Great Royal Wife , or alternatively, Chief King's Wife ( Ancient Egyptian : ḥmt nswt wrt ) is the title that was used to refer to the principal wife of the pharaoh of Ancient Egypt , who served many official functions.
84-553: While most ancient Egyptians were monogamous , a male pharaoh would have had other, lesser wives and concubines in addition to the Great Royal Wife. This arrangement would allow the pharaoh to enter into diplomatic marriages with the daughters of allies, as was the custom of ancient kings. In the past the order of succession in Ancient Egypt was thought to pass through the royal women. This theory, referred to as
168-433: A bachelor's degree , as well as an advanced degree such as a master's degree or a doctorate . Like other scientists, biologists can be found working in different sectors of the economy such as in academia , nonprofits , private industry , or government . Francesco Redi , the founder of biology , is recognized to be one of the greatest biologists of all time. Robert Hooke, an English natural philosopher , coined
252-559: A "slave girl" in respect to the first wife, as many marriage contracts explicitly state. Although an Egyptian man was free to marry several women at a time, and some wealthy men from Old and Middle Kingdoms did have more than one wife, monogamy was the norm. There may have been some exceptions, e.g. a Nineteenth Dynasty official stated as proof of his love to his deceased wife that he had stayed married to her since their youth, even after he had become very successful (P. Leiden I 371). This may suggest that some men abandoned first wives of
336-505: A hunter is able to obtain enough food, he can afford to have a second wife as well. The monogamy practiced by this ethnic group is the serial monogamy. Despite the human ability to avoid sexual and genetic monogamy, social monogamy still forms under many different conditions, but most of those conditions are consequences of cultural processes. These cultural processes may have nothing to do with relative reproductive success. For example, anthropologist Jack Goody 's comparative study utilizing
420-613: A low social status and married women of higher status in order to further their careers although even then they lived with only one wife. Egyptian women had the right to ask for a divorce if their husband took a second wife. Many tomb reliefs testify to the monogamous character of Egyptian marriages; officials are usually accompanied by a supportive wife. "His wife X, his beloved" is the standard phrase identifying wives in tomb inscriptions. The instruction texts belonging to wisdom literature, e.g., Instruction of Ptahhotep or Instruction of Any , support fidelity to monogamous marriage life, calling
504-447: A mammal from an adult somatic cell, a Finnish Dorset lamb named Dolly. An undergraduate degree in biology typically requires coursework in molecular and cellular biology , development , ecology , genetics , microbiology , anatomy , physiology , botany , and zoology . Additional requirements may include physics , chemistry ( general , organic , and biochemistry ), calculus , and statistics . Students who aspire to
588-406: A man was supposed to marry one woman and if she did not provide him with offspring, he could take a second wife. The Code of Hammurabi states that he loses his right to do so if the wife herself gives him a slave as concubine . According to Old Assyrian texts, he could be obliged to wait for two or three years before he was allowed to take another wife. The position of the second wife was that of
672-498: A median rate of 3.7% extrapair paternity. A range of 1.8% to 3.7% extrapair paternity implies a range of 96% to 98% genetic monogamy. Although the incidence of genetic monogamy may vary from 70% to 99% in different cultures or social environments, a large percentage of couples remain genetically monogamous during their relationships. A review paper, surveying 67 other studies, reported rates of extrapair paternity, in different societies, ranging from 0.4% to over 50%. Covert illegitimacy
756-445: A much larger impact on monogamy in humans than the biological forces that are important for non-human animals. Other theorists use cultural factors influencing reproductive success to explain monogamy. During times of major economic/demographic transitions, investing more in fewer offspring (social monogamy not polygyny) increases reproductive success by ensuring the offspring themselves have enough initial wealth to be successful. This
840-515: A much smaller (unreported) percentage of women engage in extramarital sex. Studies in Nigeria have found around 47–53% of men and to 18–36% of women engage in extramarital sex. A 1999 survey of married and cohabiting couples in Zimbabwe reports that 38% of men and 13% of women engaged in extra-couple sexual relationships within the last 12 months. Many surveys asking about extramarital sex in
924-552: A position to veto or approve their ideas. These scientists must consider the business effects of their work. Swift advances in knowledge of genetics and organic molecules spurred growth in the field of biotechnology, transforming the industries in which biological scientists work. Biological scientists can now manipulate the genetic material of animals and plants, attempting to make organisms (including humans) more productive or resistant to disease. Basic and applied research on biotechnological processes, such as recombining DNA, has led to
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#17327728745541008-711: A research-oriented career usually pursue a graduate degree such as a master's or a doctorate (e.g., PhD) whereby they would receive training from a research head based on an apprenticeship model that has been in existence since the 1800s. Students in these graduate programs often receive specialized training in a particular subdiscipline of biology. Biologists who work in basic research formulate theories and devise experiments to advance human knowledge on life including topics such as evolution , biochemistry , molecular biology , neuroscience and cell biology . Biologists typically conduct laboratory experiments involving animals , plants , microorganisms or biomolecules . However,
1092-423: A separation will not only become superfluous but also psychologically inconceivable." One of the tenets of the new proletarian morality is "mutual recognition of the rights of the other, of the fact that one does not own the heart and soul of the other (the sense of property, encouraged by bourgeois culture)." Recent anthropological data suggest that the modern concept of life-long monogamy has been in place for only
1176-465: A single partner for life. Others accept or endorse pre-marital sex prior to marriage. Some societies consider sex outside of marriage or "spouse swapping" to be socially acceptable. Some consider a relationship monogamous even if partners separate and move to a new monogamous relationship through death, divorce, or simple dissolution of the relationship, regardless of the length of the relationship (serial monogamy). The need to accurately define monogamy
1260-772: A small part of biological research also occurs outside the laboratory and may involve natural observation rather than experimentation. For example, a botanist may investigate the plant species present in a particular environment, while an ecologist might study how a forest area recovers after a fire. Biologists who work in applied research use instead the accomplishments gained by basic research to further knowledge in particular fields or applications. For example, this applied research may be used to develop new pharmaceutical drugs , treatments and medical diagnostic tests . Biological scientists conducting applied research and product development in private industry may be required to describe their research plans or results to non-scientists who are in
1344-711: A smaller proportion of men contributed to human genetic history compared to women. This could occur if male mortality outpaced female mortality. This cannot be assumed with the available evidence. If an equal number of men and women are born and survive to reproduce, however, this would indicate that historically, only a subset of men fathered children and did so with multiple women (and may suggest that many men either did not procreate or did not have children that survived to create modern ancestors). This circumstance could occur for several reasons, but there are three common interpretations: The serial monogamy interpretation of genetic history would be congruent with other findings, such as
1428-525: A social practice. Laura Betzig argues that in the six large, highly stratified early states, commoners were generally monogamous but that elites practiced de facto polygyny. Those states included Mesopotamia , Egypt, Aztec Mexico , Inca Peru , India and China. Monogamy has appeared in some traditional tribal societies such as the Andamanese , Karen in Burma , Sami and Ket in northern Eurasia , and
1512-474: A society that practices serial monogamy. However, there was a temporary but sharp decrease in the ratio during the start of the Neolithic resolution, where the average man with modern descendants had children with 17 women (circa 8,000 years ago). Given the dramatic cultural shifts towards sedentary agriculture at the time, this is speculated to represent a dramatic change from a community-based society towards
1596-621: A source of social monogamy by enforcing it through rules and laws set by third-party actors, usually in order to protect the wealth or power of the elite. For example, Augustus Caesar encouraged marriage and reproduction to force the aristocracy to divide their wealth and power among multiple heirs, but the aristocrats kept their socially monogamous, legitimate children to a minimum to ensure their legacy while having many extra-pair copulations . Similarly—according to Betzig—the Christian Church enforced monogamy because wealth passed to
1680-538: A specific research focus (e.g., studying malaria or cancer). Biologists who are involved in basic research have the aim of advancing knowledge about the natural world. They conduct their research using the scientific method , which is an empirical method for testing hypotheses . Their discoveries may have applications for some specific purpose such as in biotechnology , which has the goal of developing medically useful products for humans. In modern times, most biologists have one or more academic degrees such as
1764-489: A strictly monogamous family (cf. Pr 5:15-19; Qo 9:9; Si 26:1-4 and eulogy of perfect wife, Proverbs 31:10-31). The Book of Tobias speaks solely of monogamous marriages. Also prophets have in front of their eyes monogamous marriage as an image of the relationship of God and Israel. (Cf. Ho 2:4f; Jer 2:2; Is 50:1; 54:6-7; 62:4-5; Ez 16). Roland de Vaux states that "it is clear that the most common form of marriage in Israel
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#17327728745541848-425: Is a relationship of two individuals in which they form a mutual and exclusive intimate partnership . Having only one partner at any one time, whether that be for life or whether that be serial monogamy , contrasts with various forms of non-monogamy (e.g., polygamy or polyamory ). More generally, the term is used to describe the behavioral ecology and sexual selection of animal mating systems, referring to
1932-536: Is a situation which arises when someone who is presumed to be a child's father (or mother) is in fact not the biological father (or mother). Frequencies as high as 30% are sometimes assumed in the media, but research by sociologist Michael Gilding traced these overestimates back to an informal remark at a 1972 conference. The detection of unsuspected illegitimacy can occur in the context of medical genetic screening, in genetic family name research, and in immigration testing. Such studies show that covert illegitimacy
2016-601: Is described as "universal" in 6 cultures, "moderate" in 29 cultures, "occasional" in 6 cultures, and "uncommon" in 10 cultures. The amount of extramarital sex by women is described as "universal" in 6 cultures, "moderate" in 23 cultures, "occasional" in 9 cultures, and "uncommon" in 15 cultures. Surveys conducted in non-Western nations (2001) also found cultural and gender differences in extramarital sex. A study of sexual behavior in Thailand , Tanzania and Côte d'Ivoire suggests about 16–34% of men engage in extramarital sex while
2100-639: Is in fact less than 10% among the sampled African populations, less than 5% among the sampled Native American and Polynesian populations, less than 2% of the sampled Middle Eastern population, and generally 1–2% among European samples. Pedigree errors are a well-known source of error in medical studies. When attempts are made to try to study medical afflictions and their genetic components, it becomes very important to understand non-paternity rates and pedigree errors. There are numerous software packages and procedures that exist for correcting research data for pedigree errors. Monogamy exists in many societies around
2184-706: Is normative and is legally enforced in most developed countries. Laws prohibiting polygyny were adopted in Japan (1880), China (1953), India (1955) and Nepal (1963). Polyandry is illegal in most countries. The women's rights movements seek to make monogamy the only legal form of marriage. The United Nations General Assembly in 1979 adopted the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women , Article 16 of which requires nations to give women and men equal rights in marriage. Polygamy
2268-755: Is reinforced by the low rate of polygamy even in polygamist societies; less than five percent of men marry more than one woman in approximately half of polygynous societies. This slight inclination towards men reproducing with a small number of women is also seen in genetic evidence. Depending on the period of history, the average man with modern descendents appears to have had children with between 1.5 women (70,000 years ago) to 3.3 women (45,000 years ago), except in East Asia. This rate varied dramatically by era, possibly due to male mortality, environmental conditions, food availability, and other influences on mortality, and migration patterns. These rates may be consistent with
2352-566: Is seen in both England and Sweden during the industrial revolution and is currently being seen in the modernization of rural Ethiopia . Similarly, in modern industrialized societies, fewer yet better-invested offspring, i.e. social monogamy, can provide a reproductive advantage over social polygyny, but this still allows for serial monogamy and extra-pair copulations. Karol Wojtyła (later, Pope John Paul II) in his book Love and Responsibility postulated that monogamy, as an institutional union of two people being in love with one another,
2436-529: Is the most sexually dimorphic early hominid. Plavcan and van Schaik conclude their examination of this controversy by stating that, overall, sexual dimorphism in australopithecines is not indicative of any behavioral implications or mating systems. Currently the oldest ethnic group in Africa, the continent where Homo sapiens species emerged, is the San people of Southern Africa. Most San are monogamous, but if
2520-655: Is viewed as inconsistent with the Article as it gives men the right of multiple wives, but not to women. The United Nations has established the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) to monitor the progress of nations implementing the convention. The founders of Communism determined that monogamous marriage inherently oppressed women and therefore had no place in communist society. Friedrich Engels stated that compulsory monogamy could only lead to increased prostitution and general immorality, with
2604-402: Is when offspring raised by a monogamous pair come from the female mating with another male. Rates of extrapair paternity have not been extensively studied in people. Many reports of extrapair paternity are little more than quotes based on hearsay, anecdotes, and unpublished findings. Simmons, Firman, Rhodes, and Peters reviewed 11 published studies of extra-pair paternity from various locations in
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2688-532: The Ethnographic Atlas demonstrated that monogamy is part of a cultural complex found in the broad swath of Eurasian societies from Japan to Ireland that practice social monogamy, sexual monogamy and dowry (i.e. "diverging devolution", that allow property to be inherited by children of both sexes). Goody demonstrates a statistical correlation between this cultural complex and the development of intensive plough agriculture in those areas. Drawing on
2772-531: The Caribbean , Mauritius and Brazil where there is frequent rotation of unmarried partners. In all, these account for 16 to 24% of the "monogamous" category. The prevalence of sexual monogamy can be roughly estimated as the percentage of married people who do not engage in extramarital sex . The Standard Cross-Cultural Sample describes the amount of extramarital sex by men and women in over 50 pre-industrial cultures. The amount of extramarital sex by men
2856-591: The Dead Sea Sect saw prohibition of polygamy as coming from the Pentateuch ( Damascus Document 4:20–5:5, one of the Dead Sea Scrolls ). Christianity adopted a similar attitude (cf. 1 Tm 3:2,12; Tt 1:6), which conformed with Jesus' approach. Michael Coogan , in contrast, states that "Polygyny continued to be practised well into the biblical period, and it is attested among Jews as late as
2940-476: The Human Rights Campaign has stated, based on a Rockway Institute report, that "LGBT" young people... want to spend their adult life in a long-term relationship raising children." Specifically, over 80% of the homosexuals surveyed expected to be in a monogamous relationship after age 30. The incidence of genetic monogamy may be estimated from rates of extrapair paternity . Extrapair paternity
3024-640: The Pueblo Indians of the United States, apparently unrelated to the development of the Christian monogamous paradigm. Both the Babylonian and Assyrian families were monogamous in principle but not entirely so in practice since polygyny was frequently practiced by the rulers. In the patriarchal society of Mesopotamia the nuclear family was called a "house". In order "to build a house"
3108-592: The United States have relied on convenience samples: surveys given to whoever happens to be easily available (e.g., volunteer college students or volunteer magazine readers). Convenience samples may not accurately reflect the population of the United States as a whole, which can cause serious biases in survey results. Sampling bias may, therefore, be why early surveys of extramarital sex in the United States have produced widely differing results: such early studies using convenience samples (1974, 1983, 1993) reported
3192-646: The United States , France , Switzerland , the United Kingdom , Mexico , and among the native Yanomami Indians of Amazon forest in South America . The rates of extrapair paternity ranged from 0.03% to 11.8% although most of the locations had low percentages of extrapair paternity. The median rate of extrapair paternity was 1.8%. A separate review of 17 studies by Bellis, Hughes, Hughes, and Ashton found slightly higher rates of extrapair paternity. The rates varied from 0.8% to 30% in these studies, with
3276-452: The "beginning". By doing so, he clearly refers to the relevant words of Genesis, which his interlocutors also know by heart. ... it clearly leads the interlocutors to reflect about the way in which, in the mystery of creation, man was formed precisely as "male and female," in order to understand correctly the normative meaning of the words of Genesis. Western European societies established monogamy as their marital norm. Monogamous marriage
3360-598: The 1000 Genomes Project Phase 3 high-coverage Complete Genomics whole-genome dataset. They found that the Southern Han Chinese had a male bias (45% female, indicating that women were likely to reproduce with multiple men). This region is known for its lack of a concept of paternity and for a sense of female equality or superiority. The Musharoff study also found a male bias in Europeans (20% female) during an out-of-Africa migration event that may have increased
3444-550: The Heiress Theory, has been rejected regarding the Eighteenth Dynasty ever since a 1980s study of its royalty. The throne likely passed to the eldest living son of those pharaohs. The mother of the heir to the throne was not always the Great Royal Wife, but once a pharaoh was crowned, it was possible to grant the mother of the king the title of Great Royal Wife, along with other titles. Examples include Iset ,
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3528-887: The Jewish creation story ( Gn 2) and the last chapter of Proverbs . During the Second Temple period (530 BCE to 70 CE), apart from an economic situation which supported monogamy even more than in earlier period, the concept of "mutual fidelity" between husband and wife was a quite common reason for strictly monogamous marriages. Some marriage documents explicitly expressed a desire for the marriage to remain monogamous. Examples of these documents were found in Elephantine . They resemble those found in neighbouring Assyria and Babylonia . Study shows that ancient Middle East societies, though not strictly monogamous, were practically (at least on commoners' level) monogamous. Halakha of
3612-609: The Jews became Roman citizens. However, some Jews continued to practice bigamy (e.g. up to medieval times in Egypt and Europe). Fourth-century Roman law forbade Jews to contract plural marriages. A synod convened by Gershom ben Judah around 1000 CE banned polygamy among Ashkenazi and Sephardic Jews. The ancient Greeks and Romans were monogamous in the sense that men were not allowed to have more than one wife or to cohabit with concubines during marriage. As John Paul II interpreted
3696-443: The advent of property ownership and therefore inheritance. Men would therefore seek to ensure that their land would go to direct descendants and had a vested interest in limiting the sexual activities of their reproductive partners. It is possible that the concept of marriage and permanent monogamy evolved at this time. See also Cultural arguments above. More recent genetic data has clarified that, in most regions throughout history,
3780-584: The benefits of restricting capital and solidifying the class structure. As he spelled out in The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State (1884), The first class antagonism which appears in history coincides with the development of the antagonism between man and woman in monogamian marriage, and the first class oppression with that of the female sex by the male. ... [T]he wellbeing and development of
3864-633: The causation and even correlation of monogamous marriage and extreme climates. However, some scientists argue that monogamy evolved by reducing within-group conflict, thus giving certain groups a competitive advantage against less monogamous groups. Paleoanthropology and genetic studies offer two perspectives on when monogamy evolved in the human species: paleoanthropologists offer tentative evidence that monogamy may have started very early in human history whereas genetic studies suggest that monogamy might have increased much more recently, less than 10,000 to 20,000 years ago. Paleoanthropological estimates of
3948-486: The closest living, legitimate male relative, often resulting in the wealthy oldest brother being without a male heir. Thus, the wealth and power of the family would pass to the "celibate" younger brother of the church. In both of these instances, the rule-making elite used cultural processes to ensure greater reproductive fitness for themselves and their offspring, leading to a larger genetic influence in future generations. According to B. S. Low, culture would appear to have
4032-523: The dialogue between Jesus and the Pharisees ( Gospel of Matthew 19:3–8), Christ emphasized the primordial beauty of monogamic spousal love described in the Book of Genesis 1:26–31, 2:4–25, whereby a man and woman by their nature are each ready to be a beautifying, total and personal gift to one another: Jesus avoids entangling himself in juridical or casuistic controversies; instead, he appeals twice to
4116-670: The discovery of genes associated with specific diseases and inherited health risks, such as sickle cell anemia. Advances in biotechnology have created research opportunities in almost all areas of biology, with commercial applications in areas such as medicine, agriculture, and environmental remediation . Most biological scientists specialize in the study of a certain type of organism or in a specific activity, although recent advances have blurred some traditional classifications. Biologists typically work regular hours but longer hours are not uncommon. Researchers may be required to work odd hours in laboratories or other locations (especially while in
4200-455: The duties of high priestess. Her daughter may have been the great royal wife of Thutmose III, but there is no clear evidence for this proposed marriage. Elsewhere, in Kush and other major states of ancient Africa , the rulers often structured their households in much the same way as has just been described. Monogamy Monogamy ( / m ə ˈ n ɒ ɡ ə m i / mə- NOG -ə-mee )
4284-433: The extra nutritional requirement of having larger brains and the lengthier developmental period. Therefore, the evolution of monogamy could be a reflection of this increased need for bi-parental care. Similarly, monogamy should evolve in areas of ecological stress because male reproductive success should be higher if their resources are focused on ensuring offspring survival rather than searching for other mates. Due to
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#17327728745544368-549: The extreme sociality and increased intelligence of humans, Homo sapiens have solved many problems that generally lead to monogamy, such as those mentioned above. For example, monogamy is certainly correlated with paternal care, as shown by Marlowe, but not caused by it because humans diminish the need for bi-parental care through the aid of siblings and other family members in rearing the offspring. Furthermore, human intelligence and material culture allows for better adaptation to different and rougher ecological areas, thus reducing
4452-544: The fact that humans form pair bonds (although not necessarily for life) and that human fathers invest in at least the early upbringing of their children. Serial monogamy would also be consistent with the existence of a "honeymoon period", a period of intense interest in a single sexual partner (with less interest in other women) which may help to keep men invested in staying with the mother of their child for this period. When reciprocated, this "honeymoon period" lasts 18 months to three years in most cases. This would correspond to
4536-581: The field), depending on the nature of their research. Many biologists depend on grant money to fund their research. They may be under pressure to meet deadlines and to conform to rigid grant-writing specifications when preparing proposals to seek new or extended funding. Marine biologists encounter a variety of working conditions. Some work in laboratories; others work on research ships, and those who work underwater must practice safe diving while working around sharp coral reefs and hazardous marine life. Although some marine biologists obtain their specimens from
4620-439: The genetic record indicates that genetic monogamy increased within the last 5,000-10,000 years, the form of prehistoric non-monogamy is less clear. A lack of genetic monogamy could be interpreted as polygamy despite other plausible explanations . Anthropological observations indicate that even when polygyny is accepted in the community, the majority of relationships in the society are monogamous in practice – while couples remain in
4704-586: The group. A molecular genetic study of global human genetic diversity argued that sexual polygyny was typical of human reproductive patterns until the shift to sedentary farming communities approximately 10,000 to 5,000 years ago in Europe and Asia, and more recently in Africa and the Americas. A further study drawing on the Ethnographic Atlas showed a statistical correlation between increasing size of
4788-419: The hoarding of power and resources more consistent with a harem model; however, the rapid movement back towards 4.5 women per man after this dip, accompanied by evidence for the move towards monogamy as the agricultural revolution progressed, may suggest a dramatic, unknown factor such as catastrophic male mortality. The historical record offers contradictory evidence on the development and extent of monogamy as
4872-527: The last 1,000 years. Genetic evidence has demonstrated that a greater proportion of men began contributing to the genetic pool between 5,000–10,000 years ago (i.e., there was an increase in women reproducing with different men rather than multiple women reproducing with the same man), which suggests that reproductive monogamy became more common at that time. This would correspond to the Neolithic agricultural revolution. During this time, formerly nomadic societies began to claim and settle land for farming, leading to
4956-583: The modern human range, based on dental and postcranial morphology. Although careful not to say that this indicates monogamous mating in early hominids , the authors do say that reduced levels of sexual dimorphism in A. afarensis "do not imply that monogamy is any less probable than polygyny". However, Gordon, Green and Richmond claim that in examining postcranial remains, A. afarensis is more sexually dimorphic than modern humans and chimpanzees with levels closer to those of orangutans and gorillas . Furthermore, Homo habilis , living approximately 2.3 mya,
5040-485: The mother of Thutmose III , Tiaa , the mother of Thutmose IV and Mutemwia , the mother of Amenhotep III . Meretseger , the chief wife of Senusret III , may be the earliest queen whose name appears with this title; she also was the first consort known to write her name in a cartouche . However, she is only attested in the New Kingdom so the title might be an anachronism. Perhaps the first holder of its title
5124-561: The number of men successfully reproducing with women, perhaps by replenishing the genetic pool in Europe. The study did confirm a more typical female bias in Yorubans (63% female), Europeans (84%), Punjabis (82%), and Peruvians (56%). According to other studies, coupling began or evolved gradually towards monogamy since millions of years ago. Anthropologists characterize human beings as "mildly polygynous" or "monogamous with polygynous tendencies." This slight inclination towards polygamy
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#17327728745545208-465: The one group are attained by the misery and repression of the other. Biologist A biologist is a scientist who conducts research in biology . Biologists are interested in studying life on Earth, whether it is an individual cell , a multicellular organism , or a community of interacting populations . They usually specialize in a particular branch (e.g., molecular biology , zoology , and evolutionary biology ) of biology and have
5292-503: The only male heir (born to Iset), who eventually would become Thutmose III . During this time Hatshepsut was crowned as pharaoh and ruled very successfully in her own right for many years. Although other women before her had ruled Egypt, Hatshepsut was the first woman to take the title, pharaoh , as it was a new term being used for the rulers, not having been used before the eighteenth dynasty. When she became pharaoh, she designated her daughter, Neferure , as God's Wife of Amun to perform
5376-453: The period necessary to bring a child to relative independence in the traditionally small, interdependent, communal societies of pre-Neolithic humans, before they settled into more separate agricultural communities. While genetic evidence typically displays a bias towards a smaller number of men reproducing with more women, some regions or time periods have shown the opposite. In a 2019 investigation, Musharoff et al. applied modern techniques to
5460-417: The principles of inheritance in 1866, which became the basis of modern genetics . In 1953, James D. Watson and Francis Crick described the basic structure of DNA, the genetic material for expressing life in all its forms, building on the work of Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin , suggested that the structure of DNA was a double helix. Ian Wilmut led a research group that in 1996 first cloned
5544-412: The production of important substances, including human insulin and growth hormone. Many other substances not previously available in large quantities are now produced by biotechnological means. Some of these substances are useful in treating diseases. Those working on various genome (chromosomes with their associated genes) projects isolate genes and determine their function. This work continues to lead to
5628-487: The relationship, which may not be lifelong. Thus, in prehistoric communities and communities categorized as polygamous, short- or long-term serial monogamy may be the most common practice rather than a lifelong monogamous bond. According to the Ethnographic Atlas by George P. Murdock , of 1,231 societies from around the world noted, 186 were monogamous; 453 had occasional polygyny ; 588 had more frequent polygyny ; and 4 had polyandry . (This does not take into account
5712-459: The relative population of each of the societies studied; the actual practice of polygamy in a tolerant society may actually be low, with the majority of aspirant polygamists practicing de facto monogamous marriage.) Divorce and remarriage can thus result in "serial monogamy", i.e. multiple marriages but only one legal spouse at a time. This can be interpreted as a form of plural mating, as are those societies dominated by female-headed families in
5796-571: The sea, many still spend a good deal of their time in laboratories and offices, conducting tests, running experiments, recording results, and compiling data. Biologists are not usually exposed to unsafe or unhealthy conditions. Those who work with dangerous organisms or toxic substances in the laboratory must follow strict safety procedures to avoid contamination . Many biological scientists, such as botanists, ecologists, and zoologists, conduct field studies that involve strenuous physical activity and primitive living conditions. Biological scientists in
5880-453: The second century CE." Under Judges and the monarchy, old restrictions went into disuse, especially among royalty, though the Books of Samuel and Kings , which cover entire period of monarchy, record only one instance of commoner polygamy - that of Samuel 's father. The wisdom e.g. Book of Wisdom , which provides a picture of the society, Sirach , Proverbs , Qohelet portray a woman in
5964-432: The sense of sexual, if not genetic (reproductive), exclusivity. When cultural or social anthropologists and other social scientists use the term monogamy, the meaning is social or marital monogamy. Marital monogamy may be further distinguished between: Defining monogamy across cultures can be difficult because of different cultural assumptions. Some societies believe that monogamy requires limiting sexual activity to
6048-401: The society, the belief in "high gods" to support human morality, and monogamy. A survey of other cross-cultural samples has confirmed that the absence of the plough was the only predictor of polygamy, although other factors such as high male mortality in warfare (in non-state societies) and pathogen stress (in state societies) had some impact. Betzig postulated that culture/society can also be
6132-692: The state of having only one mate at any one given time. In a human cultural context, monogamy typically refers to the custom of two individuals, regardless of orientation, committing to a sexually exclusive relationship. The word monogamy derives from the Greek μονός, monos ("one"), and γάμος, gamos ("marriage"), referring to the functional social behaviour of pair-bonding. The term can then be subsequently subclassified by context-dependent relational types. Generally, there are four intersecting definitions. For instance, biologists , biological anthropologists , and behavioral ecologists often use monogamy in
6216-734: The term cell , suggesting plant structure's resemblance to honeycomb cells. Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace independently formulated the theory of evolution by natural selection , which was described in detail in Darwin's book On the Origin of Species , which was published in 1859. In it, Darwin proposed that the features of all living things, including humans, were shaped by natural processes of descent with accumulated modification leading to divergence over long periods of time. The theory of evolution in its current form affects almost all areas of biology. Separately, Gregor Mendel formulated
6300-406: The time frame for the evolution of monogamy are primarily based on the level of sexual dimorphism seen in the fossil record because, in general, the reduced male-male competition seen in monogamous mating results in reduced sexual dimorphism. According to Reno et al. , the sexual dimorphism of Australopithecus afarensis , a human ancestor from approximately 3.9–3.0 million years ago, was within
6384-504: The wide ranges of 12–26% of married women and 15–43% of married men engaged in extramarital sex. Three studies have used nationally representative samples. These studies in 1994 and 1997 found that about 10–15% of women and 20–25% of men engage in extramarital sex. Research by Colleen Hoffon of 566 homosexual male couples from the San Francisco Bay Area (2010) found that 45% had monogamous relationships. However,
6468-466: The wife a Lady of the house . The Instruction of Ankhsheshonq suggests that it is wrong to abandon a wife because she is not capable of pregnancy. As against Betzig's contention that monogamy evolved as a result of Christian socio-economic influence in the West, monogamy appeared widespread in the ancient Middle East much earlier. In Israel's pre-Christian era, an essentially monogamous ethos underlay
6552-414: The work of Ester Boserup , Goody notes that the sexual division of labour varies in intensive plough agriculture and extensive shifting horticulture. In plough agriculture farming is largely men's work and is associated with private property; marriage tends to be monogamous to keep the property within the nuclear family . Close family ( endogamy ) are the preferred marriage partners to keep property within
6636-399: The working class are not affected one bit by whether love takes the form of a long and official union or is expressed in a temporary relationship. The ideology of the working class does not place any formal limits on love." Later, "Modern love always sins, because it absorbs the thoughts and feelings of 'loving hearts' and isolates the loving pair from the collective. In the future society, such
6720-454: The world, resulting in extensive scientific research which tries to understand how these marriage systems might have evolved. In any species, there are three main aspects that combine to promote a monogamous mating system: paternal care, resource access, and mate choice ; however, in humans, the main theoretical sources of monogamy are paternal care and extreme ecological stresses. Paternal care should be particularly important in humans due to
6804-542: Was Nubkhaes of the Second Intermediate Period . A special place in the history of great royal wives was taken by Hatshepsut . She was Great Royal Wife to her half-brother Thutmose II . During this time Hatshepsut also became God's Wife of Amun (the highest ranking priestess in the temple of Amun in Karnak). After the death of her husband, she became regent because of the minority of her stepson,
6888-553: Was an embodiment of an ethical personalistic norm , and thus the only means of making true human love possible. Some writers have suggested that monogamy may solve the problems they view as associated with non-monogamy and hypergamy such as inceldom . Alexandra Kollontai in Make Way for the Winged Eros argues that monogamy is an artifact of capitalist concepts of property and inheritance and wrote, "The social aims of
6972-408: Was highlighted in a 2012 work, which defined practices as either formal or informal polyandry. The researchers found 53 communities studied between 1912 and 2010 that practiced polyandry (in which women have multiple male partners). This broader definition indicated that polyandry was more common worldwide than previously believed. Terminology may also affect how data on polygamy is interpreted. While
7056-545: Was monogamy". The Mishnah and the baraitot clearly reflect a monogamist viewpoint within Judaism ( Yevamot 2:10 etc.). Some sages condemned marriage to two wives even for the purpose of procreation (Ketubot 62b). R. Ammi, an amora states: Whoever takes a second wife in addition to his first one shall divorce the first and pay her kettubah (Yevamot 65a) Roman customs, which prohibited polygamy, may have enhanced such an attitude - especially after 212 AD, when all
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