the tobacco leaves and gives a sweet hay, tea , rose oil , or fruity aromatic flavor that contributes to

5320-567: Is the common name of several plants in the genus Nicotiana of the family Solanaceae , and the general term for any product prepared from the cured leaves of these plants. More than 70 species of tobacco are known, but the chief commercial crop is N. tabacum . The more potent variant N. rustica is also used in some countries. Dried tobacco leaves are mainly used for smoking in cigarettes and cigars , as well as pipes and shishas . They can also be consumed as snuff , chewing tobacco , dipping tobacco , and snus . Tobacco contains

5472-546: Is theirs." He even drew up a budget of each pueblo's expenses to cover wages for administrators, clerics, Bachelors of Latin, doctors, surgeons, pharmacists, advocates, ranchers, miners, muleteers, hospitalers, pig herders, fishermen, etc. A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies ( Spanish : Brevísima relación de la destrucción de las Indias ) is an account written in 1542 (published in Seville in 1552) about

5624-536: Is used for tobacco production. Since 1947, the Indian government has supported growth in the tobacco industry. India has seven tobacco research centers, located in Tamil Nadu , Andhra Pradesh , Punjab , Bihar , Mysore , and West Bengal which houses the core research institute. In Brazil, around 135,000 family farmers cite tobacco production as their main economic activity. Tobacco has never exceeded 0.7% of

5776-594: Is widespread on farms in Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, Malawi, and Zimbabwe. While some of these children work with their families on small, family-owned farms, others work on large plantations. In late 2009, reports were released by the London-based human-rights group Plan International , claiming that child labor was common on Malawi (producer of 1.8% of the world's tobacco ) tobacco farms. The organization interviewed 44 teens, who worked full-time on farms during

5928-553: The Lasioderma serricorne (tobacco beetle) and the Ephestia elutella (tobacco moth), which are the most widespread and damaging parasites to the tobacco industry . Infestation can range from the tobacco cultivated in the fields to the leaves used for manufacturing cigars , cigarillos , cigarettes , etc. Both the larvae of Lasioderma serricorne and caterpillars of Ephestia elutella are considered pests . Tobacco

6080-649: The Catalan Revolt of 1646. The book was banned by the Aragonese inquisition in 1659. The images described by Las Casas were later depicted by Theodore de Bry in copper plate engravings that served as a medium of the Black Legend against Spain . The Apologetic Summary History of the People of These Indies ( Spanish : Apologética historia summaria de las gentes destas Indias ) was first written as

6232-602: The Philippines . Having resigned the Bishopric of Chiapas, Las Casas spent the rest of his life working closely with the imperial court in matters relating to the Indies. In 1551 he rented a cell at the College of San Gregorio , where he lived with his assistant and friend Fray Rodrigo de Ladrada. He continued working as a kind of procurator for the natives of the Indies, many of whom directed petitions to him to speak to

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6384-541: The United States , this led to the adoption of the 1998 Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement , which settled the many lawsuits by the U.S. states in exchange for a combination of yearly payments to the states and voluntary restrictions on advertising and marketing of tobacco products. In the 1970s, Brown & Williamson cross-bred a strain of tobacco to produce Y1 , a strain containing an unusually high nicotine content, nearly doubling from 3.2 to 3.5%, to 6.5%. In

6536-471: The tobacco mosaic virus (TMV); fungi; bacteria and nematodes); weed management via herbicide tolerance; resistance against insect pests; resistance to drought and cold; and production of useful products such as pharmaceuticals; and use of GM plants for bioremediation , have all been tested in over 400 field trials using tobacco. Currently, only the US is producing GM tobacco. The Chinese virus-resistant tobacco

6688-432: The "smoothness" of the smoke. Starch is converted to sugar, which glycates protein, which is oxidized into advanced glycation endproducts (AGEs), a caramelization process that also adds flavor. Inhalation of these AGEs in tobacco smoke contributes to atherosclerosis and cancer . Levels of AGEs are dependent on the curing method used. Tobacco can be cured through several methods, including: Some tobaccos go through

6840-498: The 1990s, this prompted the Food and Drug Administration to allege that tobacco companies were intentionally manipulating the nicotine content of cigarettes . The desire of many addicted smokers to quit has led to the development of tobacco cessation products . In 2003, in response to growth of tobacco use in developing countries, the World Health Organization successfully rallied 168 countries to sign

6992-940: The 2007–08 growing season. The child-laborers complained of low pay and long hours, as well as physical and sexual abuse by their supervisors. They also reported experiencing green tobacco sickness , a form of nicotine poisoning. When wet leaves are handled, nicotine from the leaves gets absorbed in the skin and causes nausea, vomiting, and dizziness. Children were exposed to levels of nicotine equivalent to smoking 50 cigarettes, just through direct contact with tobacco leaves. The effects of nicotine on human brain development in children can permanently alter brain structure and function. Major tobacco companies have encouraged global tobacco production. Philip Morris , British American Tobacco , and Japan Tobacco each own or lease tobacco-manufacturing facilities in at least 50 countries and buy crude tobacco leaf from at least 12 more countries. This encouragement, along with government subsidies, has led to

7144-787: The 68th chapter of the General History of the Indies , but Las Casas changed it into a volume of its own, recognizing that the material was not historical. The material contained in the Apologetic History is primarily ethnographic accounts of the indigenous cultures of the Indies – the Taíno , the Ciboney , and the Guanahatabey , but it also contains descriptions of many of the other indigenous cultures that Las Casas learned about through his travels and readings. The history

7296-530: The Americas, with some cultivation sites in Mexico dating back to 1400–1000 BC. Many Native American tribes traditionally grow and use tobacco. Historically, people from the Northeast Woodlands cultures have carried tobacco in pouches as a readily accepted trade item. It was smoked both socially and ceremonially , such as to seal a peace treaty or trade agreement. In some Native cultures, tobacco

7448-420: The Crown decreed that all copies of Las Casas's Confesionario be burnt, and his Franciscan adversary, Motolinia, obliged and sent back a report to Spain. Las Casas defended himself by writing two treatises on the "Just Title" – arguing that the only legality with which the Spaniards could claim titles over realms in the New World was through peaceful proselytizing. All warfare was illegal and unjust and only through

7600-475: The Framework Convention on Tobacco Control. The convention is designed to push for effective legislation and enforcement in all countries to reduce the harmful effects of tobacco. Between 2019 and 2021, concerns about increased COVID-19 health risks due to tobacco consumption facilitated smoking reduction and cessation. Many species of tobacco are in the genus of herbs Nicotiana . It is part of

7752-586: The Franciscans for arguing that conversions made without adequate understanding were invalid. Las Casas wrote a treatise called " De unico vocationis modo " (On the Only Way of Conversion) based on the missionary principles he had used in Guatemala. Motolinia would later be a fierce critic of Las Casas, accusing him of being all talk and no action when it came to converting the Indians. As a direct result of

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7904-619: The Globe Tobacco Company was out of business. Various small manufacturers rented portions of the building from 1916 until well into the 1970s. The building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1984. At one time the company Real Times Media , owner of black newspapers in the US, had its headquarters in the Globe Tobacco Building. Redstone Architects designed the renovation for

8056-705: The Greeks and the Romans, and they surpassed them by many good and better customs. They surpassed also the English and the French and some of the people of our own Spain; and they were incomparably superior to countless others, in having good customs and lacking many evil ones." This work in which Las Casas combined his own ethnographic observations with those of other writers, and compared customs and cultures between different peoples, has been characterized as an early beginning of

8208-618: The Hieronimytes. During this time the Hieronimytes had time to form a more pragmatic view of the situation than the one advocated by Las Casas; their position was precarious as every encomendero on the Islands was fiercely against any attempts to curtail their use of native labor. Consequently, the commissioners were unable to take any radical steps towards improving the situation of the natives. They did revoke some encomiendas from Spaniards, especially those who were living in Spain and not on

8360-461: The Indians and advocating a return to his original reform plan of 1516. In 1531, a complaint was sent by the encomenderos of Hispaniola that Las Casas was again accusing them of mortal sins from the pulpit. In 1533 he contributed to the establishment of a peace treaty between the Spanish and the rebel Taíno band of chief Enriquillo . In 1534, Las Casas made an attempt to travel to Peru to observe

8512-517: The Indies, was the first European to bring tobacco seeds to the Old World in 1559 following orders of King Philip II of Spain . These seeds were planted in the outskirts of Toledo , more specifically in an area known as "Los Cigarrales" named after the continuous plagues of cicadas ( cigarras in Spanish). Before the development of the lighter Virginia and white burley strains of tobacco, the smoke

8664-643: The Indigenous population. In 1515 he gave up his Native American laborers and encomienda . He then advocated, before Charles V , on behalf of rights for the natives. In his early writings, he advocated the use of African slaves to replace Indigenous labor. He did so without knowing that the Portuguese were carrying out "brutal and unjust wars in the name of spreading the faith". Later in life, he retracted this position, as he regarded both forms of slavery as equally wrong. In 1522, Las Casas tried to launch

8816-486: The New Laws, but for turning the encomiendas into perpetual patrimony of the encomenderos – the worst possible outcome from Las Casas's point of view. The encomenderos offered to buy the rights to the encomiendas from the Crown, and Charles V was inclined to accept since his wars had left him in deep economic troubles. Las Casas worked hard to convince the emperor that it would be a bad economic decision, that it would return

8968-775: The Spaniards of the area that he had to leave. Having been summoned to a meeting among the bishops of New Spain to be held in Mexico City on 12 January 1546, he left his diocese, never to return. At the meeting, probably after lengthy reflection, and realizing that the New Laws were lost in Mexico, Las Casas presented a moderated view on the problems of confession and restitution of property, Archbishop Juan de Zumárraga of Mexico and Bishop Julián Garcés of Puebla agreed completely with his new moderate stance, Bishop Vasco de Quiroga of Michoacán had minor reservations, and Bishops Francisco Marroquín of Guatemala and Juan Lopez de Zárate of Oaxaca did not object. This resulted in

9120-456: The Spanish could defend weak Indians against the abuses of the stronger ones. Las Casas countered that the scriptures did not in fact support war against all heathens, only against certain Canaanite tribes; that the Indians were not at all uncivilized nor lacking social order; that peaceful mission was the only true way of converting the natives; and finally that some weak Indians suffering at

9272-647: The Spanish empire as exceptionally morally corrupt and violent. It was republished several times by groups that were critical of the Spanish realm for political or religious reasons. The first edition in translation was published in Dutch in 1578, during the religious persecution of Dutch Protestants by the Spanish crown, followed by editions in French (1578), English (1583), and German (1599) – all countries where religious wars were raging. The first edition published in Spain after Las Casas's death appeared in Barcelona during

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9424-512: The Spanish word tabaco . The precise origin of this word is disputed, but it is generally thought to have derived, at least in part, from Taíno , the Arawakan language of the Caribbean . In Taíno, it was said to mean either a roll of tobacco leaves (according to Bartolomé de las Casas , 1552), or to tabago , a kind of L-shaped pipe used for sniffing tobacco smoke (according to Oviedo, with

9576-526: The United Nations, tobacco leaf production was expected to hit 7.1 million tons by 2010. This number is a bit lower than the record-high production of 1992, when 7.5 million tons of leaf were produced. The production growth was almost entirely due to increased productivity by developing nations, where production increased by 128%. During that same time, production in developed countries actually decreased. China's increase in tobacco production

9728-519: The United States have access to petroleum, coal, and natural gas, which can be used as alternatives to wood, most developing countries still rely on wood in the curing process. Brazil alone uses the wood of 60 million trees per year for curing, packaging, and rolling cigarettes. In 2017 WHO released a study on the environmental effects of tobacco. Several tobacco plants have been used as model organisms in genetics . Tobacco BY-2 cells , derived from N. tabacum cultivar 'Bright Yellow-2', are among

9880-471: The abolition of the encomienda , gaining an important victory by the passage of the New Laws in 1542. He was appointed Bishop of Chiapas , but served only for a short time before he was forced to return to Spain because of resistance to the New Laws by the encomenderos , and conflicts with Spanish settlers because of his pro-Indian policies and activist religious stance. He served in the Spanish court for

10032-726: The actions of the Spanish in the New World had been illegal and that they constituted a great injustice. He made up his mind to give up his slaves and encomienda, and started to preach that other colonists should do the same. When his preaching met with resistance, he realized that he would have to go to Spain to fight there against the enslavement and abuse of the native people. Aided by Pedro de Córdoba and accompanied by Antonio de Montesinos, he left for Spain in September 1515, arriving in Seville in November. Las Casas arrived in Spain with

10184-463: The area. In this way he was successful in converting several native chiefs, among them those of Atitlán and Chichicastenango , and in building several churches in the territory named Alta Verapaz . These congregated a group of Christian Indians in the location of what is now the town of Rabinal. In 1538 Las Casas was recalled from his mission by Bishop Marroquín who wanted him to go to Mexico and then on to Spain to seek more Dominicans to assist in

10336-650: The body" so that the bodies of the natives "are notably preserved in health, and know not many grievous diseases, wherewithal we in England are often times afflicted." Production of tobacco for smoking, chewing, and snuffing became a major industry in Europe and its colonies by 1700. Tobacco has been a major cash crop in Cuba and in other parts of the Caribbean since the 18th century. Cuban cigars are world-famous. In

10488-443: The building into office space in 1984. In 2014, Rock Ventures purchased the building and renovated it to house office space for various tech and small businesses. Designed by William Scott & Company, Alexander Chapoton built this six-story red brick Romanesque mill-style building with load-bearing masonry walls and heavy timbered roof and floors. The facade is divided into five bays. A 1 + 1 ⁄ 2 -story entrance archway

10640-403: The ceremony was officiated by Loaysa's nephew, Diego de Loaysa , Bishop of Modruš , with Pedro Torres , Titular Bishop of Arbanum , and Cristóbal de Pedraza , Bishop of Comayagua , as co-consecrators. As a bishop Las Casas was involved in frequent conflicts with the encomenderos and secular laity of his diocese: among the landowners there was the conquistador Bernal Díaz del Castillo . In

10792-521: The college. Bartolomé de Las Casas died on 18 July 1566, in Madrid. The text, written 1516, starts by describing its purpose: to present "The remedies that seem necessary in order that the evil and harm that exists in the Indies cease, and that God and our Lord the Prince may draw greater benefits than hitherto, and that the republic may be better preserved and consoled." Las Casas's first proposed remedy

10944-401: The colonial abuse of Indigenous peoples, especially by trying to convince the Spanish court to adopt a more humane policy of colonization. Although he did not completely succeed in changing Spanish views on colonization, his efforts did result in improvement of the legal status of the natives, and in an increased colonial focus on the ethics of colonialism. Following his death in 1566, Las Casas

11096-419: The commissioners broke down. Las Casas had become a hated figure by Spaniards all over the islands, and he had to seek refuge in the Dominican monastery. The Dominicans had been the first to indict the encomenderos, and they continued to chastise them and refuse the absolution of confession to slave owners, and even stated that priests who took their confession were committing a mortal sin . In May 1517, Las Casas

11248-446: The conclusions of his Democrates Alter , and then the council listened to Las Casas read his counterarguments in the form of an "Apología". Sepúlveda argued that the subjugation of certain Indians was warranted because of their sins against Natural Law; that their low level of civilization required civilized masters to maintain social order; that they should be made Christian and that this in turn required them to be pacified; and that only

11400-462: The construction of a monastery in Puerto Plata on the north coast of Hispaniola, subsequently serving as prior of the convent. In 1527 he began working on his History of the Indies , in which he reported much of what he had witnessed first hand in the conquest and colonization of New Spain. In 1531, he wrote a letter to Garcia Manrique , Count of Osorno , protesting again the mistreatment of

11552-419: The country's total cultivated area. In the southern regions of Brazil, Virginia, and Amarelinho, flue-cured tobacco, as well as burley and Galpão Comum air-cured tobacco, are produced. These types of tobacco are used for cigarettes. In the northeast, darker, air- and sun-cured tobacco is grown. These types of tobacco are used for cigars, twists, and dark cigarettes. Brazil's government has made attempts to reduce

11704-705: The debates between the Dominicans and Franciscans and spurred on by Las Casas's treatise, Pope Paul III promulgated the Bull Sublimis Deus , which stated that the Indians were rational beings and should be brought peacefully to the faith as such. Las Casas returned to Guatemala in 1537 wanting to employ his new method of conversion based on two principles: 1) to preach the Gospel to all men and treat them as equals, and 2) to assert that conversion must be voluntary and based on knowledge and understanding of

11856-420: The diocese had previously belonged. To Las Casas's dismay Bishop Marroquín openly defied the New Laws. While bishop, Las Casas was the principal consecrator of Antonio de Valdivieso , Bishop of Nicaragua (1544). The New Laws were finally repealed on 20 October 1545, and riots broke out against Las Casas, with shots being fired against him by angry colonists. After a year he had made himself so unpopular among

12008-527: The discipline of anthropology . The History of the Indies is a three-volume work begun in 1527 while Las Casas was in the Convent of Puerto de Plata. It found its final form in 1561, when he was working in the Colegio de San Gregorio. Originally planned as a six-volume work, each volume describes a decade of the history of the Indies from the arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1492 to 1520, and most of it

12160-405: The dismantlement of the city of Asunción and the subsequent gathering of Indians into communities of about 1,000 Indians to be situated as satellites of Spanish towns or mining areas. Here, Las Casas argued, Indians could be better governed, better taught and indoctrinated in the Christian faith, and would be easier to protect from abuse than if they were in scattered settlements. Each town would have

12312-528: The emperor on their behalf. Sometimes indigenous nobility even related their cases to him in Spain, for example, the Nahua noble Francisco Tenamaztle from Nochistlán . His influence at court was so great that some even considered that he had the final word in choosing the members of the Council of the Indies . In 1552, Las Casas published A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies . This book, written

12464-636: The encomienda system contributed to its replacement with reducciones . His testimonies on the peaceful nature of the Native Americans also encouraged nonviolent policies concerning the religious conversions of the Indians in New Spain and Peru . It also helped convince more missionaries to come to the Americas to study the indigenous people, such as Bernardino de Sahagún , who learned the native languages to discover more about their cultures and civilizations. The impact of Las Casas's doctrine

12616-575: The entourage of Christopher Columbus, being exhibited in the vicinity of the Iglesia de San Nicolás de Bari, along with "beautiful green parrots, vibrant in color" and Indigenous artifacts. Pedro de Las Casas, Bartolomé's merchant father, left in Christopher Columbus ' second expedition. Upon his return, in 1499, Pedro de Las Casas brought to his son "a young Amerinidian." Three years later, in 1502, Las Casas immigrated with his father to

12768-423: The export that saved Virginia from ruin. While a lucrative product, the growing expansion of tobacco demand was intimately tied to the history of slavery in the Caribbean. The alleged benefits of tobacco also contributed to its success. The astronomer Thomas Harriot , who accompanied Sir Richard Grenville on his 1585 expedition to Roanoke Island , thought that the plant "openeth all the pores and passages of

12920-419: The faith. It was important for Las Casas that this method be tested without meddling from secular colonists, so he chose a territory in the heart of Guatemala where there were no previous colonies and where the natives were considered fierce and war-like. Because the land had not been possible to conquer by military means, the governor of Guatemala, Alonso de Maldonado , agreed to sign a contract promising that if

13072-422: The first decades of colonization of the Caribbean islands . He described and railed against the atrocities committed by the conquistadores against the Indigenous peoples. Arriving as one of the first Spanish settlers in the Americas, Las Casas initially participated in the colonial economy built on forced Indigenous labor, but eventually felt compelled to oppose the abuses committed by European colonists against

13224-455: The first stages of conquest of that region by Francisco Pizarro . His party made it as far as Panama , but had to turn back to Nicaragua due to adverse weather. Lingering for a while in the Dominican convent of Granada , he got into conflict with Rodrigo de Contreras, Governor of Nicaragua, when Las Casas vehemently opposed slaving expeditions by the Governor. In 1536, Las Casas followed

13376-411: The following months, being constantly harassed by the Spanish pearl fishers of Cubagua island who traded slaves for alcohol with the natives. Early in 1522, Las Casas left the settlement to complain to the authorities. While he was gone the native Caribs attacked the settlement of Cumaná, burned it to the ground, and killed four of Las Casas's men. He returned to Hispaniola in January 1522, and heard

13528-405: The ground upwards, so a field of tobacco harvested in this manner entails the serial harvest of a number of "primings", beginning with the volado leaves near the ground, working to the seco leaves in the middle of the plant, and finishing with the potent ligero leaves at the top. Before harvesting, the crop must be topped when the pink flowers develop. Topping always refers to the removal of

13680-512: The grounds that he did not believe that the man had received sufficient doctrinal instruction. This letter, which reinvoked the old conflict over the requirements for the sacrament of baptism between the two orders, was intended to bring Las Casas in disfavour. However, it did not succeed. One matter in which he invested much effort was the political situation of the Viceroyalty of Peru . In Peru, power struggles between conquistadors and

13832-513: The groundwork for all genetically modified crops . Because of its importance as a research tool, transgenic tobacco was the first genetically modified (GM) crop to be tested in field trials, in the United States and France in 1986; China became the first country in the world to approve commercial planting of a GM crop in 1993, which was tobacco. Many varieties of transgenic tobacco have been intensively tested in field trials. Agronomic traits such as resistance to pathogens (viruses, particularly to

13984-483: The hands of stronger ones was preferable to all Indians suffering at the hands of Spaniards. The judge, Fray Domingo de Soto , summarised the arguments. Sepúlveda addressed Las Casas's arguments with twelve refutations, which were again countered by Las Casas. The judges then deliberated on the arguments presented for several months before coming to a verdict. The verdict was inconclusive, and both debaters claimed that they had won. Sepúlveda's arguments contributed to

14136-452: The hearings started in 1542, Las Casas presented a narrative of atrocities against the natives of the Indies that would later be published in 1552 as A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies . Before a council consisting of Cardinal García de Loaysa , the Count of Osorno , Bishop Fuenleal , and several members of the Council of the Indies , Las Casas argued that the only solution to

14288-480: The highly addictive stimulant alkaloid nicotine as well as harmala alkaloids . Tobacco use is a cause or risk factor for many deadly diseases, especially those affecting the heart , liver , and lungs as well as many cancers . In 2008, the World Health Organization named tobacco use as the world's single greatest preventable cause of death. The English word 'tobacco' originates from

14440-514: The indigenous people endured during the early stages of the Spanish conquest of the Greater Antilles , particularly the island of Hispaniola . Las Casas's point of view can be described as being heavily against some of the Spanish methods of colonization, which, as he described them, inflicted great losses on the indigenous occupants of the islands. In addition, his critique towards the colonizers served to bring awareness to his audience on

14592-399: The island of Hispaniola , on the expedition of Nicolás de Ovando . Las Casas became a hacendado and slave owner, receiving a piece of land in the province of Cibao . He participated in slave raids and military expeditions against the native Taíno population of Hispaniola. In 1506, he returned to Spain and completed his studies of canon law at Salamanca. That same year, he was ordained

14744-546: The islands themselves; they even repossessed the encomienda of Fonseca, the Bishop of Burgos . They also carried out an inquiry into the Indian question at which all the encomenderos asserted that the Indians were quite incapable of living freely without their supervision. Las Casas was disappointed and infuriated. When he accused the Hieronymites of being complicit in kidnapping Indians, the relationship between Las Casas and

14896-491: The journey were ill-received, and had to work hard even to survive in the hostile colonies. Las Casas was devastated by the tragic result of his peasant migration scheme, which he felt had been thwarted by his enemies. He decided instead to undertake a personal venture which would not rely on the support of others, and fought to win a land grant on the American mainland which was in its earliest stage of colonization. Following

15048-427: The king, Las Casas had to incorporate the prospect of profits for the royal treasury. He suggested fortifying the northern coast of Venezuela, establishing ten royal forts to protect the Indians and starting up a system of trade in gold and pearls. All the Indian slaves of the New World should be brought to live in these towns and become tribute paying subjects to the king. To secure the grant, Las Casas had to go through

15200-474: The late 19th century, cigarettes became popular. James Bonsack invented a machine to automate cigarette production. This increase in production allowed tremendous growth in the tobacco industry until the health revelations of the late 20th century. Following the scientific revelations of the mid-20th century, tobacco was condemned as a health hazard, and eventually became recognized as a cause of cancer, as well as other respiratory and circulatory diseases. In

15352-409: The laws in his domain, and instead sent a party to Spain to argue against the laws on behalf of the encomenderos. Las Casas himself was also not satisfied with the laws, as they were not drastic enough and the encomienda system was going to function for many years still under the gradual abolition plan. He drafted a suggestion for an amendment arguing that the laws against slavery were formulated in such

15504-597: The leaves themselves being referred to as cohiba ). However, perhaps coincidentally, similar words in Spanish, Portuguese and Italian were used from 1410 for certain medicinal herbs . These probably derived from the Arabic طُبّاق ṭubbāq (also طُباق ṭubāq ), a word reportedly dating to the ninth century, referring to various herbs. According to Iroquois mythology , tobacco first grew out of Earth Woman's head after she died giving birth to her twin sons , Sapling and Flint . Tobacco has long been used in

15656-419: The market price. While this price is guaranteed, it is lower than the natural market price, because of the lack of market risk. To further control tobacco in their borders, China founded a State Tobacco Monopoly Administration (STMA) in 1982. The STMA controls tobacco production, marketing, imports, and exports, and contributes 12% to the nation's national income. As noted above, despite the income generated for

15808-399: The mass baptism practiced by the Franciscans, resulting in a dictum condemning the practice as sacrilegious. But apart from the clerical business, Las Casas had also traveled to Spain for his own purpose: to continue the struggle against the colonists' mistreatment of the Indians. The encomienda had, in fact, legally been abolished in 1523, but it had been reinstituted in 1526, and in 1530

15960-584: The mission. Las Casas left Guatemala for Mexico, where he stayed for more than a year before setting out for Spain in 1540. In Spain, Las Casas started securing official support for the Guatemalan mission, and he managed to get a royal decree forbidding secular intrusion into the Verapaces for the following five years. He also informed the Theologians of Salamanca , led by Francisco de Vitoria , of

16112-409: The mistreatment of the indigenous peoples of the Americas in colonial times and sent to then-Prince Philip II of Spain . One of the stated purposes for writing the account was Las Casas's fear of Spain coming under divine punishment and his concern for the souls of the native peoples. The account was one of the first attempts by a Spanish writer of the colonial era to depict the unfair treatment that

16264-451: The monarch and discussed the situation in the Indies with him; the king agreed to hear him out in more detail at a later date. While waiting, Las Casas produced a report that he presented to the Bishop of Burgos, Juan Rodríguez de Fonseca , and secretary Lope Conchillos , who were functionaries in complete charge of the royal policies regarding the Indies; both were encomenderos. They were not impressed by his account, and Las Casas had to find

16416-411: The most important research tools in plant cytology . Tobacco has played a pioneering role in callus culture research and the elucidation of the mechanism by which kinetin works, laying the groundwork for modern agricultural biotechnology . The first genetically modified plant was produced in 1982, using Agrobacterium tumefaciens to create an antibiotic-resistant tobacco plant. This research laid

16568-487: The news of the massacre. The rumours even included him among the dead. To make matters worse, his detractors used the event as evidence of the need to pacify the Indians using military means. Devastated, Las Casas reacted by entering the Dominican monastery of Santa Cruz in Santo Domingo as a novice in 1522 and finally taking holy vows as a Dominican friar in 1523. There he continued his theological studies, being particularly attracted to Thomist philosophy. He oversaw

16720-697: The nightshade family ( Solanaceae ) indigenous to North and South America, Australia, south west Africa, and the South Pacific . Most nightshades contain varying amounts of nicotine , a powerful neurotoxin to insects . However, tobaccos tend to contain a much higher concentration of nicotine than the others. Unlike many other Solanaceae species, they do not contain tropane alkaloids , which are often poisonous to humans and other animals. Despite containing enough nicotine and other compounds such as germacrene and anabasine and other piperidine alkaloids (varying between species) to deter most herbivores ,

16872-640: The papal mandate of peacefully bringing Christianity to heathen peoples could "Just Titles" be acquired. As a part of Las Casas's defense by offense, he had to argue against Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda . Sepúlveda was a doctor of theology and law who, in his book Democrates Alter, sive de justis causis apud Indos (Another Democrates, or A New Democrates, or on the Just Causes of War against the Indians) had argued that some native peoples were incapable of ruling themselves and should be pacified forcefully. The book

17024-433: The period between planting the seeds in greenhouses and transplanting the young plants to the field. Pesticide use has been worsened by the desire to produce larger crops in less time because of the decreasing market value of tobacco. Pesticides often harm tobacco farmers because they are unaware of the health effects and the proper safety protocol for working with pesticides. These pesticides, as well as fertilizers, end up in

17176-638: The plan of convincing the King to end the encomienda system. This was easier thought than done, as most of the people who were in positions of power were themselves either encomenderos or otherwise profiting from the influx of wealth from the Indies. In the winter of 1515, King Ferdinand lay ill in Plasencia , but Las Casas was able to get a letter of introduction to the king from the Archbishop of Seville, Diego de Deza . On Christmas Eve of 1515, Las Casas met

17328-676: The policy of "war by fire and blood" that the Third Mexican Provincial Council implemented in 1585 during the Chichimeca War . According to Lewis Hanke , while Sepúlveda became the hero of the conquistadors , his success was short-lived, and his works were never published in Spain again during his lifetime. Las Casas's ideas had a more lasting impact on the decisions of the king, Philip II , as well as on history and human rights . Las Casas's criticism of

17480-484: The problem was to remove all Indians from the care of secular Spaniards, by abolishing the encomienda system and putting them instead directly under the Crown as royal tribute-paying subjects. On 20 November 1542, the emperor signed the New Laws abolishing the encomiendas and removing certain officials from the Council of the Indies. The New Laws made it illegal to use Indians as carriers, except where no other transport

17632-564: The production of tobacco but has not had a successful systematic antitobacco farming initiative. Brazil's government, however, provides small loans for family farms, including those that grow tobacco, through the Programa Nacional de Fortalecimento da Agricultura Familiar . The International Labour Office reported that the most child-laborers work in agriculture, which is one of the most hazardous types of work. The tobacco industry houses some of these working children. Use of children

17784-456: The regents a written account of the situation in the Indies and his proposed remedies. This was his " Memorial de Remedios para Las Indias " of 1516. In this early work, Las Casas advocated importing black slaves from Africa to relieve the suffering Indians, a stance he later retracted, becoming an advocate for the Africans in the colonies as well. This shows that Las Casas's first concern

17936-500: The remainder of his life; there he held great influence over Indies-related issues. In 1550, he participated in the Valladolid debate , in which Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda argued that the Indians were less than human, and required Spanish masters to become civilized. Las Casas maintained that they were fully human, and that forcefully subjugating them was unjustifiable. Las Casas spent 50 years of his life actively fighting slavery and

18088-514: The settlement of the monks because of the repeated slave raids by Spaniards operating from Cubagua. As Ocampo's ships began returning with slaves from the land Las Casas had been granted, he went to Hispaniola to complain to the Audiencia . After several months of negotiations Las Casas set sail alone; the peasants he had brought had deserted, and he arrived in his colony already ravaged by Spaniards. Las Casas worked there in adverse conditions for

18240-412: The sicknesses they incur from the excessive labor you give them, and they die, or rather you kill them, in order to extract and acquire gold every day." Las Casas himself argued against the Dominicans in favor of the justice of the encomienda . The colonists, led by Diego Columbus , dispatched a complaint against the Dominicans to the King, and the Dominicans were recalled from Hispaniola. In 1513, as

18392-442: The sixth floor is not divided into bays, but rather has evenly spaced rectangular window openings separated by pilasters. Square brick panelling is stepped out above the sixth floor, providing a bearing surface for the heavy roof timbers and protection from fire. On the interior, heavy timber floor beams are spaced about four feet apart and held up by girders, forming fireproof layers between floors. Tobacco Tobacco

18544-510: The soil, waterways, and the food chain. Coupled with child labor, pesticides pose an even greater threat. Early exposure to pesticides may increase a child's lifelong cancer risk, as well as harm their nervous and immune systems. As with all crops, tobacco crops extract nutrients (such as phosphorus , nitrogen , and potassium ) from soil, decreasing its fertility. Furthermore, the wood used to cure tobacco in some places leads to deforestation. While some big tobacco producers such as China and

18696-507: The state by profits from state-owned tobacco companies and the taxes paid by companies and retailers, China's government has acted to reduce tobacco use. India's Tobacco Board is headquartered in Guntur in the state of Andhra Pradesh . India has 96,865 registered tobacco farmers and many more who are not registered. In 2010, 3,120 tobacco product manufacturing facilities were operating in all of India. Around 0.25% of India's cultivated land

18848-399: The tobacco flower before the leaves are systematically harvested. As the industrial revolution took hold, the harvesting wagons which were used to transport leaves were equipped with man-powered stringers, an apparatus that used twine to attach leaves to a pole. In modern times, large fields are harvested mechanically, although topping the flower and in some cases the plucking of immature leaves

19000-435: The tools and resources they needed to establish themselves there. The recruitment drive was difficult, and during the process the power relation shifted at court when Chancellor Sauvage, Las Casas's main supporter, unexpectedly died. In the end a much smaller number of peasant families were sent than originally planned, and they were supplied with insufficient provisions and no support secured for their arrival. Those who survived

19152-494: The total labor, so that a part of the Indians were always resting and taking care of the sick. He proposed 12 other remedies, all having the specific aim of improving the situation for the Indians and limiting the powers that colonists were able to exercise over them. The second part of the Memorial described suggestions for the social and political organization of Indian communities relative to colonial ones. Las Casas advocated

19304-470: The true meaning of Christianity, to dismantle any misconceptions on evangelization. His account was largely responsible for the adoption of the New Laws of 1542 , which abolished native slavery for the first time in European colonial history and led to the Valladolid debate . The book became an important element in the creation and propagation of the so-called Black Legend – the tradition of describing

19456-461: The venture was successful he would not establish any new encomiendas in the area. Las Casas's group of friars established a Dominican presence in Rabinal , Sacapulas , and Cobán . Through the efforts of Las Casas's missionaries the so-called "Land of War" came to be called " Verapaz ", "True Peace". Las Casas's strategy was to teach Christian songs to merchant Indian Christians who then ventured into

19608-408: The viceroy became an open civil war in which the conquistadors led by Gonzalo Pizarro rebelled against the New Laws and defeated and executed the viceroy Blasco Núñez Vela in 1546. The emperor sent Pedro de la Gasca , a friend of Las Casas, to reinstate the rule of law, and he in turn defeated Pizarro. To restabilize the political situation the encomenderos started pushing not only for the repeal of

19760-481: The viceroyalty to the brink of open rebellion, and could result in the Crown losing the colony entirely. The emperor, probably because of the doubts caused by Las Casas's arguments, never took a final decision on the issue of the encomiendas. In 1561, he finished his Historia de las Indias and signed it over to the College of San Gregorio, stipulating that it could not be published until after forty years. In fact it

19912-468: The world. The top producers of tobacco are China (36.3%), India (12.9%), Brazil (11.9%) and Zimbabwe (3.5%). Around the peak of global tobacco production, 20 million rural Chinese households were producing tobacco on 2.1 million hectares of land. While it is the major crop for millions of Chinese farmers, growing tobacco is not as profitable as cotton or sugarcane, because the Chinese government sets

20064-437: The young king Charles I. Ximenez died on 8 November, and the young King arrived in Valladolid on 25 November 1517. Las Casas managed to secure the support of the king's Flemish courtiers, including the powerful Chancellor Jean de la Sauvage. Las Casas's influence turned the favor of the court against Secretary Conchillos and Bishop Fonseca. Sauvage spoke highly of Las Casas to the king, who appointed Las Casas and Sauvage to write

20216-501: Was a Spanish clergyman, writer, and activist best known for his work as an historian and social reformer. He arrived in Hispaniola as a layman, then became a Dominican friar. He was appointed as the first resident Bishop of Chiapas , and the first officially appointed " Protector of the Indians ". His extensive writings, the most famous being A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies and Historia de Las Indias , chronicle

20368-403: Was a change in the labor policy so that instead of a colonist owning the labor of specific Indians, he would have a right to man-hours, to be carried out by no specific persons. This required the establishment of self-governing Indian communities on the land of colonists – who would themselves organize to provide the labor for their patron. The colonist would only have rights to a certain portion of

20520-427: Was a complete moratorium on the use of Indian labor in the Indies until such time as better regulations of it were set in place. This was meant simply to halt the decimation of the Indian population and to give the surviving Indians time to reconstitute themselves. Las Casas feared that at the rate the exploitation was proceeding it would be too late to hinder their annihilation unless action were taken rapidly. The second

20672-710: Was also denied the possibilities of extracting gold and pearls, which made it difficult for him to find investors for the venture. Las Casas committed himself to producing 15,000 ducats of annual revenue, increasing to 60,000 after ten years, and to erecting three Christian towns of at least 40 settlers each. Some privileges were also granted to the initial 50 shareholders in Las Casas's scheme. The king also promised not to give any encomienda grants in Las Casas's area. That said, finding fifty men willing to invest 200 ducats each and three years of unpaid work proved impossible for Las Casas. He ended up leaving in November 1520 with just

20824-601: Was also limited. In 1550, the king had ordered that the conquest should cease, because the Valladolid debate was to decide whether the war was just or not. The government's orders were hardly respected; conquistadors such as Pedro de Valdivia went on to wage war in Chile during the first half of the 1550s. Expanding the Spanish territory in the New World was allowed again in May 1556, and a decade later, Spain started its conquest of

20976-552: Was available, it prohibited all taking of Indians as slaves, and it instated a gradual abolition of the encomienda system, with each encomienda reverting to the Crown at the death of its holders. It also exempted the few surviving Indians of Hispaniola , Cuba , Puerto Rico , and Jamaica from tribute and all requirements of personal service. However, the reforms were so unpopular in the New World that riots broke out and threats were made against Las Casas's life. The Viceroy of New Spain , himself an encomendero, decided not to implement

21128-442: Was deemed unsound for publication by the theologians of Salamanca and Alcalá for containing unsound doctrine, but the pro-encomendero faction seized on Sepúlveda as their intellectual champion. To settle the issues, a formal debate was organized, the famous Valladolid debate , which took place in 1550–51 with Sepúlveda and Las Casas each presenting their arguments in front of a council of jurists and theologians. First Sepúlveda read

21280-475: Was forced to travel back to Spain to denounce to the regent the failure of the Hieronymite reforms. Only after Las Casas had left did the Hieronymites begin to congregate Indians into towns similar to what Las Casas had wanted. When he arrived in Spain, his former protector, regent, and Cardinal Ximenez Cisneros , was ill and had become tired of Las Casas's tenacity. Las Casas resolved to meet instead with

21432-420: Was granted the official title of Protector of the Indians , and given a yearly salary of one hundred pesos. In this new office Las Casas was expected to serve as an advisor to the new governors with regard to Indian issues, to speak the case of the Indians in court, and send reports back to Spain. Las Casas and the commissioners traveled to Santo Domingo on separate ships, and Las Casas arrived two weeks later than

21584-415: Was incorporated in 1880, and by 1883 production was over 1,300,000 pounds annually. By 1888, the company had outgrown its facility on Atwater, and decided to construct a new facility. The company hired Alexander Chapoton to build the factory, and construction began in 1888. By 1892, Globe production was up to 2.5 million pounds annually. However, by 1916, the property was transferred to trustees, and by 1925

21736-424: Was met by a barrage of accusations, many of them based on his Confesionario and its 12 rules, which many of his opponents found to be in essence a denial of the legitimacy of Spanish rule of its colonies, and hence a form of treason . The Crown had for example received a fifth of the large number of slaves taken in the recent Mixtón War , and so could not be held clean of guilt under Las Casas's strict rules. In 1548,

21888-594: Was not published for 314 years, until 1875. He also had to repeatedly defend himself against accusations of treason: someone, possibly Sepúlveda , denounced him to the Spanish Inquisition , but nothing came from the case. Las Casas also appeared as a witness in the case of the Inquisition for his friend Archbishop Bartolomé Carranza de Miranda , who had been falsely accused of heresy. In 1565, he wrote his last will, signing over his immense library to

22040-424: Was not to end slavery as an institution, but to end the physical abuse and suffering of the Indians. In keeping with the legal and moral doctrine of the time, Las Casas believed that slavery could be justified if it was the result of Just War , and at the time he assumed that the enslavement of Africans was justified. Worried by Las Casas' descriptions of the situation in the Indies, Cardinal Cisneros decided to send

22192-554: Was of converso heritage, although others refer to them as ancient Christians who migrated from France. Following the testimony of Las Casas's biographer Antonio de Remesal, tradition has it that Las Casas studied a licentiate at Salamanca , but Las Casas does not say so in his own writings. Las Casas's first encounter with Indigenous peoples happened before he even sailed to the Americas. In his Historia de las Indias , he wrote of Christopher Columbus ' return to Seville , in 1493. Las Casas recorded having seen "seven Indians" in

22344-559: Was sometimes associated with promiscuity ; in Japan, during the Edo period , prostitutes and their clients often approached one another under the guise of offering a smoke. The same was true in 19th-century Europe. Bartolom%C3%A9 de las Casas Bartolomé de las Casas , OP ( US : / l ɑː s ˈ k ɑː s ə s / lahss KAH -səss ; Spanish: [baɾtoloˈme ðe las ˈkasas] ; 11 November 1484 – 18 July 1566)

22496-513: Was the single biggest factor in the increase in world production. China's share of the world market increased from 17% in 1971 to 47% in 1997. This growth can be partially explained by the existence of a low import tariff on foreign tobacco entering China. While this tariff was reduced from 66% in 1999 to 10% in 2004, it has still led to local Chinese cigarettes being preferred over foreign cigarettes because of their lower cost. Every year, about 5.9 million tons of tobacco are produced throughout

22648-440: Was to introduce a new kind of sustainable colonization, and Las Casas advocated supporting the migration of Spanish peasants to the Indies where they would introduce small-scale farming and agriculture, a kind of colonization that did not rely on resource depletion and Indian labor. Las Casas worked to recruit a large number of peasants who would want to travel to the islands, where they would be given lands to farm, cash advances, and

22800-399: Was too harsh to be inhaled. Small quantities were smoked at a time, using a pipe like the midwakh or kiseru , or newly invented waterpipes such as the bong or the hookah (see thuốc lào for a modern continuance of this practice). Tobacco became so popular that the English colony of Jamestown used it as currency and began exporting it as a cash crop; tobacco is often credited as being

22952-536: Was widely venerated as a holy figure, resulting in the opening of his cause for canonization in the Catholic Church . Bartolomé de las Casas was born in Seville ' on 11 November 1484. For centuries, Las Casas's birthdate was believed to be 1474; however, in the 1970s, scholars conducting archival work demonstrated this to be an error, after uncovering in the Archivo General de Indias records of

23104-483: Was withdrawn from the market in China in 1997. From 2002 to 2010, cigarettes made with GM tobacco with reduced nicotine content were available in the US under the market name Quest. Tobacco is consumed in many forms and through a number of different methods. Some examples are: Tobacco used in the mouth (buccal ( sublabial ), sublingual ): Smoking in public was, for a long time, reserved for men, and smoking by women

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