Misplaced Pages

#753246

49-578: The Gulf of Sidra or Sirte has been a major center for tuna fishing in the Mediterranean for centuries. It gives its name to the city of Sirte situated on its western coast. The gulf measures 439 kilometres (273 mi) from the promontory of Boreum (now Ras Teyonas) on the east side to the promontory of Cephalae (Ras Kasr Hamet) on the west. The greatest extension of the gulf inland is 177 kilometres (110 mi) land inward and it occupies an area of 57,000 square kilometres. In ancient literature,

98-499: A coastal state. The territorial sea is sovereign territory, although foreign ships (military and civilian) are allowed innocent passage through it, or transit passage for straits ; this sovereignty also extends to the airspace over and seabed below. In international law, adjustment of these boundaries is called maritime delimitation . A state's territorial sea extends up to 12 nmi (22 km; 14 mi) from its baseline. If this overlaps with another state's territorial sea,

147-635: A country's shore as defined by the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea . Gaddafi claimed it to be a territorial sea, not just a coastal area. In response the United States authorized Naval exercises in the Gulf of Sidra to conduct freedom of navigation (FON) operations. On 21 March 1973, Libyan fighter planes intercepted and fired on a U.S. Air Force C-130 conducting signals intelligence off

196-443: A much less melodramatic account of Cato's march than Strabo's, saying (admittedly implausibly) that it took only seven days, and that locals were engaged to protect his troops from serpents (Cato Minor 56; see also the uneventful late 5th-century journey along the coast from Euesperides to Neapolis reported at Thucydides 7.50.2). And while Strabo pointed out the dangers of the sandbanks, he continues: "On this account sailors travel along

245-595: A number of international incidents concerning territorial claims of the Gaddafi regime over the waters of the Gulf of Sidra. The gulf was generally referred to by the US military in those times as "Gulf of Sidra", after the increasingly important oil port of Sidra on its shores. In 1973, Gaddafi claimed much of the Gulf of Sidra to be within Libyan internal waters by drawing a straight line at 32 degrees, 30 minutes north between

294-457: A point near Benghazi and the western headland of the gulf at Misrata with an exclusive 62 nautical miles (115 km) fishing zone. Gaddafi declared it the Line of Death , the crossing of which would invite a military response. The US claimed its rights to conduct naval operations in international waters, using the modern international standard of 12-nautical-mile (22 km) territorial limit from

343-585: A series of missile launches, although they were seen to eject and parachute into the sea. Tuna fishing Too Many Requests If you report this error to the Wikimedia System Administrators, please include the details below. Request from 172.68.168.132 via cp1112 cp1112, Varnish XID 945390718 Upstream caches: cp1112 int Error: 429, Too Many Requests at Thu, 28 Nov 2024 07:58:30 GMT Territorial waters Territorial waters are informally an area of water where

392-466: A sovereign state could defend from shore. However, Iceland claimed two nautical miles (3.7 km), Norway and Sweden claimed four nautical miles (7.4 km), and Spain claimed six nautical miles (11 km) during this period. During incidents such as nuclear weapons testing and fisheries disputes some nations arbitrarily extended their maritime claims to as much as fifty nautical miles (93 km) or even two hundred nautical miles (370 km). Since

441-436: A sovereign state has jurisdiction , including internal waters , the territorial sea , the contiguous zone , the exclusive economic zone , and potentially the extended continental shelf (these components are sometimes collectively called the maritime zones ). In a narrower sense, the term is often used as a synonym for the territorial sea. Vessels have different rights and duties when passing through each area defined by

490-466: A strong (3 knots) clockwise current, at the rising tide, which then switches when the tide ebbs. That feature may explain the curious corkscrew shape in the area on the Peutinger Table . The landward side was a featureless plain which contrasted with the fertility of the rest of Tripolitania, to the west. Ancient writers mention sandstorms and serpents in this area. Strabo describes a march by

539-440: A very melodramatic description: "The Syrtes [Minores] ... have no ports and are alarming because of the frequent shallows and even more dangerous because of the reversing movements of the sea as it flows in and out ... then [there is] a second Syrtes, equal in name and nature to the first, but about twice the size" (1.35–37). These sources should not however be taken at face value: Mela goes on to say that there were no ports in

SECTION 10

#1732780709754

588-495: Is still popularly, but incorrectly, regarded as coastal nation's territorial waters. Article 76 of the UN convention defines "continental shelf" of coastal countries. A state's continental shelf extends to the outer edge of the continental margin but at least 200 nautical miles (370 km; 230 mi) from the baselines of the territorial sea if the continental margin does not stretch that far. Coastal states can explore and exploit

637-517: The 48th Tactical Fighter Wing , flying from RAF Lakenheath supported by four EF-111A Ravens of the 20th Tactical Fighter Wing , from RAF Upper Heyford in England to strike targets in Libya in conjunction with fifteen A-6 , A-7 , F/A-18 attack aircraft and EA-6B Prowler Electronic Warfare Aircraft from the aircraft carriers USS Saratoga , USS America and USS Coral Sea on station in

686-480: The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), one of the most ratified treaties . States cannot exercise their jurisdiction in waters beyond the exclusive economic zone, which are known as the high seas . Normally, the baseline is the low-water line along the coast as marked on large-scale charts that the coastal state recognizes. This is either the low-water mark closest to

735-566: The American side. Two weeks later on 5 April 1986, a bomb exploded in a West Berlin disco, La Belle , killing two American servicemen, a Turkish woman and wounding 200 others. The United States claimed to have obtained cable transcripts from Libyan agents in East Germany involved in the attack. After several days of diplomatic talks with European and Arab partners, President Ronald Reagan ordered eighteen F-111F strike aircraft of

784-532: The Greater Syrtes either, but his reliability on this point – and therefore presumably others – is highly questionable: Pseudo-Scylax, writing in the early 4th century BC, records a port in the larger gulf (109), and Strabo places a "very large emporium" in the smaller one before Mela's time (17.3.17). Furthermore, the ancient textual evidence is not unambiguous in its condemnation of the Syrtes. Plutarch gives

833-530: The Gulf of Sidra. The planes flying from Britain had to fly over the Atlantic, down the coast of Spain, and then turn east into the Mediterranean because the French and Spanish governments refused permission to use their airspace for the attack. This necessitated use of mid-air refueling. The attack lasted about ten minutes, hitting several targets early on 15 April. Two American airmen were killed when their plane

882-470: The Libyan coast. During the encounter, two Libyan Mirage fighters signaled the C-130 to follow them toward Libya and land, prompting the American plane to take evasive action. The C-130 received cannon fire from the Libyan fighters as it fled, but was able to escape by using cloud cover. According to US officials, the American plane was never closer than 120 kilometres to the Libyan coast. While operating over

931-676: The Mediterranean Sea on 16 September 1980, a US Boeing RC-135 V/W reconnaissance plane was fired on by a Libyan fighter. The RC-135 was not hit and the United States took no retaliatory action after the incident. In August 1981, during the United States Sixth Fleet Freedom of Navigation exercises, Libyan fighter planes were assembled from elsewhere in the country to fly patrols near the American ships. On 19 August, two Libyan Su-22 Fitter fighter-bombers were intercepted by two F-14 Tomcat fighters from

980-485: The Philippines, are also internal waters, but the state must allow innocent passage through them. However, archipelagic states can limit innocent passage to designated sea lanes within these waters. Each island in the archipelago can have its own baseline. Territorial sea is a belt of coastal waters extending at most 12 nautical miles (22 km; 14 mi) from the baseline (usually the mean low-water mark) of

1029-658: The Roman general, Cato the Younger in 47 BC which took thirty days "through deep and scorching sand". Strabo also gives a full account of the dangers for shipping: "the difficulty with both the Greater and the Lesser Syrtes is that in many places the water is shallow, and at the rise and fall of the tides ships sometimes fall into the shallows and settle there, and it is rare for them to be saved" (17.3.20). Pomponius Mela gives

SECTION 20

#1732780709754

1078-592: The Subsoil and Sea Bed of the Continental Shelf", and stipulated in its operative clause: the Government of the United States regards the natural resources of the subsoil and sea bed of the continental shelf beneath the high seas but contiguous to the coasts of the United States as appertaining to the United States, subject to its jurisdiction and control. The second proclamation was titled "Policy of

1127-610: The Syrtes (the Greater, or majores , in the eastern and the Lesser, or minores , in the western part of the Gulf) were notorious sandbanks, which sailors always took pains to avoid. The local climate features frequent calms and a relatively powerful north wind. The shoreline between Cyrene in the east and Carthage in the west featured few ports. Ancient writers frequently mention the sandbanks and their vicinity as dangerous for shipping. The Syrtes maiores are unusually tidal and feature

1176-611: The US presidential proclamation, the issue of legally determining territorial waters by international agreement was raised, and in its first session in 1949, the International Law Commission of the United Nations added the subject to its agenda. The important issue of the breadth of territorial waters could not be resolved at either the UNCLOS I (1956-1958) or UNCLOS II (1960) conferences, with neither

1225-516: The US. Two conflicts occurred in the Gulf of Sidra where Libya drew a line in excess of 230 nmi (430 km; 260 mi) and claimed the entire enclosed gulf as its territorial waters. The US exercised freedom of navigation rights, resulting in the 1981 and 1989 Gulf of Sidra incidents. The contiguous zone is a band of water extending farther from the outer edge of the territorial sea to up to 24 nautical miles (44.4 km; 27.6 mi) from

1274-615: The United States With Respect to Coastal Fisheries in Certain Areas of the High Seas", and stated in its operative clause: the Government of the United States regards it as proper to establish conservation zones in those areas of the high seas contiguous to the coasts of the United States wherein fishing activities have been or in the future may be developed and maintained on a substantial scale. Following

1323-637: The United States, divide control over certain waters between the federal government and the individual states. (See tidelands .) Maritime controversies involve two dimensions: (a) territorial sovereignty, which are a legacy of history; and (b) relevant jurisdictional rights and interests in maritime boundaries , which are mainly due to differing interpretations of the law of the sea. As of 13 May 2009, 51 submissions by 44 countries have been lodged for claims over their extended continental shelf. Some countries have multiple submissions and joint submissions with other countries. Recommendations have been given for 8 of

1372-547: The adjacent continental shelf and fishing was first made by the United States government immediately following the Second World War . On 28 September 1945, US President Harry S. Truman issued two proclamations that established government control of natural resources in areas adjacent to the coastline. One of these proclamation was titled "Policy of the United States With Respect to the Natural Resources of

1421-735: The affected coastal nation or other nations wherever that broadcast may originate, whether in the territorial sea, exclusive economic zone, the continental shelf or even on the high seas . Thus a coastal nation has total control over its internal waters, slightly less control over territorial waters, and ostensibly even less control over waters within the contiguous zones. However, it has total control of economic resources within its exclusive economic zone as well as those on or under its continental shelf. Throughout this article, distances measured in nautical miles are exact legal definitions, while those in kilometres are approximate conversions that are not stated in any law or treaty. Federal nations, such as

1470-464: The aircraft carrier Nimitz . During the engagement, one of the American planes was targeted by an air-to-air Atoll missile. After evading the missile, the Tomcats shot down both Libyan planes with Sidewinder missiles. According to some reports, the two Libyan pilots managed to eject and were rescued from the sea. According to other reports, the parachute of one of the Libyan pilots failed to open. In

1519-459: The baseline. Inside, a state can exercise limited control to prevent or punish "infringement of its customs, fiscal, immigration or sanitary laws and regulations within its territory or territorial sea". The zone is typically 12 nautical miles (22 km; 14 mi) wide. However, it can be wider when a state claims a territorial sea of less than 12 nautical miles, or narrower if it would otherwise overlap with another state's contiguous zone. Unlike

Gulf of Sidra - Misplaced Pages Continue

1568-613: The basis of their claim to the UN Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf. The Commission then validates or makes recommendations on the scientific basis for the extended continental shelf claim. The scientific judgement of the Commission shall be final and binding. Validated extended continental shelf claims overlapping any demarcation between two or more parties are decided by bilateral or multilateral negotiation, not by

1617-457: The bay must also be no more than 24 nautical miles (44 kilometres; 28 statute miles) in length. Internal waters are landward of the baseline. The coastal state has sovereignty over internal waters, enforce domestic law on vessels in internal waters, including to prohibit innocent passage . Lakes, rivers and bays are considered internal waters. "Archipelagic waters" within the outermost islands of an archipelagic state , such as Indonesia or

1666-508: The border is taken as the median point between the states' baselines, unless the states agree otherwise. A state can also choose to claim a smaller territorial sea. Conflicts have occurred when a coastal nation claims an entire gulf as its territorial waters while other nations only recognize the more restrictive definitions of the UNCLOS. Claims that draw the baseline at more than 24 nautical miles (two 12 nm limits) are judged excessive by

1715-475: The coast at a distance, taking care lest they are caught off their guard and driven into these gulfs by winds." As in Cato, they do not avoid the area, but merely take precautions against its relative dangers. Similarly, Pliny's warning that the gulf was "formidable because of the shallow and tidal water of the two Syrtes" at Natural History 5.26 should be seen in the context of his broader claim in that work that all

1764-546: The coastlines of the Mediterranean were welcoming ( NH 2.118). Their infamous reputation is, however, found in Roman poetry, for example Catullus (Carmen LXIV, 156) and Virgil (Aeneid IV, 41) on. The information in this section is largely taken from The Syrtes between East and West by Josephine Crawley Quinn. Two naval battles were fought in the Gulf of Sidra in World War II: After the coup d'état which brought Muammar Gaddafi to power in 1969, there were

1813-421: The commission. Countries have ten years after ratifying UNCLOS to lodge their submissions to extend their continental shelf beyond 200 nautical miles, or by 13 May 2009 for countries where the convention was ratified before 13 May 1999. As of 1 June 2009, 51 submissions have been lodged with the commission, of which eight have been deliberated by the commission and have had recommendations issued. The eight are (in

1862-494: The depths of the seabed at 2,500 meters. The outer edge of the continental margin for the purposes of this article is defined as: The foot of the continental slope is determined as the point of maximum change in the gradient at its base. The portion of the continental shelf beyond the 200 nautical mile limit is also known as the "extended continental shelf". Countries wishing to delimit their outer continental shelf beyond 200 nautical miles have to submit scientific information for

1911-461: The late 20th century the "12 mile limit" has become almost universally accepted. The United Kingdom extended its territorial waters from three to twelve nautical miles (5.6 to 22.2 km) in 1987. During the League of Nations Codification Conference in 1930, the issue of establishing international legislation on territorial waters was raised, but no agreement was reached. Claims by legislation to

1960-447: The mouths of bays. In this case, a bay is defined as "a well-marked indentation whose penetration is in such proportion to the width of its mouth as to contain land-locked waters and constitute more than a mere curvature of the coast. An indentation is not, however, regarded as a bay unless its area is as large as, or larger than, that of the semi-circle whose diameter is a line drawn across the mouth of that indentation". The baseline across

2009-472: The order of date of submission): Russian Federation; Brazil; Australia; Ireland; New Zealand; the joint submission by France, Ireland, Spain and the United Kingdom; Norway and Mexico. Articles 77 to 81 define the rights of a country over its continental shelf. A coastal nation has control of all resources on or under its continental shelf, living or not, but no control over any living organisms above

Gulf of Sidra - Misplaced Pages Continue

2058-406: The seabed and the natural resources on or beneath it. However, other states may lay cables and pipelines if authorized by the coastal state. The outer limit of a country's continental shelf cannot stretch beyond 350 nautical miles (650 km; 400 mi) of the baseline or beyond 100 nautical miles (190 km; 120 mi) from the 2,500 metres (8,200 ft) isobath , which is a line connecting

2107-488: The shelf that are beyond its exclusive economic zone. This gives it the right to conduct hydrocarbon exploration and drilling works. From the eighteenth century until the mid twentieth century, the territorial waters of the British Empire , the United States, France and many other nations were three nautical miles (5.6 km) wide . Originally, this was the distance of a cannon shot, hence the portion of an ocean that

2156-438: The shore or an unlimited distance from permanently exposed land, provided that some portion of elevations exposed at low tide but covered at high tide (such as mud flats) is within 3 nautical miles (5.6 kilometres; 3 + 1 ⁄ 2 statute miles) of permanently exposed land. Straight baselines can alternatively be defined connecting fringing islands along a coast, across the mouths of rivers, or with certain restrictions across

2205-476: The spring of 1986, the U.S. Navy deployed three aircraft carrier task force groups, USS America , USS Coral Sea and USS Saratoga from the Sixth Fleet with 225 aircraft and some 30 warships across the "Line of Death" and into the disputed Gulf of Sidra. After a day of armed conflict, the operation was terminated after an unknown number of human and materiel losses to the Libyan side and no losses to

2254-549: The surface of the sea that complies with the laws and regulations adopted by the coastal state in accordance with the provisions of the UN Convention, within that portion of its exclusive economic zone beyond its territorial sea. Before the convention, coastal nations arbitrarily extended their territorial waters to attempt to control activities that are now regulated by the exclusive economic zone, such as offshore oil exploration or fishing rights (see Cod Wars ). The EEZ

2303-609: The territorial sea, there is no standard rule for resolving such conflicts and states must negotiate a compromise. The US invoked a contiguous zone out to 24 nmi from the baseline on 29 September 1999. An exclusive economic zone (EEZ) extends from the baseline to almost 200 nautical miles (370.4 km; 230.2 mi) and therefore includes the contiguous zone. A coastal nation has control of all economic resources inside its exclusive economic zone, including fishing, mining, oil exploration, and pollution of those resources. However, it cannot prohibit passage or loitering above, on, or under

2352-502: The two major contenders of a 3-mile or 12-mile limit reaching the required two-thirds support. This lack of agreement had the potential to lead to serious international disputes. It was only at the UNCLOS III (1973-1982) conference, whose provisions did not come into force until 1994, that this issue was resolved at twelve nautical miles. Pirate radio broadcasting from artificial marine fixtures or anchored ships can be controlled by

2401-487: Was shot down over the Gulf of Sidra. Forty-five Libyan soldiers and government officials and fifteen civilians were also killed. In 1989, in another Gulf of Sidra incident , two Libyan MiG-23 Flogger aircraft were shot down when it was believed they were about to attack the U.S. fighters that were in the area. In this instance, the Flogger pilots were reportedly lost when they were fired on and successfully shot down after

#753246