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67-764: It is located in the central and northern part of the province around the Minas Basin and Cobequid Bay , sub-basins of the Bay of Fundy . The route connects Amherst in Cumberland County , near the interprovincial boundary with New Brunswick , with Scot's Bay in Kings County, Nova Scotia . A spur of Glooscap Trail follows Trunk 2 in Truro , through the Shubenacadie Valley , to Enfield at

134-414: A breach may experience flooding similar to a natural event, while damage near a breach can be catastrophic, including carving out deep holes and channels in the nearby landscape. Under natural conditions, floodwaters return quickly to the river channel as water-levels drop. During a levee breach, water pours out into the floodplain and moves down-slope where it is blocked from return to the river. Flooding

201-400: A controlled inundation by the military or a measure to prevent inundation of a larger area surrounded by levees. Levees have also been built as field boundaries and as military defences . More on this type of levee can be found in the article on dry-stone walls . Levees can be permanent earthworks or emergency constructions (often of sandbags ) built hastily in a flood emergency. Some of

268-673: A disrespectful beaver (the beaver's dam had flooded Glooscap's garden). Glooscap smashed the beaver's dam and allowed the water to flow freely, creating the Bay of Fundy tides . Minas Basin The Minas Basin ( French : Bassin des Mines ) is an inlet of the Bay of Fundy and a sub-basin of the Fundy Basin located in Nova Scotia , Canada . It is known for its extremely high tides . The Minas Basin forms

335-612: A distance of some 610 km (380 mi). The scope and scale of the Mississippi levees has often been compared to the Great Wall of China . The United States Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) recommends and supports cellular confinement technology (geocells) as a best management practice. Particular attention is given to the matter of surface erosion, overtopping prevention and protection of levee crest and downstream slope. Reinforcement with geocells provides tensile force to

402-422: A dyke may be a drainage ditch or a narrow artificial channel off a river or broad for access or mooring, some longer dykes being named, e.g., Candle Dyke. In parts of Britain , particularly Scotland and Northern England , a dyke may be a field wall, generally made with dry stone . The main purpose of artificial levees is to prevent flooding of the adjoining countryside and to slow natural course changes in

469-622: A form of polderisation . Burntcoat Head , located on the "Noel Shore" along the south side of the Minas Basin, is the location of the highest tidal range ever recorded, exceeding 16-metre (52 ft) (during a spring tide only) and has one of the highest average tidal ranges every day. The waters of Minas Bay exchange with the main part of the Bay of Fundy through the Minas Channel which flows between Cape Split and Cape Sharp, creating extremely strong tidal currents. Near Cape d'Or,

536-444: A high suspended sediment fraction and thus are intimately associated with meandering channels, which also are more likely to occur where a river carries large fractions of suspended sediment. For similar reasons, they are also common in tidal creeks, where tides bring in large amounts of coastal silts and muds. High spring tides will cause flooding, and result in the building up of levees. Both natural and man-made levees can fail in

603-582: A means of transporting commodities such as lumber, apples and gypsum and powered Tide mills at locations such as Canning , Hantsport and Walton . Mining included gypsum (several locations including Windsor and Cheverie), iron (Londonderry), barite (near Walton and the Eureka Mine at Five Islands), manganese (several locations including Cheverie and Tennycape), and copper (the Colonial Copper Company at Cape d'Or ). Gypsum

670-428: A number of ways. Factors that cause levee failure include overtopping, erosion, structural failures, and levee saturation. The most frequent (and dangerous) is a levee breach . Here, a part of the levee actually breaks or is eroded away, leaving a large opening for water to flood land otherwise protected by the levee. A breach can be a sudden or gradual failure, caused either by surface erosion or by subsurface weakness in

737-799: A property-boundary marker or drainage channel. Where it carries a stream, it may be called a running dike as in Rippingale Running Dike , which leads water from the catchwater drain , Car Dyke, to the South Forty Foot Drain in Lincolnshire (TF1427). The Weir Dike is a soak dike in Bourne North Fen , near Twenty and alongside the River Glen , Lincolnshire . In the Norfolk and Suffolk Broads ,

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804-525: A ridge and increasing the river channel's capacity. Alternatively, levees can be artificially constructed from fill , designed to regulate water levels. In some circumstances, artificial levees can be environmentally damaging . Ancient civilizations in the Indus Valley , ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia and China all built levees. Today, levees can be found around the world, and failures of levees due to erosion or other causes can be major disasters, such as

871-412: A shorter route to the ocean and begin building a new delta. Wave action and ocean currents redistribute some of the sediment to build beaches along the coast. When levees are constructed all the way to the ocean, sediments from flooding events are cut off, the river never migrates, and elevated river velocity delivers sediment to deep water where wave action and ocean currents cannot redistribute. Instead of

938-421: A shorter time interval means higher river stage (height). As more levees are built upstream, the recurrence interval for high-water events in the river increases, often requiring increases in levee height. During natural flooding, water spilling over banks rises slowly. When a levee fails, a wall of water held back by the levee suddenly pours out over the landscape, much like a dam break. Impacted areas far from

1005-447: A waterway to provide reliable shipping lanes for maritime commerce over time; they also confine the flow of the river, resulting in higher and faster water flow. Levees can be mainly found along the sea, where dunes are not strong enough, along rivers for protection against high floods, along lakes or along polders . Furthermore, levees have been built for the purpose of impoldering, or as a boundary for an inundation area. The latter can be

1072-537: Is electrical resistivity tomography (ERT). This non-destructive geophysical method can detect in advance critical saturation areas in embankments. ERT can thus be used in monitoring of seepage phenomena in earth structures and act as an early warning system, e.g., in critical parts of levees or embankments. Large scale structures designed to modify natural processes inevitably have some drawbacks or negative impacts. Levees interrupt floodplain ecosystems that developed under conditions of seasonal flooding. In many cases,

1139-429: Is an elevated ridge , natural or artificial, alongside the banks of a river , often intended to protect against flooding of the area adjoining the river. It is usually earthen and often runs parallel to the course of a river in its floodplain or along low-lying coastlines. Naturally occuring levees form on river floodplains following flooding, where sediment and alluvium is deposited and settles, forming

1206-546: Is below mean sea level. These typically man-made hydraulic structures are situated to protect against erosion. They are typically placed in alluvial rivers perpendicular, or at an angle, to the bank of the channel or the revetment , and are used widely along coastlines. There are two common types of spur dyke, permeable and impermeable, depending on the materials used to construct them. Natural levees commonly form around lowland rivers and creeks without human intervention. They are elongated ridges of mud and/or silt that form on

1273-420: Is important in order to design stable levee and floodwalls . There have been numerous studies to investigate the erodibility of soils. Briaud et al. (2008) used Erosion Function Apparatus (EFA) test to measure the erodibility of the soils and afterwards by using Chen 3D software, numerical simulations were performed on the levee to find out the velocity vectors in the overtopping water and the generated scour when

1340-451: Is permanently diverted through the gap. Sometimes levees are said to fail when water overtops the crest of the levee. This will cause flooding on the floodplains, but because it does not damage the levee, it has fewer consequences for future flooding. Among various failure mechanisms that cause levee breaches, soil erosion is found to be one of the most important factors. Predicting soil erosion and scour generation when overtopping happens

1407-573: Is prolonged over such areas, waiting for floodwater to slowly infiltrate and evaporate. Natural flooding adds a layer of sediment to the floodplain. The added weight of such layers over many centuries makes the crust sink deeper into the mantle , much like a floating block of wood is pushed deeper into the water if another board is added on top. The momentum of downward movement does not immediately stop when new sediment layers stop being added, resulting in subsidence (sinking of land surface). In coastal areas, this results in land dipping below sea level,

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1474-481: The Avon River . Rarely, fossils have been found at Evangeline Beach, Burntcoat Head, and other locations. These fossils include various shells ( brachiopods , molluscs ), sponges , trees , fish , amphibians , reptiles , and dinosaurs . Trace fossils include vertebrate footprints, fish fin-tracks , invertebrate trackways (ex. scorpions at Blue Beach), raindrop imprints, and wave ripples. They range from

1541-743: The Canard River , Diligent River, Farrell River , and the Debert River. Along the northern edge of the Minas Basin lies a chain of intermittent high-cliffed basaltic bluffs and islands called the Basalt Headlands . On the northern shore of the Minas Basin, around the Gaspereau River , and around the Salmon River , extensive areas of farmland have been created using dykes with sluices (one-way flow control valves),

1608-525: The Nile Delta on the shores of the Mediterranean . The Mesopotamian civilizations and ancient China also built large levee systems. Because a levee is only as strong as its weakest point, the height and standards of construction have to be consistent along its length. Some authorities have argued that this requires a strong governing authority to guide the work and may have been a catalyst for

1675-643: The "Baie des Mines"', later Anglicized to Minas Basin. French Acadian settlements began in the late 1600s first with settlements around the southern shore of the Minas Basin which became known as Les Mines . The Acadians had a particularly significant impact on the area in that they reclaimed considerable farmland through the use of dykes and aboiteaux . They founded in the area Grand-Pré , Les Mines , Pisiguit , Cobequid , Rivière-aux-Canards , and Beaubassin . Even today their dyke systems—greatly expanded by later additions—are still used near Truro and Wolfville at Port Williams and Grand Pré . In 1755,

1742-589: The British forcibly expelled the over 12,000 Acadians from Grand Pré , Pisiguit , Cobequid , and Beaubassin , in what became known as the Grand Dérangement, or Great Expulsion . During the Acadian era, virtually all inhabitants lived in distributed clusters or villages , with no single place dominating. The area was administered from Port Royal, later Annapolis Royal . The following table shows

1809-652: The Fundy Shore segment is 119 km (74 mi) long. According to a Mikmaq legend, Glooscap was a giant god-like man who was created by Gisoolg (the Great Spirit Creator) and lived on the high cliffs of Cape Blomidon , overlooking the Bay of Fundy . He was created by a lightning bolt striking sand. The legend credits Glooscap with creating the Five Islands in the Minas Basin . These islands were formed from giant clods of mud thrown by Glooscap at

1876-671: The Minas Basin were sustained by fishing , logging , farming , mining , boat building and shipbuilding . In the late 19th Century the Basin's shipyards produced some of the highest numbers of wooden ships in Canadian history and some of the largest, including the ship William D. Lawrence , the largest wooden ship built in Canada along with the giant barques Kings County , Canada's largest four masted-barque and Hamburg , Canada's largest three-masted barque. The tidal water also provided

1943-968: The Minas Basin. Community parks interpreting the Basin include the Kingsport waterfront in Kings County ; the Walton Lighthouse and Burntcoat Head Lighthouse in Hants County and the Lookout Tower in Economy and the Ottawa House Museum in Parrsboro in Cumberland County . The Mi'kmaq were the first people to inhabit the area around the Minas Basin. Mi'kmaq tradition ties the god Glooscap in with significant geographical features such as Cape Blomidon and Five Islands . European explorers and traders arrived in

2010-638: The Mississippi, stretching from Cape Girardeau , Missouri , to the Mississippi delta . They were begun by French settlers in Louisiana in the 18th century to protect the city of New Orleans . The first Louisiana levees were about 90 cm (3 ft) high and covered a distance of about 80 km (50 mi) along the riverside. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, in conjunction with the Mississippi River Commission, extended

2077-755: The basalts include calcite , magnetite , copper , and quartz (often as amethyst ). Beautiful agate is also found. In the sedimentary rocks, gypsum is commonly found at Blomidon, Clarke Head, and near Windsor in both the colorless variety (selenite) and the fibrous variety (satin spar), the latter sometimes being bright orange. Other minerals from the sedimentary rocks include pyrite , calcite , barite , manganite , and pyrolusite . Small amounts of fluorite , celestite , howlite have also been found at Cheverie. Levee A levee ( / ˈ l ɛ v i / or / ˈ l ɛ v eɪ / ), dike ( American English ), dyke ( British English ; see spelling differences ), embankment , floodbank , or stop bank

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2144-629: The beginning of the Carboniferous to the Jurassic . They were deposited when the region was warm and tropical , later when it was covered by a shallow sea, and later still when it was a desert . Minerals include a variety zeolites from the basalt cliffs at Cape Split, the area around Parrsboro, Five Islands and Cap D'Or. These include Nova Scotia's provincial mineral stilbite , as well as heulandite , analcime , chabazite , gmelinite , natrolite and thomsonite . Other minerals found in

2211-622: The boundary with Halifax Regional Municipality . The Fundy Shore segment branches off from the main route in Parrsboro and continues along the Minas Basin shore until reaching Advocate Harbour , where the route then follows the Chignecto Bay , outlining the Chignecto Peninsula. The main route measures 357 km (222 mi), with the Shubenacadie Valley spur being 59 km (37 mi). Additionally,

2278-657: The catastrophic 2005 levee failures in Greater New Orleans that occurred as a result of Hurricane Katrina . Speakers of American English use the word levee , from the French word levée (from the feminine past participle of the French verb lever , 'to raise'). It originated in New Orleans a few years after the city's founding in 1718 and was later adopted by English speakers. The name derives from

2345-637: The city of Vancouver , British Columbia , there are levees (known locally as dikes, and also referred to as "the sea wall") to protect low-lying land in the Fraser River delta, particularly the city of Richmond on Lulu Island . There are also dikes to protect other locations which have flooded in the past, such as the Pitt Polder, land adjacent to the Pitt River , and other tributary rivers. Coastal flood prevention levees are also common along

2412-482: The combined flow of all the rivers and streams on Earth together (about 4-cubic-kilometre (0.96 cu mi) per hour). Several communities border the Minas Basin or the rivers that flow into it. The largest is the town of Truro which lies at the head of Cobequid Bay. Smaller centres include Parrsboro , Wolfville , Windsor and Maitland . Other communities include Great Village , Bass River , Five Islands , Economy , Walton , and Kingsport . Historically,

2479-488: The development of systems of governance in early civilizations. However, others point to evidence of large-scale water-control earthen works such as canals and/or levees dating from before King Scorpion in Predynastic Egypt , during which governance was far less centralized. Another example of a historical levee that protected the growing city-state of Mēxihco-Tenōchtitlan and the neighboring city of Tlatelōlco,

2546-588: The earliest levees were constructed by the Indus Valley civilization (in Pakistan and North India from c.  2600 BCE ) on which the agrarian life of the Harappan peoples depended. Levees were also constructed over 3,000 years ago in ancient Egypt , where a system of levees was built along the left bank of the River Nile for more than 1,000 kilometers (600 miles), stretching from modern Aswan to

2613-435: The early 1600s. Among them were the French explorer Samuel de Champlain who explored the copper deposits at Cape d'Or at the entrance to the Basin in 1607. Champlain bestowed the name Port of Mines onto the nearby Advocate Harbour to reflect the seams of copper ore at Cape d'Or. While the French did not establish a mine, the name "Les Mines" became associated with the upper Bay of Fundy beyond Cape d'Or which became known as

2680-479: The earth together. On the land side of high levees, a low terrace of earth known as a banquette is usually added as another anti-erosion measure. On the river side, erosion from strong waves or currents presents an even greater threat to the integrity of the levee. The effects of erosion are countered by planting suitable vegetation or installing stones, boulders, weighted matting, or concrete revetments . Separate ditches or drainage tiles are constructed to ensure that

2747-481: The eastern part of the Bay of Fundy which splits at Cape Chignecto and is delineated by the massive basalt headlands of Cape Split and Cape d'Or . The Minas Basin is divided into four sections: (1) the Minas Channel, from the shortest line between Cape Chignecto and the Annapolis Valley Shore to Minas Passage, between Parrsboro and Cape Blomidon ; (2) Central Minas Basin, from Minas Passage to

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2814-938: The foundation does not become waterlogged. Prominent levee systems have been built along the Mississippi River and Sacramento River in the United States , and the Po , Rhine , Meuse River , Rhône , Loire , Vistula , the delta formed by the Rhine, Maas/Meuse and Scheldt in the Netherlands and the Danube in Europe . During the Chinese Warring States period , the Dujiangyan irrigation system

2881-450: The impact is two-fold, as reduced recurrence of flooding also facilitates land-use change from forested floodplain to farms. In a natural watershed, floodwaters spread over a landscape and slowly return to the river. Downstream, the delivery of water from the area of flooding is spread out in time. If levees keep the floodwaters inside a narrow channel, the water is delivered downstream over a shorter time period. The same volume of water over

2948-462: The inland coastline behind the Wadden Sea , an area devastated by many historic floods. Thus the peoples and governments have erected increasingly large and complex flood protection levee systems to stop the sea even during storm floods. The biggest of these are the huge levees in the Netherlands , which have gone beyond just defending against floods, as they have aggressively taken back land that

3015-549: The laboratory tests, empirical correlations related to average overtopping discharge were derived to analyze the resistance of levee against erosion. These equations could only fit to the situation, similar to the experimental tests, while they can give a reasonable estimation if applied to other conditions. Osouli et al. (2014) and Karimpour et al. (2015) conducted lab scale physical modeling of levees to evaluate score characterization of different levees due to floodwall overtopping. Another approach applied to prevent levee failures

3082-528: The levee system beginning in 1882 to cover the riverbanks from Cairo, Illinois to the mouth of the Mississippi delta in Louisiana. By the mid-1980s, they had reached their present extent and averaged 7.3 m (24 ft) in height; some Mississippi levees are as high as 15 m (50 ft). The Mississippi levees also include some of the longest continuous individual levees in the world. One such levee extends southwards from Pine Bluff , Arkansas , for

3149-420: The levee. A breach can leave a fan-shaped deposit of sediment radiating away from the breach, described as a crevasse splay . In natural levees, once a breach has occurred, the gap in the levee will remain until it is again filled in by levee building processes. This increases the chances of future breaches occurring in the same location. Breaches can be the location of meander cutoffs if the river flow direction

3216-475: The levees in the area, created for the purpose of farming the fertile tidal marshlands. These levees are referred to as dykes. They are constructed with hinged sluice gates that open on the falling tide to drain freshwater from the agricultural marshlands and close on the rising tide to prevent seawater from entering behind the dyke. These sluice gates are called " aboiteaux ". In the Lower Mainland around

3283-543: The main channel, this will make levee overtopping more likely again, and the levees can continue to build up. In some cases, this can result in the channel bed eventually rising above the surrounding floodplains, penned in only by the levees around it; an example is the Yellow River in China near the sea, where oceangoing ships appear to sail high above the plain on the elevated river. Levees are common in any river with

3350-445: The majority of The Lake being drained in the 17th century. Levees are usually built by piling earth on a cleared, level surface. Broad at the base, they taper to a level top, where temporary embankments or sandbags can be placed. Because flood discharge intensity increases in levees on both river banks , and because silt deposits raise the level of riverbeds , planning and auxiliary measures are vital. Sections are often set back from

3417-707: The mouth of Cobequid Bay, the shortest line point between Economy and the Noel Shore; (3) Cobequid Bay which extends to the mouth of the Salmon River ; and (4) the Southern Bight, from the mouth of the Avon River to the shortest line between Cape Blomidon and the Noel Shore. Several large rivers drain into the Minas Basin: the Shubenacadie River , Cornwallis River , Avon River , Gaspereau River , and Salmon River . Lesser rivers include

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3484-482: The north and southern sides of the basin were connected by a succession of ferries, which operated for more than 200 years, from Acadian times to 1941. The last ferry connected Parrsboro, Wolfville, and Kingsport and was called the MV Kipawo ferry, whose name was derived from the three communities. Provincial parks at Anthony (near Truro), Five Islands , and Cape Blomidon allow visitors to enjoy and explore

3551-399: The ocean migrating inland, and salt-water intruding into freshwater aquifers. Where a large river spills out into the ocean, the velocity of the water suddenly slows and its ability to transport sand and silt decreases. Sediments begin to settle out, eventually forming a delta and extending to the coastline seaward. During subsequent flood events, water spilling out of the channel will find

3618-484: The overtopping water impinges the levee. By analyzing the results from EFA test, an erosion chart to categorize erodibility of the soils was developed. Hughes and Nadal in 2009 studied the effect of combination of wave overtopping and storm surge overflow on the erosion and scour generation in levees. The study included hydraulic parameters and flow characteristics such as flow thickness, wave intervals, surge level above levee crown in analyzing scour development. According to

3685-589: The population of the region during the Acadian era: The vacant Acadian settlements around the Minas Basin were succeeded by the New England Planters who arrived in 1760 and were later joined by Loyalists settlers in the 1780s. The Planters maintained operation of the ferry, rebuilt and expanded the Acadian dyke systems, and reclaimed more farmland from the Basin through projects like the Wellington Dyke in 1816. The communities around

3752-454: The rebellious Batavi pierced dikes to flood their land and to protect their retreat (70  CE ). The word dijk originally indicated both the trench and the bank . It closely parallels the English verb to dig . In Anglo-Saxon , the word dic already existed and was pronounced as dick in northern England and as ditch in the south. Similar to Dutch, the English origins of

3819-413: The river floodplains immediately adjacent to the cut banks. Like artificial levees, they act to reduce the likelihood of floodplain inundation. Deposition of levees is a natural consequence of the flooding of meandering rivers which carry high proportions of suspended sediment in the form of fine sands, silts, and muds. Because the carrying capacity of a river depends in part on its depth, the sediment in

3886-440: The river to form a wider channel, and flood valley basins are divided by multiple levees to prevent a single breach from flooding a large area. A levee made from stones laid in horizontal rows with a bed of thin turf between each of them is known as a spetchel . Artificial levees require substantial engineering. Their surface must be protected from erosion, so they are planted with vegetation such as Bermuda grass in order to bind

3953-590: The riverbed, even up to a point where the riverbed is higher than the adjacent ground surface behind the levees, are found for the Yellow River in China and the Mississippi in the United States. Levees are very common on the marshlands bordering the Bay of Fundy in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia , Canada . The Acadians who settled the area can be credited with the original construction of many of

4020-404: The soil to better resist instability. Artificial levees can lead to an elevation of the natural riverbed over time; whether this happens or not and how fast, depends on different factors, one of them being the amount and type of the bed load of a river. Alluvial rivers with intense accumulations of sediment tend to this behavior. Examples of rivers where artificial levees led to an elevation of

4087-492: The trait of the levee's ridges being raised higher than both the channel and the surrounding floodplains. The modern word dike or dyke most likely derives from the Dutch word dijk , with the construction of dikes well attested as early as the 11th century. The 126-kilometer-long (78 mi) Westfriese Omringdijk , completed by 1250, was formed by connecting existing older dikes. The Roman chronicler Tacitus mentions that

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4154-458: The turbulent collision of currents is known as the Dory Rips . The water in Minas Basin is a dense and nearly opaque reddish brown due to large amounts of suspended silt which are continually churned by tidal currents. At mid-tide, the currents exceed 8 knots (4-metre (13 ft) per second), and the flow in the deep, 5-kilometre (3.1 mi) -wide channel on the north side of Cape Split equals

4221-494: The water which is over the flooded banks of the channel is no longer capable of keeping the same number of fine sediments in suspension as the main thalweg . The extra fine sediments thus settle out quickly on the parts of the floodplain nearest to the channel. Over a significant number of floods, this will eventually result in the building up of ridges in these positions and reducing the likelihood of further floods and episodes of levee building. If aggradation continues to occur in

4288-482: The word lie in digging a trench and forming the upcast soil into a bank alongside it. This practice has meant that the name may be given to either the excavation or to the bank. Thus Offa's Dyke is a combined structure and Car Dyke is a trench – though it once had raised banks as well. In the English Midlands and East Anglia , and in the United States, a dike is what a ditch is in the south of England,

4355-642: Was built by the Qin as a water conservation and flood control project. The system's infrastructure is located on the Min River , which is the longest tributary of the Yangtze River , in Sichuan , China . The Mississippi levee system represents one of the largest such systems found anywhere in the world. It comprises over 5,600 km (3,500 mi) of levees extending some 1,000 km (620 mi) along

4422-488: Was constructed during the early 1400s, under the supervision of the tlahtoani of the altepetl Texcoco, Nezahualcoyotl. Its function was to separate the brackish waters of Lake Texcoco (ideal for the agricultural technique Chināmitls ) from the fresh potable water supplied to the settlements. However, after the Europeans destroyed Tenochtitlan, the levee was also destroyed and flooding became a major problem, which resulted in

4489-593: Was shipped from Hantsport until 2009. There have been attempts to generate energy from the rough waters of Minas Basin. However, the attempts were not successful. Marine mammals include seals and porpoises . Fish include bass , shad, and flounder ; lobster , crab , mussel , and clam are common. Many types of seaweed , sponges , worms , seajellys and more are also found. Birds include sandpipers , terns (visitors only), eagles , falcons , seagulls , herons , and kingfishers . Fossils are found near Parrsboro , Blue Beach and other areas along

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