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77-538: Green Car Journal a monthly publication created in 1992, now published as an annual, focuses on green vehicles and environmentally friendly energy and technologies. The founder and editor is Ron Cogan. Co-founder and executive publisher through 1997 was David A. Gautreau (David A. Gautreau - The Control Room, established 1982). The magazine also hosts events, produces ride-and-drives of advanced and clean fuel vehicles , and conducts various outreach efforts to educate consumers about green vehicle choices. In November 2004

154-604: A PHB hydrogen bicycle. In 2014, Australian scientists from the University of New South Wales presented their Hy-Cycle model. The same year, Canyon Bicycles started to work on the Eco Speed concept bicycle. In 2017, Pragma Industries of France developed a bicycle that was able to travel 100 km on a single hydrogen cylinder. In 2019, Pragma announced that the product, "Alpha Bike", has been improved to offer an electrically assisted pedalling range of 150 km, and

231-690: A Tank-to-wheel basis. They have better fuel economy than conventional internal combustion engine vehicles but are hampered by range or maximum distance attainable before discharging the battery. The electric car batteries are their main cost. They provide a 0% to 99.9% reduction in CO 2 emissions compared to an ICE (gasoline, diesel) vehicle, depending on the source of electricity. Hybrid cars may be partly fossil fuel (or biofuel) powered and partly electric or hydrogen-powered. Most combine an internal combustion engine with an electric engine, though other variations too exist. The internal combustion engine

308-412: A car . Some laws have limits on top speeds, power of the motors, range, etc. while others do not. Horse and carriage are just one type of animal propelled vehicle. Once a common form of transportation, they became far less common as cities grew and automobiles took their place. In dense cities, the waste produced by large numbers of transportation animals was a significant health problem. Oftentimes

385-635: A class action lawsuit in California over the lack of availability of hydrogen available for fuel cell electric cars, alleging, among other things, fraudulent concealment and misrepresentation as well as violations of California’s false advertising law and breaches of implied warranty. The International Energy Agency's 2022 net-zero emissions scenario sees hydrogen meeting approximately 30% of heavy truck energy demand in 2050, mainly for long-distance heavy freight (with battery electric power accounting for around 60%). United Parcel Service began testing of

462-704: A "flying-mile" speed of 280.007 miles per hour (450.628 km/h) at the Bonneville Salt Flats in August 2008. In 2007, the Hydrogen Electric Racing Federation was formed as a racing organization for hydrogen fuel cell-powered vehicles. The organization sponsored the Hydrogen 500, a 500-mile race. Hydrogen internal combustion engine cars are different from hydrogen fuel cell cars. The hydrogen internal combustion car

539-446: A Mirai as compared with a Tesla Model 3. The molecular hydrogen needed as an onboard fuel for hydrogen vehicles can be obtained through many thermochemical methods utilizing natural gas , coal (by a process known as coal gasification), liquefied petroleum gas , biomass ( biomass gasification ), by a process called thermolysis , or as a microbial waste product called biohydrogen or Biological hydrogen production . 95% of hydrogen

616-417: A day, when you can charge a battery powered bike anywhere. [If] you were a captive fleet operator, why [not] just swap out batteries to get the range and the fast turnover?" General Motors ' military division, GM Defense , focuses on hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. Its SURUS (Silent Utility Rover Universal Superstructure) is a flexible fuel cell electric platform with autonomous capabilities. Since April 2017,

693-544: A feedstock for efuel, for vintage and muscle cars. The first road vehicle powered by a hydrogen fuel cell was the Chevrolet Electrovan, introduced by General Motors in 1966. The Toyota FCHV and Honda FCX , which began leasing on December 2, 2002, became the world's first government-certified commercial hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, and the Honda FCX Clarity , which began leasing in 2008,

770-506: A group formed by Ford Motor Company , Daimler AG , and Nissan announced a collaboration on hydrogen technology development. In 2015, Toyota announced that it would offer all 5,680 patents related to hydrogen fuel cell vehicles and hydrogen fuel cell charging station technology, which it has been researching for over 20 years, to its competitors free of charge to stimulate the market for hydrogen-powered vehicles. By 2017, however, Daimler had abandoned hydrogen vehicle development, and most of

847-703: A hydrogen powered delivery vehicle in 2017. In 2020, Hyundai began commercial production of its Xcient fuel cell trucks and shipped ten of them to Switzerland . In 2022 in Australia, five hydrogen fuel cell class 8 trucks were placed into use to transport zinc from Sun Metals' Townsville mine to the Port of Townsville , Queensland, to be shipped around the world. Some publications project hydrogen may be used in shipping and jetplanes, while others predict that biofuels and batteries will have more commercial success. Companies such as Boeing , Lange Aviation , and

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924-518: A hydrogen-powered tractor has been proposed. A record of 207.297 miles per hour (333.612 km/h) was set by a prototype Ford Fusion Hydrogen 999 Fuel Cell Race Car at the Bonneville Salt Flats, in August 2007, using a large compressed oxygen tank to increase power. The land-speed record for a hydrogen-powered vehicle of 286.476 miles per hour (461.038 km/h) was set by Ohio State University 's Buckeye Bullet 2 , which achieved

1001-519: A lot geographically. Studies suggest that when taking into account both production and operation, electric cars would cause more emissions in economies where production of electricity is not clean, e.g., it is mostly coal based. For this reason, some studies found that driving electric cars is less environmentally damaging in western US states than in eastern ones, where less electricity is produced using cleaner sources. Similarly, in countries like India, Australia or China, where large portion of electricity

1078-532: A move away from hydrocarbon fuels and from our present automobile and highway paradigm. The European Union is promoting the marketing of greener cars via a combination of binding and non-binding measures. As of April 2010, 15 of the 27 member states of the European Union provide tax incentives for electrically chargeable vehicles and some alternative fuel vehicles , which includes all Western European countries except Italy and Luxembourg , plus

1155-462: A range-extender for smaller, short-distance, low-speed electric vessels, such as ferries. Hydrogen in ammonia is being considered as a long-distance fuel. Fuel-cell buses were trialed in Ursus Lublin in 2017. Solaris Bus & Coach introduced its Urbino 12 hydrogen electric buses in 2019. Several dozen were ordered. The first city in the U.S. to have a fleet of hydrogen powered buses

1232-627: A reason for growing food prices, particularly US Bio-ethanol fuel production which has affected maize prices. In order to have a low environmental impact, biofuels should be made only from waste products, or from new sources like algae . Multiple companies are offering and developing two, three, and four wheel vehicles combining the characteristics of a bicycle with electric motors. US Federal, State and Local laws do not clearly nor consistently classify these vehicles as bicycles , electric bicycles , motorcycles , electric motorcycles , mopeds , Neighborhood Electric Vehicle , motorised quadricycle or as

1309-531: A regular basis in order to promote green vehicles and other " green technology ". These sleek driver-only vehicles can travel long distances at highway speeds using only the electricity generated instantaneously from the sun. A conventional vehicle can become a greener vehicle by mixing in renewable fuels or using less carbon intensive fossil fuel . Typical gasoline -powered cars can tolerate up to 10% ethanol . Brazil manufactured cars that run on neat ethanol, though there were discontinued. Another available option

1386-443: A significant part of transportation needs. In a few countries, renewable sources are being used more widely to produce energy and hydrogen. For example, Iceland is using geothermal power to produce hydrogen, and Denmark is using wind . Compressed hydrogen in hydrogen tanks at 350 bar (5,000 psi) and 700 bar (10,000 psi) is used for hydrogen tank systems in vehicles, based on type IV carbon-composite technology. Hydrogen has

1463-433: A static 3 litre 300 bar refillable hydrogen cylinder. The HydroCargo bike has a range of up to 100 km on 80 grams of hydrogen. Lloyd Alter of TreeHugger responded to the announcement, asking "why … go through the trouble of using electricity to make hydrogen, only to turn it back into electricity to charge a battery to run the e-bike [or] pick a fuel that needs an expensive filling station that can only handle 35 bikes

1540-478: A vehicle is a better environmental performer relative to other vehicles. This US EPA designation is arrived at by taking into account a vehicle's Air Pollution Score and Greenhouse Gas Score. Higher Air Pollution Scores indicate vehicles that emit lower amounts of pollutants that cause smog relative to other vehicles. Higher Greenhouse Gas Scores indicate vehicles that emit lower amounts of carbon dioxide and have improved fuel economy relative to other vehicles. To earn

1617-409: A very low volumetric energy density at ambient conditions, compared with gasoline and other vehicle fuels. It must be stored in a vehicle either as a super-cooled liquid or as highly compressed gas, which require additional energy to accomplish. In 2018, researchers at CSIRO in Australia powered a Toyota Mirai and Hyundai Nexo with hydrogen separated from ammonia using a membrane technology. Ammonia

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1694-588: Is a flexible-fuel vehicle which allows any blend of gasoline and ethanol, up to 85% in North America and Europe, and up to 100% in Brazil. Another existing option is to convert a conventional gasoline-powered to allow the alternative use of CNG . Pakistan , Argentina , Brazil , Iran , India , Italy , and China have the largest fleets of natural gas vehicles in the world. Diesel -powered vehicles can often transition completely to biodiesel , though

1771-641: Is a hydrogen fueled, internal combustion engine -powered industrial forklift truck used for lifting and transporting materials. The first production HICE forklift truck based on the Linde X39 Diesel was presented at an exposition in Hannover on May 27, 2008. It used a 2.0 litre, 43 kW (58 hp) diesel internal combustion engine converted to use hydrogen as a fuel with the use of a compressor and direct injection . In 2013 there were over 4,000 fuel cell forklifts used in material handling in

1848-445: Is a slightly modified version of the traditional gasoline internal combustion engine car. These hydrogen engines burn fuel in the same manner that gasoline engines do; the main difference is the exhaust product. Gasoline combustion results in emissions of mostly carbon dioxide and water, plus trace amounts of carbon monoxide , NO x , particulates and unburned hydrocarbons, while the main exhaust product of hydrogen combustion

1925-593: Is driven. Norwegian Consumer Ombudsman official Bente Øverli stated that "Cars cannot do anything good for the environment except less damage than others." Based on this opinion, Norwegian law severely restricts the use of " greenwashing " to market automobiles, strongly prohibiting advertising a vehicle as being environmentally friendly, with large fines issued to violators. Some studies try to compare environmental impact of electric and petrol vehicles over complete life cycle, including production, operation, and dismantling. In general, results differ vastly dependent on

2002-443: Is more important than a focus on a single factor such as energy efficiency. Cars with similar production of energy costs can be obtained, during the life of the car (operational phase), large reductions in energy costs through several measures: Green vehicles include vehicles types that function fully or partly on alternative energy sources other than fossil fuel or less carbon-intensive than gasoline or diesel. Another option

2079-450: Is no such thing as an environmentally friendly car. The use of vehicles with increased fuel efficiency is usually considered positive in the short term but criticism of any hydrocarbon-based personal transport remains. The Jevons paradox suggests that energy efficiency programs are often counter-productive, even increasing energy consumption in the long run. Many environmental researchers believe that sustainable transport may require

2156-583: Is not degraded by lower temperatures. The fuel cell units are often designed as drop-in replacements. In the International Energy Agency ’s 2022 Net Zero Emissions Scenario, hydrogen is forecast to account for 2% of rail energy demand in 2050, while 90% of rail travel is expected to be electrified by then (up from 45% today). Hydrogen’s role in rail would likely be focused on lines that prove difficult or costly to electrify. In March 2015, China South Rail Corporation (CSR) demonstrated

2233-452: Is often either a gasoline or Diesel engine (in rare cases a Stirling engine may even be used ). They are more expensive to purchase but cost redemption is achieved in a period of about 5 years due to better fuel economy. Compressed air cars , stirling-powered vehicles, and Liquid nitrogen vehicles are less polluting than an electrical vehicles, since the vehicle and its components are environment friendly . Solar car races are held on

2310-537: Is produced by using coal, driving electric vehicles would cause larger environmental damage than driving petrol vehicles. When justifying use of electric cars over petrol cars, these kinds of studies do not provide sufficiently clear results. Environmental impact is calculated based on fuel mix used to produce electricity that powers electric cars. However, when a gas vehicle is replaced by an equivalent electric vehicle, additional power must be installed in electrical grid. This additional capacity would normally not be based on

2387-476: Is produced from feedstocks such as natural gas and biomass or electrolyzed from water. A suggested benefit of large-scale deployment of hydrogen vehicles is that it could lead to decreased emissions of greenhouse gases and ozone precursors. However, as of 2014, 95% of hydrogen is made from methane . It can be produced by thermochemical or pyrolitic means using renewable feedstocks, but that is an expensive process. Renewable electricity can however be used to power

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2464-417: Is produced using natural gas. Hydrogen can be produced from water by electrolysis at working efficiencies of 65–70%. Hydrogen can be made by chemical reduction using chemical hydrides or aluminum. Current technologies for manufacturing hydrogen use energy in various forms, totaling between 25 and 50 percent of the higher heating value of the hydrogen fuel, used to produce, compress or liquefy, and transmit

2541-509: Is the high effective exhaust velocity compared to kerosene / LOX or UDMH / NTO engines. According to the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation , a rocket with higher exhaust velocity uses less propellant to accelerate. Also the energy density of hydrogen is greater than any other fuel. LH2/LOX also yields the greatest efficiency in relation to the amount of propellant consumed, of any known rocket propellant. A disadvantage of LH2/LOX engines

2618-520: Is the low density and low temperature of liquid hydrogen, which means bigger and insulated and thus heavier fuel tanks are needed compared to methane, although methane is more polluting. This increases the rocket's structural mass which reduces its delta-v accordingly. Another disadvantage is the poor storability of LH2/LOX-powered rockets: Due to the constant hydrogen boil-off, the rocket must be fueled shortly before launch, which makes cryogenic engines unsuitable for ICBMs and other rocket applications with

2695-601: Is the lowest emission fuel available for diesel engines. Diesel engines are the most efficient car internal combustion engines. Biodiesel is the only fuel allowed in some North American national parks because spillages will completely bio-degrade within 21 days. Biodiesel and vegetable oil fuelled , diesel engined vehicles have been declared amongst the greenest in the US Tour de Sol competition. This presents problems, as biofuels can use food resources in order to provide mechanical energy for vehicles. Many experts point to this as

2772-424: Is the speed limitations, and how far one can travel before getting exhausted. Vehicle emissions contribute to the increasing concentration of gases linked to climate change . In order of significance, the principal greenhouse gases associated with road transport are carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), methane (CH 4 ) and nitrous oxide (N 2 O). Road transport is the third largest source of greenhouse gases emitted in

2849-560: Is the use of alternative fuel composition in conventional fossil fuel-based vehicles, making them function partially on renewable energy sources. Other approaches include personal rapid transit , a public transportation concept that offers automated, on-demand, non-stop transportation on a network of specially built guideways. Examples of vehicles with reduced petroleum consumption include electric cars , plug-in hybrids and fuel cell -powered hydrogen cars . Electric cars are typically more efficient than fuel cell -powered vehicles on

2926-427: Is water vapor. In 1807 François Isaac de Rivaz designed the first hydrogen-fueled internal combustion engine . In 1965, Roger E. Billings, then a high school student, converted a Model A to run on hydrogen. In 1970 Paul Dieges patented a modification to internal combustion engines which allowed a gasoline-powered engine to run on hydrogen. Mazda has developed Wankel engines burning hydrogen, which are used in

3003-531: The Czech Republic and Romania . The incentives consist of tax reductions and exemptions, as well as of bonus payments for buyers of electric cars , plug-in hybrids , hybrid electric vehicles and natural gas vehicles . The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is promoting the marketing of greener cars via the SmartWay program. The SmartWay and SmartWay Elite designation mean that

3080-841: The German Aerospace Center are pursuing hydrogen as fuel for crewed and uncrewed aeroplanes. In February 2008 Boeing tested a crewed flight of a small aircraft powered by a hydrogen fuel cell. Uncrewed hydrogen planes have also been tested. For large passenger aeroplanes, The Times reported that "Boeing said that hydrogen fuel cells were unlikely to power the engines of large passenger jet aeroplanes but could be used as backup or auxiliary power units onboard." In July 2010, Boeing unveiled its hydrogen-powered Phantom Eye UAV , powered by two Ford internal-combustion engines that have been converted to run on hydrogen. As of 2019 hydrogen fuel cells are not suitable for propulsion in large long-distance ships but are being considered as

3157-535: The Mazda RX-8 Hydrogen RE . The advantage of using an internal combustion engine, like Wankel and piston engines, is the lower cost of retooling for production. Hydrogen fuel cells are relatively expensive to produce, as their designs require rare substances, such as platinum , as a catalyst . In 2014, former European Parliament President Pat Cox estimated that Toyota would initially lose about $ 100,000 on each Mirai sold. In 2020, researchers at

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3234-621: The Space Shuttle to run the fuel cells that power the electrical systems. The byproduct of the fuel cell is water, which is used for drinking and other applications that require water in space. As of 2021 , there were two hydrogen cars publicly available in select markets: the Toyota Mirai and the Hyundai Nexo . The Honda Clarity was produced from 2016 to 2021. Hydrogen combustion cars are not commercially available. In

3311-611: The Suzuki Burgman fuel-cell scooter and the FHybrid . The Burgman received "whole vehicle type" approval in the EU. The Taiwanese company APFCT conducted a live street test with 80 fuel-cell scooters for Taiwan's Bureau of Energy. Hydrogen auto rickshaw concept vehicles have been built by Mahindra HyAlfa and Bajaj Auto. Autostudi S.r.l 's H-Due is a hydrogen-powered quad, capable of transporting 1-3 passengers. A concept for

3388-466: The Toyota Mirai (2014–), the first commercially produced dedicated fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV), and the Hyundai Nexo (2018–). The Honda CR-V e:FCEV became available, for lease only, in very limited quantities in 2024. As of 2019, 98% of hydrogen is produced by steam methane reforming , which emits carbon dioxide . It can be produced by electrolysis of water , or by thermochemical or pyrolytic means using renewable feedstocks , but

3465-597: The chemical energy of hydrogen to mechanical energy , either by reacting hydrogen with oxygen in a fuel cell to power electric motors or, less commonly, by hydrogen internal combustion . Hydrogen burns cleaner than fuels such as gasoline or methane but is more difficult to store and transport because of the small size of the molecule. As of the 2020s hydrogen light duty vehicles, including passenger cars, have been sold in small numbers due to competition with battery electric vehicles . As of 2021 , there were two models of hydrogen cars publicly available in select markets:

3542-451: The 2021 Tesla Model 3 Standard Range Plus RWD became the most efficient EPA-certified vehicle considering all fuels and all years, surpassing the 2020 Tesla Model 3 Standard Range Plus and 2019 Hyundai Ioniq Electric . Several authors also include conventional motor vehicles with high fuel economy , as they consider that increasing fuel economy is the most cost-effective way to improve energy efficiency and reduce carbon emissions in

3619-932: The SmartWay designation, a vehicle must earn at least a 6 on the Air Pollution Score and at least a 6 on the Greenhouse Gas Score, but have a combined score of at least 13. SmartWay Elite is given to those vehicles that score 9 or better on both the Greenhouse Gas and Air Pollution Scores. A Green Vehicle Marketing Alliance, in conjunction with the Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL), periodically meets, and coordinates marketing efforts. Several automobile magazines, motor vehicle specialized publications and environmental groups publish annual rankings or listings of

3696-498: The U.S. Army has been testing the commercial Chevrolet Colorado ZH2 on its U.S. bases to determine the viability of hydrogen-powered vehicles in military mission tactical environments. ENV develops electric motorcycles powered by a hydrogen fuel cell, including the Crosscage and Biplane . Other manufacturers as Vectrix are working on hydrogen scooters. Finally, hydrogen-fuel-cell-electric-hybrid scooters are being made such as

3773-730: The UK as a direct result of air pollution. According to the World Health Organization , up to 13,000 deaths per year among children (aged 0–4 years) across Europe are directly attributable to outdoor pollution. The organization estimates that if pollution levels were returned to within EU limits, more than 5,000 of these lives could be saved each year. Hybrid taxi fleet operators in New York have also reported that reduced fuel consumption saves them thousands of dollars per year. A study by CNW Marketing Research suggested that

3850-557: The UK, and accounts for about 27% of total emissions, and 33% in the United States. Of the total greenhouse gas emissions from transport, over 85% are due to CO 2 emissions from road vehicles. The transport sector is the fastest growing source of greenhouse gases. Vehicle pollutants have been linked to human ill health including the incidence of respiratory and cardiopulmonary disease and lung cancer. A 1998 report estimated that up to 24,000 people die prematurely each year in

3927-776: The US to that time due to a risk of fuel leaks and fire from a faulty "pressure relief device". Toyota launched the world's first dedicated mass-produced fuel cell vehicle (FCV), the Mirai , in Japan at the end of 2014 and began sales in California, mainly the Los Angeles area and also in selected markets in Europe, the UK, Germany and Denmark later in 2015. The car has a range of 312 mi (502 km) and takes about five minutes to refill its hydrogen tank. The initial sale price in Japan

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4004-516: The US. As of 2024, approximately 50,000 hydrogen forklifts are in operation worldwide (the bulk of which are in the U.S.), as compared with 1.2 million battery electric forklifts that were purchased in 2021. Most companies in Europe and the US do not use petroleum powered forklifts, as these vehicles work indoors where emissions must be controlled and instead use electric forklifts. Fuel-cell-powered forklifts can be refueled in 3 minutes. They can be used in refrigerated warehouses, as their performance

4081-543: The University of Copenhagen's Department of Chemistry are developing a new type of catalyst that they hope will decrease the cost of fuel cells. This new catalyst uses far less platinum because the platinum nano-particles are not coated over carbon which, in conventional hydrogen fuel cells, keeps the nano-particles in place but also causes the catalyst to become unstable and denatures it slowly, requiring even more platinum. The new technology uses durable nanowires instead of

4158-437: The automobile companies developing hydrogen cars had switched their focus to battery electric vehicles. By 2020, all but three automobile companies had abandoned plans to manufacture hydrogen cars. The Honda CR-V e:FCEV became available, for lease only, in very limited quantities in 2024. A significant number of the public hydrogen fuel stations in the California are not able to dispense hydrogen. In 2024, Mirai owners filed

4235-412: The best green cars of a given year . The following table presents a selection of the annual top pickings. Dedicated electric and green vehicle motor shows: Hydrogen car A hydrogen vehicle is a vehicle that uses hydrogen to move . Hydrogen vehicles include some road vehicles , rail vehicles , space rockets , forklifts , ships and aircraft . Motive power is generated by converting

4312-448: The cathode, three stages in cold start and Nafion ionic conductivity. A parameter, defined as coulomb of charge, was also defined to measure cold start capability. The service life of fuel cells is comparable to that of other vehicles. Polymer-electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cell service life is 7,300 hours under cycling conditions. Hydrogen does not exist in convenient reservoirs or deposits like fossil fuels or helium . It

4389-473: The conversion of water into hydrogen: Integrated wind-to-hydrogen ( power to gas ) plants, using electrolysis of water , are exploring technologies to deliver costs low enough, and quantities great enough, to compete with traditional energy sources. The challenges facing the use of hydrogen in vehicles include its storage on board the vehicle. As of September 2023, hydrogen cost $ 36 per kilogram at public fueling stations in California, 14 times as much per mile for

4466-422: The extra energy cost of manufacture, shipping, disposal, and the short lives of some of these types of vehicle (particularly gas-electric hybrid vehicles ) outweighs any energy savings made by their using less petroleum during their useful lifespan. This type of argument is the long smokestack argument. Critics of the report note that the study prorated all of Toyota's hybrid research-and-development costs across

4543-456: The first 200 of the bikes are to be provided to journalists covering the 45th G7 summit in Biarritz , France. In 2020, Alles over Waterstof developed a 2-wheel hydrogen powered stand-up scooter. The stand-up scooter has a range of over 20 km on 15 grams of hydrogen. It uses a swappable 1 litre 200 bar hydrogen cylinder. In 2021 the company developed a hydrogen powered cargo-bike, using

4620-422: The food is produced for them using diesel powered tractors, and thus there is some environmental impact as a result of their use. Human-powered transport includes walking, bicycles , velomobiles , row boats , and other environmentally friendly ways of getting around. In addition to the health benefits of the exercise provided, they are far more environmentally friendly than most other options. The only downside

4697-448: The fuel is a very strong solvent , which can occasionally damage rubber seals in vehicles built before 1994. More commonly, however, biodiesel causes problems simply because it removes all of the built-up residue in an engine, clogging filters , unless care is taken when switching from dirty fossil-fuel derived diesel to bio-diesel. It is very effective at 'de-coking' the diesel engines combustion chambers and keeping them clean. Biodiesel

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4774-459: The hydrogen by pipeline or truck. Environmental consequences of the production of hydrogen from fossil energy resources include the emission of greenhouse gasses , a consequence that would also result from the on-board reforming of methanol into hydrogen. Hydrogen production using renewable energy resources would not create such emissions, but the scale of renewable energy production would need to be expanded to be used in producing hydrogen for

4851-717: The investment required to build refuelling infrastructure around the world to dispense hydrogen. In addition, leaked hydrogen is an invisible, highly flammable gas and has a global warming effect 11.6 times stronger than CO₂. The rationale for hydrogen vehicles lies in their potential to reduce reliance on fossil fuels, associated greenhouse gas emissions and localised air pollution from transportation. This would require hydrogen to be produced cleanly, for use in sectors and applications where cheaper and more energy efficient mitigation alternatives are limited. Many large rockets use liquid hydrogen as fuel, with liquid oxygen as an oxidizer (LH2/LOX). An advantage of hydrogen rocket fuel

4928-528: The light road vehicle segment, by the end of 2022, 70,200 fuel cell electric vehicles had been sold worldwide, compared with 26 million plug-in electric vehicles. In 2023, 3,143 hydrogen cars were sold in the US compared with 380,000 BEVs. With the rapid rise of electric vehicles and associated battery technology and infrastructure, the global scope for hydrogen's role in cars is shrinking relative to earlier expectations. John Max of Hydrogen Fuel News believes that hydrogen may, however, be used directly, or as

5005-1198: The magazine's Spring 2004 edition won a silver medal for "Best Single Magazine Issue" from the International Automotive Media Awards, together with eight other awards for magazine writing. The Green Car of the Year and the Green Car Vision Award are annual awards granted by the Green Car Journal. Green vehicle Green vehicles can be powered by alternative fuels and advanced vehicle technologies and include hybrid electric vehicles , plug-in hybrid electric vehicles , battery electric vehicles , compressed-air vehicles , hydrogen and fuel-cell vehicles , neat ethanol vehicles , flexible-fuel vehicles , natural gas vehicles , clean diesel vehicles, and some sources also include vehicles using blends of biodiesel and ethanol fuel or gasohol . In 2021, with an EPA -rated fuel economy of 142 miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (mpg-e) (1.7 L/100 km),

5082-553: The nano-particles. "The next step for the researchers is to scale up their results so that the technology can be implemented in hydrogen vehicles." The problems in early fuel-cell designs at low temperatures concerning range and cold start capabilities have been addressed so that they "cannot be seen as show-stoppers anymore". Users in 2014 said that their fuel cell vehicles continue to operate in temperatures below zero without significantly reducing range. Studies using neutron radiography on unassisted cold-start indicate ice formation in

5159-459: The need for short launch preparations. Overall, the delta-v of a hydrogen stage is typically not much different from that of a dense fuelled stage, but the weight of a hydrogen stage is much less, which makes it particularly effective for upper stages, since they are carried by the lower stages. For first stages, dense fuelled rockets in studies may show a small advantage, due to the smaller vehicle size and lower air drag. LH2/LOX were also used in

5236-580: The processes are currently expensive. Various technologies are being developed that aim to deliver costs low enough, and quantities great enough, to compete with hydrogen production using natural gas. Vehicles running on hydrogen technology benefit from a long range on a single refuelling, but are subject to several drawbacks including high carbon emissions when hydrogen is produced from natural gas, capital cost burden, high energy inputs in production and transportation, low energy content per unit volume at ambient conditions, production and compression of hydrogen,

5313-494: The region considered, due to difference in energy sources to produce electricity that fuels electric vehicles. When considering only CO 2 emissions, it is noted that production of electric cars generate about twice as much emissions as that of internal combustion cars. However, emissions of CO 2 during operation are much larger (on average) than during production. For electric cars, emissions caused during operation depend on energy sources used to produce electricity and thus vary

5390-474: The relatively small number of Priuses on the road, rather than using the incremental cost of building a vehicle; used109,000 miles (175,000 km) for the length of life of a Prius (Toyota offers a 150,000-mile (240,000 km) warranty on the Prius' hybrid components, including the battery), and calculated that a majority of a car's cradle-to-grave energy gets expended during the vehicle's production, not while it

5467-1025: The same ratios of energy sources ("clean" versus fossil fuels ) than the current capacity. Only when additional electricity production capacity installed to switch from petrol to electric vehicles would predominantly consist of clean sources, switch to electric vehicles could reduce environmental damage. Another common problem in methodology used in comparative studies is that it only focuses on specific kinds of environmental impact. While some studies focus only on emission of gas pollutants over life cycle or only on greenhouse gas emissions such as CO 2 , comparison should also account for other environmental impacts such as pollutants released otherwise during production and operation or ingredients that can not be effectively recycled. Examples include use of lighter high performing metals, lithium batteries and more rare metals in electric cars, which all have high environmental impact. A study that also looked at factors other than energy consumption and carbon emissions has suggested that there

5544-426: The transport sector in the short run. As part of their contribution to sustainable transport , these vehicles reduce air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions , and contribute to energy independence by reducing oil imports. An environmental analysis extends beyond just the operating efficiency and emissions. A life-cycle assessment involves production and post-use considerations. A cradle-to-cradle design

5621-460: The world's first hydrogen fuel cell-powered tramcar at an assembly facility in Qingdao. Tracks for the new vehicle have been built in seven Chinese cities. In northern Germany in 2018 the first fuel-cell powered Coradia iLint trains were placed into service; excess power is stored in lithium-ion batteries . In 2007, Pearl Hydrogen Power Source Technology Co of Shanghai , China, demonstrated

5698-583: Was Champaign , Illinois, when in 2021 the Champaign–Urbana Mass Transit District ordered two New Flyer XHE60 articulated hydrogen fuel cell buses, with 10 more New Flyer XHE40 buses added in 2024. In 2022, the city of Montpellier , France, cancelled a contract to procure 51 buses powered by hydrogen fuel cells, when it found that "the cost of operation for hydrogen [buses] is 6 times the cost of electricity". A hydrogen internal combustion engine (or "HICE") forklift or HICE lift truck

5775-455: Was about 7 million yen ($ 69,000). Former European Parliament President Pat Cox estimated that Toyota would initially lose about $ 100,000 on each Mirai sold. At the end of 2019, Toyota had sold over 10,000 Mirais. Many automobile companies introduced demonstration models in limited numbers (see List of fuel cell vehicles and List of hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicles ). In 2013 BMW leased hydrogen technology from Toyota , and

5852-440: Was the world's first hydrogen fuel cell vehicle designed for mass production rather than adapting an existing model. Honda established the world's first fuel cell vehicle dealer network in 2008, and at the time was the only company able to lease hydrogen fuel cell vehicles to private customers. The 2013 Hyundai Tucson FCEV , a modified Tucson, was introduced to the market as a lease-only vehicle, and Hyundai Motors claimed it

5929-514: Was the world's first mass-produced hydrogen fuel cell vehicle. However, due to high prices and a lack of charging infrastructure, sales fell far short of initial plans, with only 273 units sold by the end of May 2015. Hyundai Nexo , which succeeded the Tucson in 2018, was selected as the "safest SUV" by the Euro NCAP in 2018, but In October 2024, Hyundai recalled all 1,600 Nexo vehicles sold in

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