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62-484: After successful involvement in a glass manufacturing company (eventually sold to Libbey Owens Ford ), brothers Joseph B., Robert C., and Ray A. Graham began in 1919 to produce kits to convert Ford Model Ts into trucks and modify Model TTs . That led to the brothers building their trucks using engines of various manufacturers and the Graham Brothers brand. Eventually, they settled on Dodge engines, and soon

124-545: A Libbey-Owens sheet glass plant opened in Shreveport, Louisiana, becoming both the city's largest manufacturer and employer. This plant converted operations between 1972 and 1974 to Libbey Glass table-glassware manufacturing, which it continues today. In 1928, Libbey-Owens was the first company to produce automotive laminated safety glass and won a contract to supply the Ford Motor Company with windshields for

186-526: A car’s exhaust note, while a supercharged engine maintains the louder exhaust note of a normally aspirated car. Turbocharged engines are more prone to heat soak of the intake air (since turbocharging can place the hot exhaust components near the intake air system), although this can be overcome through the use of an intercooler . The majority of aircraft engines used during World War II used mechanically driven superchargers because they had some significant manufacturing advantages over turbochargers. However,

248-419: A crankshaft-driven supercharger , designed in-house by Graham Assistant Chief Engineer Floyd F. Kishline. At first offered only in the top 8-cylinder models, the supercharger was adapted to the six in 1936 when the eights were dropped. Through the years, Graham would produce more supercharged cars than any other automobile manufacturer until Buick surpassed them in the 1990s. By 1935, the "Blue Streak" styling

310-557: A driveshaft. Graham chose the four-door Beverly sedan shape for the Hollywood rather than the two-door convertible, as they wanted the Hollywood to be a popular, mass-market car. Both versions used 6-cylinder engines. The Skylark was powered by a 245 cu in (4,010 cc) Hupp; the Hollywood was available with a standard 218 cu in (3,570 cc) and an optional supercharged version, both manufactured by Graham-Paige. While some 1500 Hollywoods were built, it did not stop

372-523: A dynamic compressor are: Common methods of driving a supercharger include: Fuels with a higher octane rating are better able to resist autoignition and detonation . As a result, the amount of boost supplied by the superchargers could be increased, resulting in an increase in engine output. The development of 100-octane aviation fuel, pioneered in the USA in the 1930s, enabled the use of higher boost pressures to be used on high-performance aviation engines and

434-415: A limiting factor in engine performance. Extreme temperatures can cause pre-ignition or knocking , which reduces performance and can cause engine damage. The risk of pre-ignition/knocking increases with higher ambient air temperatures and higher boost levels. Turbocharged engines use energy from the exhaust gas that would normally be wasted, compared with a supercharger which mechanically draws power from

496-775: A modern-looking new car, the 1947 Frazer, named for new Graham-Paige president Joseph W. Frazer , in partnership with Henry J. Kaiser . It also began production of farm equipment under the Rototiller name. In August 1945, Graham-Paige announced plans to resume production under the Graham name, but the plan never materialized. On February 5, 1947, Graham-Paige stockholders approved the transfer of all their automotive assets to Kaiser-Frazer , an automobile company formed by Frazer and Kaiser, in return for 750,000 shares of Kaiser-Frazer stock and other considerations. Graham's manufacturing facilities on Warren Avenue were sold to Chrysler, who used

558-573: A narrow range of load/speed/boost, for which the system must be specifically designed. Positive displacement pumps deliver a nearly fixed volume of air per revolution of the compressor (except for leakage, which typically has a reduced effect at higher engine speeds). The most common type of positive-displacement superchargers is the Roots-type supercharger . Other types include the rotary-screw , sliding vane and scroll-type superchargers. The rating system for positive-displacement superchargers

620-476: A nominal 150-octane rating. Using such fuels, aero engines like the Rolls-Royce Merlin 66 and Daimler-Benz DB 605 DC produced power outputs of up to 2,000 hp (1,500 kW). One disadvantage of forced induction (i.e. supercharging or turbocharging) is that compressing the intake air increases its temperature. For an internal combustion engine, the temperature of the intake air becomes

682-402: A number of innovative ideas. The most copied was the enclosed fenders, thus covering the mud and grime built up on the underside. The radiator cap was moved under the hood, which itself was later modified to cover the cowl, and end at the base of the windshield. For engineering, the rear kickup on the chassis frame was eliminated by the adoption of a 'banjo' frame. Unlike contemporary practice,

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744-518: A similar car of its own, to be called the Hollywood. The striking Skylark/Hollywood differed from the Cord from the cowl forward with a redesigned hood, front fenders and conventional headlights, achieved by automotive designer John Tjaarda of Lincoln-Zephyr fame. The Cord's longer hood was not needed, as the Hupp and Graham versions were rear-wheel drive. This also necessitated modifying the floor to accept

806-505: A total displacement of 426 cu in (7.0 L)). However, because 6–71 is the engine's designation rather than that of the blower, the actual displacement of the blower is less; for example, a 6–71 blower pumps 339 cu in (5.6 L) per revolution. Other supercharger manufacturers have produced blowers rated up to 16–71. Dynamic compressors rely on accelerating the air to high speed and then exchanging that velocity for pressure by diffusing or slowing it down. Major types of

868-476: A two-stage inter-cooled supercharger with a more compact layout. Nonetheless, turbochargers were useful in high-altitude bombers and some fighter aircraft due to the increased high altitude performance and range. Turbocharged piston engines are also subject to many of the same operating restrictions as those of gas turbine engines. Turbocharged engines also require frequent inspections of their turbochargers and exhaust systems to search for possible damage caused by

930-430: Is that the intake air is warmer than at high altitude. Warmer air reduces the threshold at which engine knocking can occur, especially in supercharged or turbocharged engines. Methods to cool the intake air at ground level include intercoolers/aftercoolers , anti-detonant injection , two-speed superchargers and two-stage superchargers. In supercharged engines which use a carburetor , a partially-open throttle reduces

992-417: Is too large for the engine displacement. For this reason, supercharged engines are common in applications where throttle response is a key concern, such as drag racing and tractor pulling competitions. A disadvantage of supercharging is that the engine must withstand the net power output of the engine plus the power to drive the supercharger. Additionally, turbochargers provide sound-dampening properties to

1054-557: Is usually based on their capacity per revolution . In the case of the Roots blower, the GMC rating pattern is typical. The GMC rating is based on how many two-stroke cylinders - and the size of those cylinders - that it is designed to scavenge , with GMC's model range including 2–71, 3–71, 4–71 and 6–71 blowers. The 6–71 blower, for example, is designed to scavenge six cylinders of 71 cu in (1.2 L) each, resulting in an engine with

1116-663: The 1925 Delage , and the 1926 Bugatti Type 35C . Amongst the most famous supercharged cars is the Bentley 4½ Litre ("Blower Bentley"), which was introduced in 1929. In 1935, the development of screw-type superchargers reached a milestone when Swedish engineer Alf Lysholm patented a design for a rotary-screw compressor with five female and four male rotors. In the 21st century, supercharged production car engines have become less common, as manufacturers have shifted to turbocharging to achieve higher fuel economy and power outputs. For example, Mercedes-Benz's Kompressor engines of

1178-602: The Lockheed Constellation , and the C-124 Globemaster II . In the 1985 and 1986 World Rally Championships, Lancia ran the Delta S4 , which incorporated both a belt-driven supercharger and exhaust-driven turbocharger. The design used a complex series of bypass valves in the induction and exhaust systems as well as an electromagnetic clutch so that, at low engine speeds, a boost was derived from

1240-672: The Model A . Libbey-Owens merged with the Edward Ford Plate Glass Company in 1930 to form Libbey-Owens-Ford Glass Company. In April 1986, LOF sold its glass business and name to the Pilkington Group , a multinational glass manufacturer headquartered in the United Kingdom . The remaining three business units of the company, Aeroquip, Vickers, and Sterling, were retained and the holding company

1302-528: The gas turbine and a pre-turbine section of the exhaust system. The size of the ducting alone was a serious design consideration. For example, both the F4U Corsair and the P-47 Thunderbolt used the same radial engine , but the large barrel-shaped fuselage of the turbocharged P-47 was needed because of the amount of ducting to and from the turbocharger in the rear of the aircraft. The F4U used

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1364-398: The 1.6 litre Mercedes 6/25 hp and 2.6 litre Mercedes 10/40 hp , both of which began production in 1923. They were marketed as Kompressor models, a term which was used for various models until 2012. Supercharged racing cars from around this time included the 1923 Fiat 805-405 , the 1923 Miller 122 the 1924 Alfa Romeo P2 , the 1924 Grand Prix season car from Sunbeam,

1426-502: The 1936 and 1937 Grahams. Amos Northup of Murray Body was hired to design a new model for 1938, but he died before the design was complete. It is believed the final design was completed by Graham engineers. The new 1938 Graham was introduced with the slogan "Spirit of Motion". The fenders, wheel openings and grille all appeared to be moving forward. The design was widely praised in the American press and by American designers. It also won

1488-471: The German engines being significantly larger in displacement. Two-stage superchargers were also always two-speed. After the air was compressed in the low-pressure stage , the air flowed through a heat exchanger (" intercooler ") where it was cooled before being compressed again by the high-pressure stage and then possibly also aftercooled in another heat exchanger. While superchargers were highly used in

1550-623: The Spitfire and Hurricane planes powered by the Rolls-Royce Merlin engine were equipped largely with single-stage and single-speed superchargers. In 1942, two-speed two-stage supercharging with aftercooling was applied to the Rolls Royce Merlin 61 aero engine. The improved performance allowed the aircraft they powered to maintain a crucial advantage over the German aircraft they opposed throughout World War II, despite

1612-499: The United States patented the design for an air mover for use in blast furnaces and other industrial applications. This air mover and Birmingham's ventilation compressor both used designs similar to that of the later Roots-type superchargers . In March of 1878, German engineer Heinrich Krigar obtained the first patent for a screw-type compressor. The design was a two-lobe rotor assembly with identically-shaped rotors, however

1674-403: The air density at 30,000 ft (9,100 m) is 1 ⁄ 3 of that at sea level, resulting in 1 ⁄ 3 as much fuel being able to be burnt in a naturally aspirated engine, therefore the power output would be greatly reduced. A supercharger/turbocharger can be thought of either as artificially increasing the density of the air by compressing it or as forcing more air than normal into

1736-646: The assets of Illinois Glass Co. of Alton, Illinois, and renamed itself the Owens-Illinois Glass Co., making it the largest glass company in the world. Owens-Illinois Glass Company acquired Libbey Glass Company in 1935, but spun it off as a separate company in 1993. In June 1916, the Libbey-Owens Sheet Glass Company was organized, and in 1917 the first Libbey-Owens plant opened in Charleston, West Virginia. In 1922,

1798-593: The benefit to the operational range was given a much higher priority to American aircraft because of a less predictable requirement on the operational range and having to travel far from their home bases. Consequently, turbochargers were mainly employed in American aircraft engines such as the Allison V-1710 and the Pratt & Whitney R-2800 , which were comparably heavier when turbocharged, and required additional ducting of expensive high-temperature metal alloys in

1860-433: The boost pressure to rise exponentially with engine speed (above a certain threshold). Another family of supercharger, albeit rarely used, is the pressure wave supercharger . Roots blowers (a positive displacement design) tend to be only 40–50% efficient at high boost levels, compared with 70-85% for dynamic superchargers. Lysholm-style blowers (a rotary-screw design) can be nearly as efficient as dynamic superchargers over

1922-728: The company's slide. After its public introduction, orders poured in. However, manufacturing difficulties caused months of delay before deliveries began. Having bodies ultimately built by the coachbuilder Hayes did not help. Customers tired of waiting, and most of the orders were cancelled. Despite an enthusiastic initial public response, the car actually ended up being a worse flop in the sales department for both Graham and Hupmobile than either firm's respective preceding models. The company suspended manufacturing in September 1940, only to reopen its plant for military production for World War II. The company resumed automobile production in 1946 producing

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1984-696: The company. The company's initial offerings included a line of Graham-Paige cars with 6 and 8-cylinder engines. For a while, a line of light trucks was offered under the Paige name, soon discontinued when Dodge reminded the Grahams about the non-competition agreement they had signed as part of the sale of the Graham Brothers Company. Graham earned a reputation for quality and sales quickly rose. Graham also had some success in racing , which helped boost sales. The Graham company logo included profiles of

2046-410: The cylinder every time the piston moves down on the intake stroke. Since a supercharger is usually designed to produce a given amount of boost at high altitudes (where the air density is lower), the supercharger is often oversized for low altitude. To prevent excessive boost levels, it is important to monitor the intake manifold pressure at low altitude. As the aircraft climbs and the air density drops,

2108-503: The design did not reach production. Also in 1878, Scottish engineer Dugald Clerk designed the first supercharger which was used with an engine. This supercharger was used with a two-stroke gas engine. Gottlieb Daimler received a German patent for supercharging an internal combustion engine in 1885. Louis Renault patented a centrifugal supercharger in France in 1902. The world's first series-produced cars with superchargers were

2170-780: The early 2000s (such as the C 230 Kompressor straight-four, C 32 AMG V6, and CL 55 AMG V8 engines) were replaced around 2010 by turbocharged engines in models such as the C 250 and CL 65 AMG models. However, there are exceptions, such as the Audi 3.0 TFSI supercharged V6 (introduced in 2009) and the Jaguar AJ-V8 supercharged V8 (upgraded to the Gen III version in 2009). In the 1930s, two-speed drives were developed for superchargers for aero engines providing more flexible aircraft operation. The arrangement also entailed more complexity of manufacturing and maintenance. The gears connected

2232-458: The engine's crankshaft ), as opposed to a turbocharger , which is powered by the kinetic energy of the exhaust gases. However, up until the mid-20th century, a turbocharger was called a "turbosupercharger" and was considered a type of supercharger. The first supercharged engine was built in 1878, with usage in aircraft engines beginning in the 1910s and usage in car engines beginning in the 1920s. In piston engines used by aircraft, supercharging

2294-412: The engine. Therefore turbocharged engines usually produce more power and better fuel economy than supercharged engines. However, turbochargers can suffer from turbo lag (especially at lower RPM), where the exhaust gas flow is initially insufficient to spin the turbocharger and achieve the desired boost level, thus leading to a delay in the throttle response . This is often a result of a turbo charge which

2356-479: The engines used in Graham-Paige cars. The 1938–1940 "Spirit of Motion" cars and Hollywood models are frequently incorrectly stated to use Continental engines. After World War II, Continental produced a lesser version of Graham-Paige's 217-cubic-inch-displacement engine used in the previously mentioned models. These engines were used in the post-war Kaiser and Frazer automobiles. Initially, Graham-Paige withstood

2418-768: The extreme heat and pressure of the turbochargers. Such damage was a prominent problem in the early models of the American Boeing B-29 Superfortress high-altitude bombers used in the Pacific Theater of Operations during 1944–45. Turbocharged piston engines continued to be used in a large number of postwar airplanes, such as the B-50 Superfortress , the KC-97 Stratofreighter , the Boeing 377 Stratocruiser ,

2480-496: The firm changed its name to the Madison Square Garden Corporation, which was later absorbed by Gulf and Western Industries . Currently, Madison Square Garden is part of Madison Square Garden Entertainment . Keller, ME (1988). The Graham Legacy: Graham-Paige to 1932 . Turner Publishing Company. ISBN   1-56311-470-4 . Libbey Owens Ford Libbey-Owens-Ford Company (LOF)

2542-614: The first fully functioning automatic bottle-blowing machine (the successor of which was honored as a Historic Mechanical Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers ), and in 1903 incorporated the Owens Bottle Machine Company. In 1912, Owens acquired rights to Irving Wightman Colburn 's invention for manufacturing plate glass . In 1929, the Owens Bottle Co. acquired

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2604-444: The mid-1900s and during WWII , they have largely fallen out of use in modern piston-driven aircraft . This can largely be attributed to the higher temperature and lighter alloys that make turbochargers more efficient than superchargers, as well as the lower maintenance due to less moving parts. Due to the reduced air density at higher altitudes, supercharging and turbocharging have often been used in aircraft engines. For example,

2666-467: The onset of the Great Depression well, but sales fell as the decade wore on. The 1932 models were designed by Amos Northup . This particular design has been noted as the "single most influential design in automotive history." The new 8-cylinder engine was called the "Blue Streak." However, the press and public quickly adopted the name "Blue Streak" for the cars themselves. The design introduced

2728-621: The plants first for DeSoto body and engine production, and finally for assembly of the Imperial for the 1959, 1960, and 1961 model years. In 1952, Graham-Paige dropped the "Motors" from its name and branched into real estate, and under the direction of Irving Mitchell Felt , bought such properties as the Roosevelt Raceway in New York, and in 1959, a controlling interest in the old Madison Square Garden (built in 1925). In 1962,

2790-570: The prestigious Concours D'Elegance in Paris, France. Wins were also recorded in the Prix d'Avant-Garde at Lyon, the Prix d'Elegance at Bordeaux, and the Grand Prix d'Honneur at Deauville, France. Its cut-back grille later gained the car the name "Sharknose", which appears to have origins in the 1950s. The styling was a complete flop in sales. The most reliable estimates, from period publications, suggest

2852-427: The rear axle was placed through large openings on both sides of the frame, with rubber snubbers to absorb any shock if the car axle should make contact. This in turn permitted a wider body. To help lower the car, the rear springs were mounted on the outer sides of the chassis frame and not under the frame. This idea was eventually copied by other manufacturers - Chrysler, for example, in 1957. For 1934, Graham introduced

2914-741: The same engine as the Dodge Brothers Senior Six, lightly modified for truck duty. The Graham Brothers brand lasted until 1929, Chrysler Corporation having taken over Dodge in 1928. In 1927, with the banking syndicate controlling Dodge trying to sell the company, the Graham brothers decided to enter the automobile business on their own. In 1927, they purchased the Paige-Detroit Motor Car Company , makers of Paige and Jewett automobiles, for $ 3.5 million ($ 61,390,805 in 2023 dollars ). Joseph became president, Robert vice-president, and Ray secretary-treasurer of

2976-479: The stunning Gordon Buehrig -designed Cord 810/812. In an effort to remain in business, Hupp had acquired the Cord dies, but lacked the financial resources to build the car. Hupp's Skylark was priced at US$ 895 ($ 19,604 in 2023 dollars ), and only about 300 were built. Graham agreed to build the Hupmobile Skylark on a contract basis, while receiving the rights to use the distinctive Cord dies to produce

3038-452: The supercharger to the engine using a system of hydraulic clutches, which were initially manually engaged or disengaged by the pilot with a control in the cockpit. At low altitudes, the low-speed gear would be used, to prevent excessive boost levels. At higher altitudes, the supercharger could be switched to a higher gear to compensate for the reduced intake air density. In the Battle of Britain

3100-500: The supercharger. In the middle of the rev range, a boost was derived from both systems, while at the highest revs the system disconnected the drive from the supercharger and isolated the associated ducting. This was done in an attempt to exploit the advantages of each of the charging systems while removing the disadvantages. In turn, this approach brought greater complexity and affected the car's reliability in WRC events, as well as increasing

3162-670: The three brothers and was used in insignia on the cars including badges and taillight lens. Graham-Paige made most of their own bodies and engines. The Graham brothers had solved a long-standing Paige body supply dilemma by purchasing the Wayne Body Company in Wayne, Michigan , and expanding the factory along with other body plants. They did not have a foundry and contracted with Continental for these services relative to their engines. Some models did use Continental stock engines. Graham-Paige's own engineering department designed most of

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3224-457: The throttle can be progressively opened to obtain the maximum safe power level for a given altitude. The altitude at which the throttle reaches full open and the engine is still producing full rated power is known as the critical altitude . Above the critical altitude, engine power output will reduce as the supercharger can no longer fully compensate for the decreasing air density. Another issue encountered at low altitudes (such as at ground level)

3286-401: The total production of all three years of these cars is between 6,000 and 13,000 units. With this low production Graham limped through 1939 and 1940. Desperate for a winning offering and unable to retool, Graham made a deal with the ailing Hupp Motor Co. in late 1939. According to the deal, the faltering company entered into an arrangement with Hupmobile to build cars based on the body dies of

3348-962: The trucks were sold by Dodge dealers. The Grahams expanded from beginnings in Evansville, Indiana , opening plants in 1922 on Meldrum Avenue in Detroit , Michigan , of 13,000 square feet (1,200 m), and in 1925 on Cherokee Lane in Stockton, California . The Canadian market was supplied by the Canadian Dodge plant. Dodge purchased the Graham Brothers truck firm in 1925, and the three Graham brothers took on executive positions at Dodge. Graham's new truck line for 1928 included four 4-cylinder models ranging from 1 ⁄ 2 to 1 + 1 ⁄ 2 short tons (450 to 1,360 kg) and one 2-short-ton (1,800 kg) 6-cylinder model, which used

3410-546: The weight of engine ancillaries in the finished design. Twincharged engines have occasionally been used in production cars, such as the 2005-2013 Volkswagen 1.4 litre and the 2017-present Volvo B4204T43/B4204T48 2.0 litre four-cylinder engines. In 1849, G. Jones of Birmingham, England began manufacturing a lobe pump compressor to provide ventilation for coal mines. In 1860, the Roots Blower Company (founded by brothers Philander and Francis Marion Roots) in

3472-513: Was a producer of flat glass for the automotive and building products industries both for original equipment manufacturers and for replacement use. The company's headquarters and main factories were located in Toledo, Ohio , with large float glass plants in Rossford , Ohio , Laurinburg , North Carolina , Ottawa , Illinois , Shreveport , Louisiana , and Lathrop , California . The company

3534-468: Was abandoned in an effort to rebrand globally under the Pilkington name. Supercharger In an internal combustion engine , a supercharger compresses the intake gas, forcing more air into the engine in order to produce more power for a given displacement . The current categorization is that a supercharger is a form of forced induction that is mechanically powered (usually by a belt from

3596-700: Was formed in 1930 by the merger of Libbey-Owens's sheet-glass operation with the Edward Ford Plate Glass Company, both located in Toledo. The company's heritage dates back to 1818 with the founding of the New England Glass Company of East Cambridge, Massachusetts , which relocated to Toledo, Ohio , and in 1892 changed its name to Libbey Glass Company under the direction of Edward Drummond Libbey . In parallel, Michael Owens and associates completed work in 1902 on

3658-464: Was getting rather dated. A restyling of the front and rear ends for 1935 proved to be a disaster, making the cars appear higher and narrower. Having no money for a new body, Graham signed an agreement with REO Motor Car Company to purchase car bodies, paying them $ 7.50 ($ 156 in 2023 dollars ) in royalties for each Hayes-built body. The engines did have new full water jackets. Graham added new front end styling and revised detailing to these bodies to create

3720-533: Was often used to compensate for the lower air density at high altitudes. Supercharging is less commonly used in the 21st century, as manufacturers have shifted to turbochargers to reduce fuel consumption and increase power outputs. There are two main families of superchargers defined according to the method of gas transfer: positive displacement and dynamic superchargers. Positive displacement superchargers deliver an almost constant level of boost pressure increase at all engine speeds, while dynamic superchargers cause

3782-568: Was renamed TRINOVA Corporation. The Sterling business was later sold, and in the late 1990s the company adopted its two leading business unit names, and continued as Aeroquip-Vickers, Inc., until being absorbed by Eaton Corporation in 1999. As part of the Pilkington Group, the company retained the LOF name. However, in June 2006, Pilkington was acquired by Nippon Sheet Glass , and the LOF name

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3844-567: Was used to vastly increase the power output for several speed record airplanes. Military use of high-octane fuels began in early 1940 when 100-octane fuel was delivered to the British Royal Air Force fighting in World War II. The German Luftwaffe also had supplies of a similar fuel. Increasing the octane rating became a major focus of aero engine development for the remainder of the war, with later fuels having up to

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