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62-522: The Graduate Management Admission Test ( GMAT ( / ˈ dʒ iː m æ t / ( JEE -mat ))) is a computer adaptive test (CAT) intended to assess certain analytical, quantitative, verbal, and data literacy skills for use in admission to a graduate management program, such as a Master of Business Administration (MBA) program. Answering the test questions requires reading comprehension, and mathematical skills such as arithmetic, and algebra. The Graduate Management Admission Council (GMAC) owns and operates

124-453: A Bayesian method may have to be used temporarily. The CAT algorithm is designed to repeatedly administer items and update the estimate of examinee ability. This will continue until the item pool is exhausted unless a termination criterion is incorporated into the CAT. Often, the test is terminated when the examinee's standard error of measurement falls below a certain user-specified value, hence

186-402: A CAT (the following is adapted from Weiss & Kingsbury, 1984 ). This list does not include practical issues, such as item pretesting or live field release. A pool of items must be available for the CAT to choose from. Such items can be created in the traditional way (i.e., manually) or through automatic item generation . The pool must be calibrated with a psychometric model, which is used as

248-454: A basis for the remaining four components. Typically, item response theory is employed as the psychometric model. One reason item response theory is popular is because it places persons and items on the same metric (denoted by the Greek letter theta), which is helpful for issues in item selection (see below). In CAT, items are selected based on the examinee's performance up to a given point in

310-399: A higher level of precision than a fixed version. This translates into time savings for the test-taker. Test-takers do not waste their time attempting items that are too hard or trivially easy. Additionally, the testing organization benefits from the time savings; the cost of examinee seat time is substantially reduced. However, because the development of a CAT involves much more expense than

372-425: A more difficult question. Or, if they performed poorly, they would be presented with a simpler question. Compared to static tests that nearly everyone has experienced, with a fixed set of items administered to all examinees, computer-adaptive tests require fewer test items to arrive at equally accurate scores. The basic computer-adaptive testing method is an iterative algorithm with the following steps: Nothing

434-400: A near-inclusive bibliography of all published CAT research. Adaptive tests can provide uniformly precise scores for most test-takers. In contrast, standard fixed tests almost always provide the best precision for test-takers of medium ability and increasingly poorer precision for test-takers with more extreme test scores. An adaptive test can typically be shortened by 50% and still maintain

496-427: A new item is to be selected instantaneously. Psychometricians experienced with IRT calibrations and CAT simulation research are necessary to provide validity documentation. Finally, a software system capable of true IRT-based CAT must be available. In a CAT with a time limit it is impossible for the examinee to accurately budget the time they can spend on each test item and to determine if they are on pace to complete

558-411: A priori distribution of examinee ability, and has two commonly used estimators: expectation a posteriori and maximum a posteriori . Maximum likelihood is equivalent to a Bayes maximum a posteriori estimate if a uniform ( f (x)=1) prior is assumed. Maximum likelihood is asymptotically unbiased, but cannot provide a theta estimate for an unmixed (all correct or incorrect) response vector, in which case

620-527: A problem or recognize the fact that there is insufficient information given to solve a particular problem. No longer part of the GMAT exam, the AWA consisted of a 30-minute writing task—analysis of an argument. It was important to be able to analyze the reasoning behind a given argument and write a critique of that argument. The essay was given two independent ratings and these ratings were averaged together to determine

682-478: A similar functional ability level. In fact, a completely randomized exam is the most secure (but also least efficient). Review of past items is generally disallowed. Adaptive tests tend to administer easier items after a person answers incorrectly. Supposedly, an astute test-taker could use such clues to detect incorrect answers and correct them. Or, test-takers could be coached to deliberately pick wrong answers, leading to an increasingly easier test. After tricking

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744-428: A solution. Possible answers are given in a table format with a column for each component and rows with possible options. Test takers have to choose one response per column. Data sufficiency is a question type unique to the GMAT designed to measure the ability to understand and analyze a quantitative problem, recognize what information is relevant or irrelevant and determine at what point there is enough information to solve

806-456: A standard fixed-form test, a large population is necessary for a CAT testing program to be financially fruitful. Large target populations can generally be exhibited in scientific and research-based fields. CAT testing in these aspects may be used to catch early onset of disabilities or diseases. The growth of CAT testing in these fields has increased greatly in the past 10 years. Once not accepted in medical facilities and laboratories, CAT testing

868-557: A timed test section. Test takers may thus be penalized for spending too much time on a difficult question which is presented early in a section and then failing to complete enough questions to accurately gauge their proficiency in areas which are left untested when time expires. While untimed CATs are excellent tools for formative assessments which guide subsequent instruction, timed CATs are unsuitable for high-stakes summative assessments used to measure aptitude for jobs and educational programs. There are five technical components in building

930-500: A verbal exam may need to be composed of equal numbers of analogies, fill-in-the-blank and synonym item types. CATs typically have some form of item exposure constraints, to prevent the most informative items from being over-exposed. Also, on some tests, an attempt is made to balance surface characteristics of the items such as gender of the people in the items or the ethnicities implied by their names. Thus CAT exams are frequently constrained in which items it may choose and for some exams

992-458: Is administered, the CAT updates its estimate of the examinee's ability level. If the examinee answered the item correctly, the CAT will likely estimate their ability to be somewhat higher, and vice versa. This is done by using the item response function from item response theory to obtain a likelihood function of the examinee's ability. Two methods for this are called maximum likelihood estimation and Bayesian estimation . The latter assumes an

1054-450: Is extremely important. Some modifications are necessary for a pass/fail CAT, also known as a computerized classification test (CCT) . For examinees with true scores very close to the passing score, computerized classification tests will result in long tests while those with true scores far above or below the passing score will have shortest exams. For example, a new termination criterion and scoring algorithm must be applied that classifies

1116-431: Is known about the examinee prior to the administration of the first item, so the algorithm is generally started by selecting an item of medium, or medium-easy, difficulty as the first item. As a result of adaptive administration, different examinees receive quite different tests. Although examinees are typically administered different tests, their ability scores are comparable to one another (i.e., as if they had received

1178-422: Is now encouraged in the scope of diagnostics. Like any computer-based test , adaptive tests may show results immediately after testing. Adaptive testing, depending on the item selection algorithm , may reduce exposure of some items because examinees typically receive different sets of items rather than the whole population being administered a single set. However, it may increase the exposure of others (namely

1240-411: Is two hours and 15 minutes to answer 64 questions, and test takers have 45 minutes for each section. All three sections of the GMAT exam are multiple-choice and are administered in a computer-adaptive format, adjusting to a test taker's level of ability. At the start of each section, test takers are presented with a question of average difficulty. As questions are answered correctly, the computer presents

1302-509: Is used in the Uniform Certified Public Accountant Examination . MST avoids or reduces some of the disadvantages of CAT as described below. CAT has existed since the 1970s, and there are now many assessments that utilize it. Additionally, a list of active CAT exams is found at International Association for Computerized Adaptive Testing, along with a list of current CAT research programs and

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1364-445: The 99th percentile. Computerized adaptive testing CAT successively selects questions for the purpose of maximizing the precision of the exam based on what is known about the examinee from previous questions. From the examinee's perspective, the difficulty of the exam seems to tailor itself to their level of ability. For example, if an examinee performs well on an item of intermediate difficulty, they will then be presented with

1426-602: The Analytical Writing Assessment (AWA), this section was scored separately from the Quantitative and Verbal section. Performance on the IR and AWA sections did not contribute to the total GMAT score. The total GMAT Exam (Focus Edition) score ranges from 205 to 805 and measures performance on all three sections together. Scores are given in increments of 10 (e.g. 545, 555, 565, 575, etc.). In 2023, for

1488-469: The GMAT Exam (Focus Edition), the score scale for the exam was adjusted to reflect changes in the test-taking population, which has become more diverse and global. Over the years, scores had shifted significantly, resulting in an uneven distribution. The updated score scale fixed that, allowing schools to better differentiate performance on the exam. The final score is not based solely on the last question

1550-589: The GMAT is still the number one choice for MBA aspirants. According to GMAC, it has continually performed validity studies to statistically verify that the exam predicts success in business school programs. The number of test-takers of GMAT plummeted from 2012 to 2021 as more students opted for an MBA program that didn't require the GMAT. In 1953, the organization now called the Graduate Management Admission Council (GMAC) began as an association of nine business schools , whose goal

1612-447: The GMAT seeks to measure the ability to reason quantitatively and solve quantitative problems. Questions require knowledge of certain algebra and arithmetic. There is only one type of quantitative question: problem-solving and data sufficiency. The use of calculators is not allowed on the quantitative section of the GMAT. Test takers must do their math work out by hand using a wet erase pen and laminated graph paper which are given to them at

1674-509: The MBA programs while undergraduate GPA had a 0.35 correlation, suggesting that undergraduate performance was a stronger predictor of graduate school performance than GMAT scores. The AACSB score (a combination of GMAT total score and undergraduate GPA) provided the best predictive power (0.45 correlation) for the first-year performance on MBA core courses. In 2017, GMAC conducted a large-scale validity study involving 28 graduate business programs, and

1736-448: The adaptive test into building a maximally easy exam, they could then review the items and answer them correctly—possibly achieving a very high score. Test-takers frequently complain about the inability to review. Because of the sophistication, the development of a CAT has a number of prerequisites. The large sample sizes (typically hundreds of examinees) required by IRT calibrations must be present. Items must be scorable in real time if

1798-409: The common "mastery test" where the two classifications are "pass" and "fail", but also includes situations where there are three or more classifications, such as "Insufficient", "Basic", and "Advanced" levels of knowledge or competency. The kind of "item-level adaptive" CAT described in this article is most appropriate for tests that are not "pass/fail" or for pass/fail tests where providing good feedback

1860-437: The confidence interval approach because it minimizes the conditional standard error of measurement, which decreases the width of the confidence interval needed to make a classification. ETS researcher Martha Stocking has quipped that most adaptive tests are actually barely adaptive tests (BATs) because, in practice, many constraints are imposed upon item choice. For example, CAT exams must usually meet content specifications;

1922-411: The constraints may be substantial and require complex search strategies (e.g., linear programming ) to find suitable items. A simple method for controlling item exposure is the "randomesque" or strata method. Rather than selecting the most informative item at each point in the test, the algorithm randomly selects the next item from the next five or ten most informative items. This can be used throughout

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1984-459: The cutscore to be administered every item in the bank without the algorithm making a decision. The item selection algorithm utilized depends on the termination criterion. Maximizing information at the cutscore is more appropriate for the SPRT because it maximizes the difference in the probabilities used in the likelihood ratio . Maximizing information at the ability estimate is more appropriate for

2046-406: The cutscore. Note that this is a point hypothesis formulation rather than a composite hypothesis formulation that is more conceptually appropriate. A composite hypothesis formulation would be that the examinee's ability is in the region above the cutscore or the region below the cutscore. A confidence interval approach is also used, where after each item is administered, the algorithm determines

2108-468: The exam and removed the Analytical Writing Assessment section, as well as sentence correction and geometry questions. Additionally, section order selection was expanded, giving test takers the opportunity to take the exam in any order they choose. A Question Review & Edit feature was also introduced, giving test takers the ability to review all answers at the end of each section and edit up to three answers per section. The Quantitative Reasoning section of

2170-415: The examinee answers (i.e. the level of difficulty of questions reached through the computer adaptive presentation of questions). The algorithm used to build a score is more complicated than that. The examinee can make a mistake and answer incorrectly and the computer will recognize that item as an anomaly. If the examinee misses the first question, the final score will not necessarily fall in the bottom half of

2232-415: The examinee into a category rather than providing a point estimate of ability. There are two primary methodologies available for this. The more prominent of the two is the sequential probability ratio test (SPRT). This formulates the examinee classification problem as a hypothesis test that the examinee's ability is equal to either some specified point above the cutscore or another specified point below

2294-472: The medium or medium/easy items presented to most examinees at the beginning of the test). The first issue encountered in CAT is the calibration of the item pool. In order to model the characteristics of the items (e.g., to pick the optimal item), all the items of the test must be pre-administered to a sizable sample and then analyzed. To achieve this, new items must be mixed into the operational items of an exam (the responses are recorded but do not contribute to

2356-445: The options that make the statements accurate. Multi-source reasoning questions are accompanied by two to three sources of information presented on tabbed pages. Test takers click on the tabs and examine all the relevant information, which may be a combination of text, charts, and tables to answer either traditional multiple-choice or opposite-answer (e.g., yes/no, true/false) questions. Two-part analysis questions involve two components for

2418-499: The order in which the different parts of the GMAT are taken can be chosen at the beginning of the exam. The three options were: In April 2018, the GMAC officially shortened the test by half an hour, shortening the verbal and quantitative sections from 75 minutes each to 65 and 62 minutes, respectively, and shortening some of the instruction screens. In October 2023, with the launched of the GMAT Exam (Focus Edition), GMAC further shortened

2480-440: The previous edition of the GMAT was replaced by the GMAT Exam (Focus Edition). It now consists of three sections: Verbal, Quantitative, and Data Insights, and is graded between 205 and 805 in 5-point intervals. In 2013, an independent research study evaluated student performance at three full-time MBA programs and reported that the GMAT total score had a 0.29 statistical correlation with the first-year GPA (Grade Point Average) of

2542-428: The probability that the examinee's true-score is above or below the passing score. For example, the algorithm may continue until the 95% confidence interval for the true score no longer contains the passing score. At that point, no further items are needed because the pass-fail decision is already 95% accurate, assuming that the psychometric models underlying the adaptive testing fit the examinee and test. This approach

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2604-547: The range. At the end of the exam, an unofficial preview of the GMAT score earned is shown to the test taker. Scores at or above the 99th percentile are accepted as qualifying evidence to join Intertel , and a score of at least 746 qualifies one for admission to the International Society for Philosophical Enquiry. According to an official study conducted by the GMAC, a score of at least 760 is required to reach

2666-878: The reading comprehension question type tests ability to analyze information and draw a conclusion. Reading comprehension passages can be anywhere from one to several paragraphs long. According to GMAC, the critical reasoning question type assesses reasoning skills. Data Insights is a section introduced in 2023 and is designed to measure a test taker's ability to evaluate data presented in multiple formats from multiple sources. The Data Insights section consists of 20 questions (which often consist of multiple parts themselves) in five different formats: data sufficiency, graphics interpretation, two-part analysis, table analysis, and multi-source reasoning. Data Insights scores range from 60 to 90. The Data Insights section includes five question types: table analysis, graphics interpretation, multi-source reasoning, two-part analysis, and data sufficiency. In

2728-649: The results showed that the median correlation between the GMAT Total score and graduate GPA was 0.38, the median correlation between the GMAT IR score and graduate GPA was 0.27, and the median correlation between undergraduate GPA and graduate GPA was 0.32. The results also showed that undergraduate GPA and GMAT scores (i.e., Verbal, Quant, IR, and AWA) jointly had a 0.51 correlation with graduate GPA. The GMAT exam consists of three sections: Quantitative Reasoning, Verbal Reasoning, and Data Insights. The total testing time

2790-412: The same metric. Therefore, if the CAT has an estimate of examinee ability, it is able to select an item that is most appropriate for that estimate. Technically, this is done by selecting the item with the greatest information at that point. Information is a function of the discrimination parameter of the item, as well as the conditional variance and pseudo-guessing parameter (if used). After an item

2852-436: The same test, as is common in tests designed using classical test theory). The psychometric technology that allows equitable scores to be computed across different sets of items is item response theory (IRT). IRT is also the preferred methodology for selecting optimal items which are typically selected on the basis of information rather than difficulty, per se. A related methodology called multistage testing (MST) or CAST

2914-489: The statement above that an advantage is that examinee scores will be uniformly precise or "equiprecise." Other termination criteria exist for different purposes of the test, such as if the test is designed only to determine if the examinee should "Pass" or "Fail" the test, rather than obtaining a precise estimate of their ability. In many situations, the purpose of the test is to classify examinees into two or more mutually exclusive and exhaustive categories. This includes

2976-472: The table analysis section, test takers are presented with a sortable table of information, similar to a spreadsheet, which has to be analyzed. Each question will have several statements with opposite-answer options (e.g., true/false, yes/no), and test takers click on the correct option. Graphics interpretation questions ask test takers to interpret a graph or graphical image. Each question has fill-in-the-blank statements with pull-down menus; test takers must choose

3038-440: The test can reasonably be composed of unscored pilot test items. Although adaptive tests have exposure control algorithms to prevent overuse of a few items, the exposure conditioned upon ability is often not controlled and can easily become close to 1. That is, it is common for some items to become very common on tests for people of the same ability. This is a serious security concern because groups sharing items may well have

3100-441: The test taker with increasingly difficult questions, and as questions are answered incorrectly the computer presents the test taker with questions of decreasing difficulty. This process continues until test takers complete each section, at which point the computer will have an accurate assessment of their ability level in that subject area and come up with a raw score for each section. On July 11, 2017, GMAC announced that from now on

3162-422: The test taker's AWA score. One rating was given by a computerized reading evaluation and another was given by a person at GMAC who will read and score the essay themselves without knowing what the computerized score was. The automated essay-scoring engine was an electronic system that evaluated more than 50 structural and linguistic features, including organization of ideas, syntactic variety, and topical analysis. If

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3224-583: The test, and states that the GMAT assesses critical thinking and problem-solving abilities while also addressing data analysis skills that it believes to be vital to real-world business and management success. It can be taken up to five times a year but no more than eight times total. Attempts must be at least 16 days apart. GMAT is a registered trademark of the Graduate Management Admission Council. More than 7,700 programs at approximately 2,400+ graduate business schools around

3286-704: The test, or only at the beginning. Another method is the Sympson-Hetter method, in which a random number is drawn from U(0,1), and compared to a k i parameter determined for each item by the test user. If the random number is greater than k i , the next most informative item is considered. Wim van der Linden and colleagues have advanced an alternative approach called shadow testing which involves creating entire shadow tests as part of selecting items. Selecting items from shadow tests helps adaptive tests meet selection criteria by focusing on globally optimal choices (as opposed to choices that are optimal for

3348-437: The test-takers' scores), called "pilot testing", "pre-testing", or "seeding". This presents logistical, ethical , and security issues. For example, it is impossible to field an operational adaptive test with brand-new, unseen items; all items must be pretested with a large enough sample to obtain stable item statistics. This sample may be required to be as large as 1,000 examinees. Each program must decide what percentage of

3410-493: The test. However, the CAT is obviously not able to make any specific estimate of examinee ability when no items have been administered. So some other initial estimate of examinee ability is necessary. If some previous information regarding the examinee is known, it can be used, but often the CAT just assumes that the examinee is of average ability – hence the first item often being of medium difficulty level. As mentioned previously, item response theory places examinees and items on

3472-425: The testing center. Scores range from 60 to 90. Problem-solving questions are designed to test the ability to reason quantitatively and to solve quantitative problems. The Verbal Reasoning section of the GMAT exam includes the following question types: reading comprehension and critical reasoning. Each question type gives five answer options from which to select. Verbal scores range from 60 to 90. According to GMAC,

3534-459: The two ratings differed by more than one point, another evaluation by an expert reader was required to resolve the discrepancy and determine the final score. The Analytical Writing Assessment was graded on a scale of 0 (minimum) to 6 (maximum) in half-point intervals. A score of 0 indicates that the response was either nonsensical, off-topic, or completely blank. It did not count toward’s a test taker’s total GMAT score. The Integrated Reasoning (IR)

3596-429: The world accept the GMAT as part of the selection criteria for their programs. Business schools use the test as a criterion for admission into a wide range of graduate management programs, including MBA , Master of Accountancy , Master of Finance programs and others. The GMAT is administered online and in standardized test centers in 114 countries around the world. According to a survey conducted by Kaplan Test Prep,

3658-473: The world. On June 5, 2012, GMAC introduced an integrated reasoning section to the exam that aims to measure a test taker's ability to evaluate information presented in multiple formats from multiple sources. In April 2020, when the COVID-19 pandemic resulted in the closing of in-person testing centers around the world, GMAC quickly moved to launch an online format of the GMAT exam. Starting from January 31, 2024,

3720-783: Was a section introduced in June 2012 and was replaced by Data Insights in 2023. Similar to Data Insights, it was designed to measure a test taker's ability to evaluate data presented in multiple formats from multiple sources. The skills tested by the Integrated Reasoning section were identified in a survey of 740 management faculty worldwide as important for incoming students. The Integrated Reasoning section consisted of 12 questions (which often consisted of multiple parts themselves) in four different formats: graphics interpretation, two-part analysis, table analysis, and multi-source reasoning. Integrated Reasoning scores ranged from 1 to 8. Like

3782-438: Was originally called "adaptive mastery testing" but it can be applied to non-adaptive item selection and classification situations of two or more cutscores (the typical mastery test has a single cutscore). As a practical matter, the algorithm is generally programmed to have a minimum and a maximum test length (or a minimum and maximum administration time). Otherwise, it would be possible for an examinee with ability very close to

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3844-534: Was to develop a standardized test to help business schools select qualified applicants. In the first year it was offered, the assessment (now known as the Graduate Management Admission Test), was taken just over 2,000 times; in recent years, it has been taken more than 230,000 times annually. Initially used in admissions by 54 schools, the test is now used by more than 7,700 programs at approximately 2,400 graduate business schools around

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