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39-530: General Vladimir Kappel , who was appointed to this position in mid-December 1919, led the retreat. After his death from pneumonia on 26 January 1920, General Sergey Voytsekhovsky took command of the troops. Admiral Kolchak travelled ahead by train to Irkutsk but was halted by Czechoslovak troops in December and handed over to Left SR troops in Irkutsk on 14 January, who executed him on 7 February 1920. In

78-770: A sizable anti-Soviet rebellion but was defeated after several months of fighting, and he fled to the northeastern Chinese city of Harbin . He then moved to Manzhouli in Inner Mongolia, where the Chinese Eastern Railway met the Chita Railway , expelled the Bolshevik garrison guarding the rail junction, and recruited an army, mainly from Buryat and Chinese recruits. In January 1918, he invaded Transbaikal, but by February, had been forced by Bolshevik partisans to retreat back to Manzhouli, where he

117-559: A "Great Mongol State" in 1918 and had designs to unify the Oirat Mongol lands, portions of Xinjiang , Transbaikal, Inner Mongolia, Outer Mongolia, Tannu Uriankhai , Kobdo, Hulunbei'er , and Tibet into one Mongolian state. The region under his control, also called Eastern Okraina , extended from Verkhne-Udinsk near Lake Baikal to the Shilka River and the town of Stretensk , to Manzhouli and northeast some distance along

156-894: A forced march through the Siberian winter, the Great Siberian Ice March , similar to what the Volunteer Army had done in 1918, the Kuban Ice March . During the march, on 15 January 1920, Kappel learnt of Kolchak's capture. Shortly afterwards he fell through the ice while crossing the Kan River , worsening his already fragile health. Because of frostbite, the fingers of his right hand had to be removed along with his left foot, without anesthetics . Following this amputation however, his health did not improve. Still advancing towards Irkutsk to rescue Kolchak ,

195-743: A halt on the shore of Lake Baikal near Irkutsk in January 1920. With the Red Army in hot pursuit after Kappel was forced to find a route around the Communist uprising in Krasnoyarsk, the White 2nd Army (the Kappelevtsy), had to escape eastwards to Chita across the frozen Lake Baikal in sub-zero temperatures. About 30,000 White Army soldiers, their families and all their possessions as well as

234-435: A love of intrigue and indifference to the means by which he achieved his ends. Though capable and ingenious, he had received no education, and his outlook was narrow. I have never been able to understand how he came to play a leading role. As somewhat of an outsider among his fellow officers because of his ethnicity , he met another officer shunned by his peers, Baron Ungern-Sternberg , whose eccentric nature and disregard for

273-554: A wooden mallet, one by one, and threw them overboard - all except for one man who put up a fight and was thrown alive into the freezing water. When Kolchak resigned on 4 January 1920 he transferred his military forces in the Far East to Semyonov. However, Semyonov was unable to keep his troops in Siberia under control: they stole, burned, murdered , and raped, developing a reputation for being little better than thugs. In July 1920,

312-713: The Amur Railway . In early 1919, Semyonov declared himself ataman of the Transbaikal Cossack Host . In his rule over the Transbaikal, Semyonov has been described as a "plain bandit [who] drew his income from holding up trains and forcing payments, no matter what the nature of the load nor for whose benefit it was being shipped". He handed out copies of the Protocols of the Elders of Zion to

351-555: The 21st, Kappel handed over command of his troops to General Sergei Wojciechowski due to his failing health. He also sent his wife his wedding ring and one of his Crosses of St. George . On the 22nd, on the verge of death, Kappel ordered his troops to accelerate their march towards Irkutsk , to save their gold reserves and Admiral Kolchak from execution. On the 26th, Kappel died of his ailments near Tulun , about 350 kilometres (220 mi) from Irkutsk . His last words to his men were: "Tell my men that I adored them, and that my death in

390-660: The Baikal region . He escaped by plane to Manchuria. In late May 1921 Semyonov travelled to Japan, where he received some support. He returned to the Primorye in the hope of continuing to fight against the Soviets, but was finally forced to abandon all of Russian territory by September 1921. He eventually returned to China , where he was given a monthly 1000- yen pension by the Japanese government. In Tianjin , he made ties with

429-480: The General's troops captured Nizhneudinsk on the 20th. Both of Kappel's legs were frozen and he was dying of typhus . In the words of his colleague and friend, A. A. Fedorovich: "He clenches his teeth to not scream out in pain. The general has been hoisted and attached to his horse with what is left of his hands and body. Vladimir greets those who have not laid down their weapons. And he only stops at night." On

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468-719: The Germans and the Austro-Hungarians in World War I , and earned the Saint George's Cross for courage. Pyotr Wrangel wrote: Semenov was a Transbaikalian Cossack – dark and thickset, and of the rather alert Mongolian type. His intelligence was of a specifically Cossack calibre, and he was an exemplary soldier, especially courageous when under the eye of his superior. He knew how to make himself popular with Cossacks and officers alike, but he had his weaknesses in

507-821: The Headquarters Operations Office for the South-Western front . Although he was a self-declared monarchist, Kappel said he would fight under any banner against the Bolsheviks. Kappel's adherents and allies were known in Russian as kappelevtsy (каппелевцы). Following the Bolshevik Revolution , Kappel commanded the Komuch White Army group ( People's Army of Komuch ) (June–September 1918) and from December 1919

546-553: The Japanese intelligence community and mobilized exiled Russian and Cossack communities that planned an eventual overthrow of the Soviets. He was also employed by Puyi , the dethroned Emperor of China, whom he wished to restore to power. While he was an exile in China, he was still backed by the Japanese. His influence was such that when Anastasy Vonsiatsky of the Russian Fascist Party wanted to visit Manchukuo ,

585-648: The Japanese Expeditionary Corps started a limited withdrawal in accordance with the Gongota Agreement , which was signed on 15 July 1920 with the Far Eastern Republic and undermined support for Semyonov. Transbaikal partisans , internationalists , and the 5th Soviet Army under Genrich Eiche launched an operation to retake Chita. In October 1920, units of the Red Army and guerrillas forced Semyonov's army out of

624-672: The Japanese puppet state in Manchuria, he needed Semyonov's help in getting a visa. Vonsiatsky, however, saw Semyonov as a threat to his dream of being Russia's Mussolini , and declared that he should be shot, an outburst that led to the Russian Fascist Party splitting in two. Konstantin Rodzaevsky , who supplanted Vonsiatsky as the leader of the Russian Fascists in China co-operated with Semyonov to placate

663-711: The Japanese troops with whom he became associated. With Japanese protection, he recognised no other authority. When Admiral Aleksandr Kolchak , who was based in Omsk , in Siberia, was declared Supreme Ruler by the White Armies , Semyonov refused to submit to him. They had met once, in Manzhouli, in May 1918, when Semyonov insulted Kolchak by failing to be at the railway station to greet him. Kolchak considered sending an army into Transbaikal to remove Semyonov, but had to abandon

702-573: The Japanese. In 1934, the Japanese formed the Bureau for Russian Emigrants in Manchuria (BREM; Бюро по делам российских эмигрантов в Маньчжурской империи ), which were nominally under the control of the recent Russian Fascist Party and provided identification papers necessary to live, work and travel in Manchukuo. Much more in favor with the Japanese than White General Kislitsin , Semyonov replaced him as BREM's chairman from 1943 to 1945. Semyonov

741-670: The Staff of the Army Corps. In February 1915 he was transferred to the front at the headquarters of the Fifth Division of Don Cossacks . He stayed at that post until his promotion to the rank of staff captain. He participated in the planning of the Brusilov Offensive of 1916, the most successful Russian offensive of the war. On 15 August 1916, Vladimir Kappel was made lieutenant-colonel and posted Deputy Head of

780-836: The Tobol River in mid-October and by November the White forces were falling back towards Omsk in a disorganised mass. Omsk was conquered by the Reds on 14 November 1919. The retreat began after the heavy defeats of the White Army in the Omsk operation and in the Novonikolaevsk Operation in November–December 1919. The army, led by General Kappel, retreated along the Trans-Siberian Railway, using

819-524: The Tsar's gold, made their way across the lake to Transbaikalia . The bloodiest campaign battles occurred at the villages of Yakovlevka , Birulka , and Gruznovskaya , as well as the city of Barguzin . As the Arctic winds blew unobstructed across the lake, many in the army and their families froze to death. Their bodies remained frozen on the lake in a kind of tableau throughout the winter of 1919–20. With

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858-502: The advent of spring, the frozen corpses and all their possessions disappeared in 5,000 feet of water. Kappel himself suffered frostbite and pneumonia in temperatures of -40 °C (-40 °F), and died on 26 January. The survivors of the March found a safe haven in Chita , the capital of Eastern Okraina , a territory under control of Kolchak's successor Grigory Mikhaylovich Semyonov , who

897-426: The available trains to transport the wounded. They were followed on their heels by the 5th Red Army under the command of Genrich Eiche . The White retreat was complicated by numerous insurgencies in the cities where they had to pass and attacks by partisan detachments, and was further aggravated by the fierce Siberian frost. After the series of defeats, the White troops were in a demoralized state, centralized supply

936-502: The eastern front of Aleksandr Kolchak 's forces, participating in the Spring 1919 offensive towards Moscow . Despite his rank, the young officer was often seen with grenades and revolvers on his belt, which earned him the reputation of a Soldier-General and made him one of the most popular White Generals among the rank-and-file. He insisted on arming all of his staff, and often carried his rifle to planning sessions. His relatively young age

975-682: The idea because Semyonov was protected by the Japanese , who had 72,000 troops in Siberia. In October 1919, Kolchak recognised Semyonov as commander-in-chief of the Transbaikal region. In December 1919, Semyonov sent a detachment to Irkutsk , which had been the last city west of Lake Baikal still nominally under Kolchak's rule until a coalition of Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries seized control. The detachment reached Irkutsk, but did nothing except take 30 men and one young woman hostage. They took their hostages aboard an icebreaker on Lake Baikal, where, on 5 January, they clubbed them to death with

1014-595: The midst of them proves it." His command was officially handed over to General Sergei Wojciechowski, who continued the advance towards Irkutsk . Kappel's men, bringing his coffin with them (to avoid desecration like with other White Generals' burial sites), reached the outskirts of the city on 30 January. Kolchak however, had been executed on the 6th or 7 February, shortly before they were to reach him. They then continued their retreat towards Chita, ending their Great Siberian Ice March there. Kappel's tomb in Harbin , China

1053-476: The railway was in the hands of the Czechoslovak Legion , as a result of which parts of General Kappel's Army were deprived of the opportunity to use the railway. They were also harassed by partisan troops under command of Alexander Kravchenko and Peter Efimovich Schetinkin . The pursuing Red 5th Army took Tomsk on 20 December 1919 and Krasnoyarsk on 7 January 1920. Kappel's 2nd Army came to

1092-743: The rules of etiquette and decorum repelled others. He and Ungern tried to organize a regiment of Assyrian Christians to aid in the Russian fight against the Ottomans . In July 1917, Semyonov left the Caucasus and was appointed commissar of the Provisional Government in the Baikal region and was responsible for recruiting a regiment of Buryat volunteers. After the October Revolution of November 1917, Semyonov stirred up

1131-658: The summer of 1919, the Red Army had gained a great victory against Kolchak's Army. The White forces re-established a line along the Tobol and the Ishim rivers to temporarily halt the Red Army, which was faced by an advance on Moscow from the south by Anton Denikin 's White Army . By the autumn, Denikin had been defeated and the Red Army was able to direct reinforcements back to the Eastern Front . The Reds broke through on

1170-680: Was a Japanese -supported leader of the White movement in Transbaikal and beyond from December 1917 to November 1920, a lieutenant general , and the ataman of Baikal Cossacks (1919). He was the commander of the Far Eastern Army during the Russian Civil War . He was also a prominent figure in the White Terror . U.S. Army intelligence estimated that he was responsible for executing 30,000 people in one year. Semyonov

1209-625: Was a White Russian military leader. Kappel was born into a Swedish-Russian family. He graduated from the Saint Petersburg Page Corps and then from the Nicholas Cavalry College  [ ru ] and Nicholas Academy of General Staff . During the First World War of 1914-1918, Kappel was Chief of the 347th Infantry Regiment's Staff and an officer in the 1st Army 's Staff. He began as

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1248-558: Was also a contributing factor to his reputation as an effective general. Despite the military prowess of Kappel and his troops, the Spring offensive failed: their supply lines were over-extended, their troops were meager, ammunition shortages were common, and the Red Army was being reorganized and strengthened. As multiple revolts caused the Army's rear to disintegrate, Kolchak was captured by Soviet allies. Kappel and his Kappelevtsy thus began

1287-577: Was born in the Transbaikal region of eastern Siberia . His father, Mikhail Petrovich Semyonov, was Russian; his mother was a Buryat . Semyonov spoke Mongolian and Buryat fluently. He joined the Imperial Russian Army in 1908 and graduated from Orenburg Military School in 1911. Commissioned first as a khorunzhiy (cornet or lieutenant), he rose to the rank of yesaul (Cossack captain), distinguished himself in battle against

1326-773: Was captured in Dalian by Soviet paratroopers in September 1945 during the Soviet invasion of Manchuria in which the Red Army conquered Manchukuo . He was taken to Moscow, and put on trial with seven others, including Rodzaevsky in front of the Military Collegium of the Supreme Court of the USSR . He pleaded guilty to espionage, sabotage, terrorism, and armed struggle, and was sentenced to death by hanging . Semyonov

1365-427: Was paralyzed, replenishment not received, and the discipline dropped dramatically. In these circumstances, the appointment as commander of the Army of General Kappel , who enjoyed unlimited trust and prestige amongst Kolchak's troops, was the first step to avoid the disintegration of the entire Kolchak army. Only the 2nd Army came under his command, as communication with the 1st and 3rd armies had been lost. Control of

1404-451: Was pulled down in 1955 when Mao Zedong assumed power in China. On December 19, 2006, the remains of Kappel were identified and transported for reinterment from China to Irkutsk . On January 13, 2007, Vladimir Kappel's remains were interred at Donskoy Monastery in Moscow . Grigory Mikhaylovich Semyonov Grigory Mikhaylovich Semyonov , or Semenov ( Russian : Григо́рий Миха́йлович Семёнов ; September 25, 1890 – August 30, 1946),

1443-423: Was so strong that Semyonov was for practical purposes a puppet." In April 1918, Semyonov launched another raid into Siberia with the help of the Czechoslovak Legion . By August 1918 he had managed to consolidate his positions in the Transbaikal region, where he set up a provisional government. On 6 September, his men captured Chita , and slaughtered 348 of its citizens. He made Chita his capital. Semyonov declared

1482-468: Was supported by a significant Japanese military presence. The Central Committee of the Russian Communist Party issued an order not to advance beyond Irkutsk to avoid a military conflict with Japan, at a moment when the main threat for the young Soviet State was in Europe ( Poland ). Vladimir Kappel Vladimir Oskarovich Kappel ( Russian : Влади́мир О́скарович Ка́ппель , April 28 [ O.S. April 16] 1883 – January 26, 1920)

1521-473: Was visited by R.B.Denny, British Military Attache in Beijing, who formed an "extremely favourable impression of him". On his recommendation, the Foreign Office in London agreed to pay Semyonov £10,000 a month, with no conditions attached,. The French government also decided to give him financial aid, while the Japanese placed an intelligence officer, Captain Kuroki Chikayochi, in Semyonov's headquarters. The British subsidies ended, by which time "Japanese influence

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