The Nemaha River basin includes the areas of the U.S. state of Nebraska below the Platte River basin that drain directly into the Missouri River . The major streams of the drainage include Weeping Water Creek, Muddy Creek, Little Nemaha River , and Big Nemaha River . The basin has a total area of approximately 2,800 square miles (7,300 km), and includes much of southeastern Nebraska.
43-538: The name 'Nemaha' originates in the Ioway-Otoe-Missouria phrase ñí-máha , which means 'water-soil' and refers to the muddy water at corn-planting time. 40°07′N 95°39′W / 40.117°N 95.650°W / 40.117; -95.650 This Nebraska state location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Chiwere language Chiwere (also called Iowa-Otoe-Missouria or Báxoje-Jíwere-Nyútʼach )
86-480: A velar lateral tap as an allophone in Kanite and Melpa . These are often transcribed with the breve diacritic, as [w̆, ʟ̆] . Note here that, like a velar trill , a central velar flap or tap is not possible because the tongue and soft palate cannot move together easily enough to produce a sound. If other flaps are found, the breve diacritic could be used to represent them, but would more properly be combined with
129-408: A voice distinction (see the phonology section below), so that the unaspirated stops /b̥ d̥ d̥ʒ ɡ̊/ are variably voiced [b d dʒ ɡ] or unvoiced [p t tʃ k] . Although [tʃ] is a valid pronunciation of the first sound of Jiwere ~ Chiwere , it may mislead English speakers into pronouncing it [tʃʰ] . Similarly, a common folk etymology of Báxoje is "dusty noses," based on the misunderstanding of
172-499: A flap component followed by a lateral component, whereas In Iwaidja the opposite is the case. For this reason, current IPA transcriptions of these sounds by linguists working on the language consist of an alveolar lateral followed by a superscript alveolar tap and a retroflex lateral followed by a superscript retroflex tap. A velar lateral tap may exist as an allophone in a few languages of New Guinea, according to Peter Ladefoged and Ian Maddieson . The only common non- coronal flap
215-470: A former / l / . This is part of a wider phenomenon called rhotacism . Most Indic and Dravidian languages have retroflex flaps. In Hindi there are three, a simple retroflex flap as in [bəɽaː] big, a murmured retroflex flap as in [koɽʱiː] leper, and a retroflex nasal flap in the Hindicized pronunciation of Sanskrit [məɽ̃iː] gem. Some of these may be allophonic . A retroflex flap
258-466: A nasal vowel; Pashto , however, has a phonemic nasal retroflex lateral flap . As mentioned above, many Indo-Aryan languages also possess a phonemic retroflex nasal flap that contrasts with the alveolar nasal stop . Voiced and voiceless tapped alveolar fricatives have been reported from a few languages. Flapped fricatives are possible but do not seem to be used. See voiced alveolar tapped fricative , voiceless alveolar tapped fricative . Symbols to
301-467: A number of variants and allophones. It can appear as a dental tap or flap [ɾ] (especially word-medially), as an alveolar fricative [r] , as an (inter)dental fricative [ð] , as a lateral [l] , as a nasal [n] , or as a voiced dental plosive [d] . The velar nasal phoneme /ŋ/ does not occur word-initially, being confined to "medial position after a nasal vowel." In languages a certain clusters of phonemes show up in particular environments within
344-443: A palatal tap. Nasalized consonants include taps and flaps, although these are rarely phonemic. In conversational (rather than carefully enunciated) speech, American English often features a nasal flap when /n/ or /nt/ are in intervocalic position before an unstressed vowel; for example, "winner" and "winter" become homophones: ['wɪ ɾ̃ɚ]. Many West African languages have a nasal flap [ɾ̃] (or [n̆] ) as an allophone of /ɾ/ before
387-410: A shift to / r / ; thus bären [ˈbeːrn] , to Berre [toʊˈbere] , Warer [ˈvɑːrɜ] , Varrer [ˈfarɜ] .) Occurrence varies; in some Low Saxon dialects it affects both / t / and / d / , while in others it affects only / d / . Other languages with this are Portuguese , Korean , and Austronesian languages with / r / . In Galician , Portuguese and Sardinian , a flap often appears instead of
430-551: A single complex word. Aside from its complex verbal morphology , Chiwere differs from English in a number of significant ways. There are separate male and female registers , and interrogatives are formed with the question particle je , though this is omitted in informal speech. Finally, Chiwere word order is subject-object-verb , in contrast to English SVO order. The verbal complex is formed of preverbal and postverbal affixes, with preverbal affixes communicating positional, instrumental and pronominal elements. These are added to
473-419: A single contact it is sometimes erroneously described as an (allophonic) tap/flap, but a true tap or flap is an active articulation whereas a trill is a passive articulation. That is, for a tap or flap the tongue makes an active gesture to contact the target place of articulation, whereas with a trill the contact is due to the vibration caused by the airstream rather than any active movement. Many linguists use
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#1732787062310516-639: A steady decline after extended European American contact in the 1850s, and by 1940 the language had almost totally ceased to be spoken. "Tciwere itce" (in the Otoe dialect) and "Tcekiwere itce" (in the Iowa dialect) translate to "To speak the home dialect." The name "Chiwere" is said to originate from a person meeting a stranger in the dark. If a stranger in the dark challenged a person to identify their self, that person might respond "I am Tci-we-re" (Otoe) or "I am Tce-ki-we-re" (Iowa), which translates to "I am belonging to
559-535: A tap and a flap (as in the proposed definition cited above) at the same place of articulation. This is the case for Norwegian, in which the alveolar apical tap /ɾ/ and the post-alveolar/retroflex apical flap /ɽ/ have the same place of articulation for some speakers, and Kamviri , which also has apical alveolar taps and flaps. The tap and flap consonants identified by the International Phonetic Alphabet are: The Kiel Convention of
602-467: A verb stem, which can be mono-, duo- or polysyllabic, and either agent ( transitive ) or patient ( intransitive ). Most verb stems are passive. Altogether, the Chiwere verb complex is arranged as follows: [wa- pronoun] [wa- directional] [positional] [-wa/ri- pronouns] [ha-/ra- pronouns] [reflexive] [possession] [gi- directional] [instrumental] STEM [pronoun suffix] [causative] Positional prefixes occupy
645-486: A word. According to William Whitman's research of Chiwere, approximately 23 known consonant clusters exist thath are word medial, and approximately 14 of these show up word initially or word medially. In this research Whitman found that the stop + stop consonant cluster čd , as in áčda ('then'), shows up in the word medial position but not as a word initial phoneme cluster. The stop + spirant clusters ʔθ , ʔs , and ʔh all show up word initially and word medially, whereas
688-590: Is a Siouan language originally spoken by the Missouria , Otoe , and Iowa peoples, who originated in the Great Lakes region but later moved throughout the Midwest and plains. The language is closely related to Ho-Chunk , also known as Winnebago. Non-Native Christian missionaries first documented Chiwere in the 1830s, but since then not much material has been published about the language. Chiwere suffered
731-560: Is also common in Norwegian dialects and some Swedish dialects . Many of the languages of Africa, Asia, and the Pacific that do not distinguish [r] from l may have a lateral flap. However, it is also possible that many of these languages do not have a lateral–central contrast at all, so that even a consistently neutral articulation may be perceived as sometimes lateral [ɺ] or [l] , sometimes central [ɾ] . This has been suggested to be
774-549: Is distinctive as well. Chiwere grammar is agglutinative ; its verbal complex is central to the structure of the language. Verbs are formed by addition various affixes to a verb stem, each of which corresponds to a part of speech , such as a preposition , pronoun , case marker and so forth. Concepts such as possession , reflexivity and grammatical number , as well subject-object relation and case (including nine instrumental prefixes) are also expressed via affixing. In this way, large, complete sentences can be formed out of
817-457: Is mentioned as being an error for the spirant + stop combination hd . But the spirant + stop combination xd has also been found in the words chéxdó ('buffalo bull'), náxda ('sour'), and náxdage ('kick'). With this data we can see that the consonant cluster xd is a possible combination and can show up in word medial position. Chiwere has five oral vowel phonemes, /a e i o u/ , and three nasal vowel phonemes, /ã ĩ ũ/ . Vowel length
860-420: Is no buildup of air pressure behind the place of articulation and consequently no release burst. Otherwise a tap/flap is similar to a brief stop. Taps and flaps also contrast with trills , where the airstream causes the articulator to vibrate. Trills may be realized as a single contact, like a tap or flap, but are variable, whereas a tap/flap is limited to a single contact. When a trill is brief and made with
903-524: Is the labiodental flap , found throughout central Africa in languages such as Margi . In 2005, the IPA adopted a right-hook v, ⟨ ⱱ ⟩: Previously it had been transcribed with the use of the breve diacritic, [v̆] , or other ad hoc symbols. Other taps or flaps are much less common. They include an epiglottal tap ; a bilabial flap in Banda , which may be an allophone of the labiodental flap; and
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#1732787062310946-865: The Germanic languages , the tap allophone occurs in American and Australian English and in Northern Low Saxon . In American and Australian English it tends to be an allophone of intervocalic / t / and / d / , leading to homophonous pairs such as "me t al" / "me d al" and "la tt er" / "la dd er" – see tapping . In a number of Low Saxon dialects it occurs as an allophone of intervocalic / d / or / t / ; e.g. bä d en /beeden/ → [ˈbeːɾn] 'to pray', 'to request', gah to Be dd e! /gaa tou bede/ → [ˌɡɑːtoʊˈbeɾe] 'go to bed!', Wa t er /vaater/ → [ˈvɑːɾɜ] 'water', Va dd er /fater/ → [ˈfaɾɜ] 'father'. (In some dialects this has resulted in reanalysis and
989-628: The Otoe-Missouria Tribe of Indians still speak the language, while 30 members of the Iowa Tribe of Oklahoma speak their language. The Iowa Tribe of Oklahoma has sponsored language workshops in the past and hopes to host more in the future. They have provided tribal elders with recording devices to collect Chiwere words and songs. A 2012 NSF grant was used to provide digital access to existing audio recordings of fluent speakers. The Third Annual Otoe-Missouria Language and Culture Day
1032-403: The IPA recommended that for other taps and flaps, a homorganic consonant, such as a stop or trill, should be used with a breve diacritic: Tap or flaps: where no independent symbol for a tap is provided, the breve diacritic should be used, e.g. [ʀ̆] or [n̆] . However, the former could be mistaken for a short trill, and is more clearly transcribed ⟨ ɢ̆ ⟩, whereas for a nasal tap
1075-509: The case for Japanese , for example. The Iwaidja language of Australia has both alveolar and retroflex lateral flaps . These contrast with lateral approximants at the same positions, as well as a retroflex tap [ɽ] , alveolar tap [ɾ] , and retroflex approximant [ɻ] . However, the flapped, or tapped, laterals in Iwaidja are distinct from 'lateral flaps' as represented by the corresponding IPA symbols (see below). These phones consist of
1118-563: The cluster hñ has been found in the word medial position, as in péhñi ('whiskey') and thus appears to be another possible spirant + nasal consonant combination. The stop + semivowel consonant clusters θw , xw , and hw all appear to be restricted to the word medial environment, whereas the stop + semivowel consonant cluster sw appears to be the only stop + semivowel known to show up both word initially, as in swá̃la ('to be soft') and baswá ('to cut piece off'). The stop + liquid phoneme clusters θl , sl , and xl have all been found in
1161-416: The first position in the verbal complex. These prefixes refer to the location or direction of the verb's action: Chiwere distinguishes three persons – first, second and inclusive , which functions as an inclusive first person plural. Each person has an agent (subject) and patient (object) form. The agent forms mark the subjects of active verbs, whereas the patient forms mark the objects of active verbs and
1204-486: The first syllable bá as pá , or "nose." However, the Iowa Tribe of Oklahoma says that Bah-Kho-Je means "grey snow," due to their winter lodges being covered with snow that is stained grey by fire smoke. The last two fluent speakers died in the winter of 1996, and only a handful of semi-fluent speakers remain, all of whom are elderly, making Chiwere critically endangered . As of 2006, an estimated four members of
1247-403: The language, and are distinguished by actual statements of time using words like "yesterday" or "today." The future tense is indicated with the particle hnye , which follows the verb. Chiwere is a pro-drop language ; once the subject of the sentence has been established, it can be omitted. Statements are negated with the particle skunyi , which follows the verb. Commands are formed using
1290-420: The people of this land" or "I am belonging to those dwelling here." The Iowa tribe refers to their language as Báxoje ich'é or Bah Kho Je (pronounced [b̥aꜜxodʒɛ itʃʼeꜜ] ). The Otoe-Missouria dialect is called Jíwere ich'é (pronounced [d̥ʒiꜜweɾɛ itʃʼeꜜ] ). The spelling Chiwere , used mostly by linguists, derives from the fact that the language has an aspiration distinction rather than
1333-455: The prefix has no literal meaning. Verbs are made reflexive by the ki- prefix; the reduplicated form kiki- expresses reciprocity. Thus: A number of verbs that are non-reflexive in English take the reflexive prefix in Chiwere. These three prefixes serve to indicate an indirect object and as such are grouped together, even though they do not occupy the same position within
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1376-410: The pronominal hi- , and approximates the English third person plural object of a transitive verb. Additionally, the prefix can be used as a dummy pronoun to make transitive verbs intransitive; these verbal forms are often used as nouns, and this prefix is thus the general method of forming nouns from verb stems. There are several intransitive verbs that take the wa- prefix idiomatically, wherein
1419-449: The research of William Whitman, however, the spirant + stop cluster hk has been found to exist word medially, as in chéthka ('domestic cow'). According to Whitman's, research two spirant + nasal consonant clusters that have been found, which are hm , as in sáhmã ('seven') and hn , as in láhnũwe ('calumet'), however Whitman does account that hñ is a combination which appears as a future tense suffix. After reviewing further data,
1462-415: The simple verb stem plus a gender-specific particle – le for male speakers and lé for female speakers. Tap consonant In phonetics , a flap or tap is a type of consonantal sound, which is produced with a single contraction of the muscles so that one articulator (such as the tongue) is thrown against another. The main difference between a tap or flap and a stop is that in a tap/flap there
1505-438: The stop + semivowel clusters dw and gw only show up word medially. The stop + liquid clusters bl and gl show up word initially and word medially. Spirant + stop clusters generally appear in both word initial and word medial position, these clusters include θg , sǰ , sg , hd , and hg , however the spirant + stop clusters sd and xd only appear word medially. These are all the spirant + stop clusters accounted for in
1548-513: The subjects of passive verbs, making Chiwere, like many other Siouan languages, active-stative . Third person forms as they exist in English are not directly marked. Following are the subject and object forms of the pronominal prefixes: The inclusive object form is spelled wa-wa because it can be separated by the positional prefixes. The 3SG is not marked; the 2DU form does not exist. This prefix, perhaps best translated as "something," occurs before every other verbal element except for
1591-597: The symbol for the corresponding voiced stop. A palatal or uvular tap or flap, which unlike a velar tap is believed to be articulatorily possible, could be represented this way (by *[ɟ̆, ɢ̆~ʀ̆] ). Though deemed impossible on the IPA chart, a velar tap has been reported to occur allophonically in the Kamviri dialect of the Kamkata-vari language and in Dàgáárè , though at least in the latter case this may in fact be
1634-464: The terms tap and flap indiscriminately. Peter Ladefoged proposed for a while that it might be useful to distinguish between them. However, his usage was inconsistent and contradicted itself even between different editions of the same text. One proposed version of the distinction was that a tap strikes its point of contact directly, as a very brief stop , but a flap strikes the point of contact tangentially: "Flaps are most typically made by retracting
1677-512: The tongue tip behind the alveolar ridge and moving it forward so that it strikes the ridge in passing." Later, however, he used the term flap in all cases. Subsequent work on the labiodental flap has clarified the issue: flaps involve retraction of the active articulator, and a forward-striking movement. For linguists who do not make the proposed distinction above, alveolars are typically called taps , and other articulations are called flaps . A few languages have been reported to contrast
1720-445: The unambiguous transcription ⟨ ɾ̃ ⟩ is generally used. Most of the alternative transcriptions in parentheses imply a tap rather than flap articulation, so for example the flap [ⱱ̟] and the tapped stop [b̆] are arguably distinct, as are flapped [ɽ̃] and tapped [ɳ̆] . Spanish features a good illustration of an alveolar flap, contrasting it with a trill : pe r o /ˈpeɾo/ "but" vs. pe rr o /ˈpero/ "dog". Among
1763-475: The verbal complex: There are nine separate prefixes that indicate instrumentality , all of which change passive verbs into active. The causative , wherein the subject causes or makes something else to do or be something, is expressed via the suffix -hi . The verbs prefixed by da- are intransitive and are made transitive with the -hi suffix. " Tense " in Chiwere can be divided into present/past and future. Present and past tenses are unmarked in
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1806-444: The word initial and word medial environments. An interesting analysis of the Chiwere language has shown that the spirant + stop consonant cluster hg is the more commonly used pronunciation of the spirant + stop cluster θg and that the hg cluster may be replacing the θg altogether. In William Whitman's research, the spirant + stop combination xd , with the one given example used in this journal being iblí̃xdo ('blackbird'),
1849-715: Was planned for September 2012. The Otoe-Missouria Tribe of Indians is establishing a language program in conjunction with the University of Oklahoma Native American Studies Department. The Otoe-Missouria Tribe of Oklahoma 's Otoe Language Program teaches weekly classes in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma , and Red Rock, Oklahoma . The phoneme inventory of Chiwere consists of approximately 33 consonants, and five vowel qualities (three of which occur as nasalized). Voiceless stop sounds /p, t, tʃ, k/ may be heard as voiced [b, d, dʒ, ɡ] in final position. The phoneme /ɾ/ has
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