Misplaced Pages

Greensand Ridge

Article snapshot taken from Wikipedia with creative commons attribution-sharealike license. Give it a read and then ask your questions in the chat. We can research this topic together.

Greensand or green sand is a sand or sandstone which has a greenish color. This term is specifically applied to shallow marine sediment that contains noticeable quantities of rounded greenish grains. These grains are called glauconies and consist of a mixture of mixed-layer clay minerals, such as smectite and glauconite . Greensand is also loosely applied to any glauconitic sediment.

#962037

97-878: The Greensand Ridge , also known as the Wealden Greensand , is an extensive, prominent, often wooded, mixed greensand / sandstone escarpment in south-east England. Forming part of the Weald , a former dense forest in Sussex, Surrey and Kent, it runs to and from the East Sussex coast, wrapping around the High Weald and Low Weald. It reaches its highest elevation, 294 metres (965 ft), at Leith Hill in Surrey—;the second highest point in south-east England , while another hill in its range, Blackdown ,

194-483: A 10 kg (22 lb) yield for a 10-year-old tree is a reliable conservative estimate, though some exceptional specimens of that age have yielded 100 kg (220 lb). So, most producers earn less than $ 5,000 per year, with a third of them not having sold anything so far. Moreover, the plantings have so far been mostly of Chinese species, but the products are not readily available. The American Chestnut Foundation in collaboration with many partners ( SUNY ESF ,

291-562: A cannery in Holland included in its "vegetables-and-meat" ready-cooked combinations, a "chestnuts and sausages" casserole beside the more classic "beef and onions" and "green peas and veal". This celebrated the chestnut culture that would bring whole villages out in the woods for three weeks each autumn (and keep them busy all winter), and deplored the lack of food diversity in the United States's shop shelves. Soon after that, however,

388-552: A germ with two cotyledons connected to creamy-white flesh throughout. Some varieties have consistently only one embryo per fruit (nut) or have only one large fruit per burr, well rounded (no flat face). The name of varieties with these characteristics may start with "marron" for example marron de Lyon in France, or Marrone di Mugello in Italy. Chestnut fruit may not exhibit epigeal dormancy. It may germinate right upon falling to

485-552: A heavy, sweet odor that some people find too sweet or unpleasant. Other catkins have these pollen-bearing flowers, but also carry near the twig from which these spring, small clusters of female or fruit-producing flowers. Two or three flowers together form a four-lobed prickly calybium , which ultimately grows completely together to make the brown hull, or husk , covering the fruits. Chestnut flowers are not self-compatible, so two trees are required for pollination . All Castanea species readily hybridize with each other. The fruit

582-630: A line between Dunstable and Tatsfield and of uncertain extent to the east of London. Outcrops of the Upper Greensand occur in the southwest of England including the Blackdown Hills and East Devon Plateau and the Haldon Hills , remnants of a once much wider extent. The green color of greensand is due to variable amounts of the mineral glauconite , an iron potassium silicate with very low weathering resistance; as

679-402: A popular organic soil amendment. The porous properties of glauconite greensand allows for the absorption of water and minerals, making irrigation and nutrient delivery much more efficient (see soil conditioner ). Greensand can be used to absorb excess water in clay-rich soils and to prevent water loss in sandy soils. Chestnut The chestnuts are the deciduous trees and shrubs in

776-402: A relatively low initial investment; this is a factor in the small size of the present production operations, with half of them being between 3 and 10 acres (12,000 and 40,000 m ). Another determining factor in the small productivity of the sector is that most orchards have been created less than 10 years ago, so have young trees which are as now barely entering commercial production. Assuming

873-404: A result, greensand tends to be weak and friable. It is a common ingredient as a source of potassium in organic gardening and farming fertilisers . Greensand glauconite is used as a water softener for its chemical-exchange properties. Greensand coated with manganese oxide (called manganese greensand) is used in well water treatment systems to remove dissolved (reduced) iron and manganese with

970-719: A song from the Goryeo period. Gongju , one of Baekje 's former capitals, is renowned for its chestnuts, with an annual chestnut festival that takes place in the winter. In the Samgukji(Records Of The Three Kingdoms) , a book that was compiled during the Jin dynasty about the Three Kingdoms , chestnuts are used in the description of Mahan, the former land of Baekje. In the Philippines ,

1067-720: A staple food in southern Europe, Turkey, and southwestern and eastern Asia for millennia, largely replacing cereals where these would not grow well, if at all, in mountainous Mediterranean areas. Evidence of its cultivation by humans is found since around 2000 BC. Alexander the Great and the Romans planted chestnut trees across Europe while on their various campaigns. A Greek army is said to have survived their retreat from Asia Minor in 401–399 BC thanks to their stores of chestnuts. Ancient Greeks, such as Dioscorides and Galen, wrote of chestnuts to comment on their medicinal properties—and of

SECTION 10

#1732765424963

1164-602: A system of transhumance whereby each autumn swine would be driven, sometimes over long distances, from the longer-settled areas on the periphery into the Wealden forest to feed on acorns of oak trees and beech mast. For these peoples the term Weald did not include the land cleared of forest and settled earlier, such as the fertile Vale of Holmesdale (which separates the North Downs from the Greensand Ridge), nor

1261-444: Is frost -tender; bud -burst is later than most other fruit trees, so late frosts can be damaging to young buds. Trees can be found at altitudes between 200 and 1000 m above sea level; some mention between 300 and 750 m altitude, while the famous Hundred Horse Chestnut on Mount Etna stands at 1200 metres. They can tolerate maritime exposure, although growth is reduced. Seeds germinate in late winter or early spring, but

1358-426: Is a hard, shiny, brown outer hull or husk , called the pericarpus; the industry calls this the "peel". Underneath the pericarpus is another, thinner skin, called the pellicle or episperm. The pellicle closely adheres to the seed itself, following the grooves usually present at the surface of the fruit. These grooves are of variable sizes and depths according to the species and variety. The fruit inside these shows

1455-640: Is always served at Christmas and New Year's time. In Modena , Italy, they are soaked in wine before roasting and serving, and are also traditionally eaten on Saint Simon's Day in Tuscany . In the Romagna region, roasted chestnuts are often served with a traditional wine, the Cagnina di Romagna . It is traditional to eat roasted chestnuts in Portugal on St. Martin's Day . Their popularity declined during

1552-522: Is at the modern village of Keramidi . The town probably took its name, though, from the trees growing around it. In the Mediterranean climate zone, chestnut trees are rarer in Greece because the chalky soil is not conducive to the tree's growth. Kastania is located on one of the relatively few sedimentary or siliceous outcrops. They grow so abundantly there that their presence would have determined

1649-798: Is composed crop out in a series of concentric circles, shaped like a horseshoe, with the more resistant chalk and sandstones forming hills and ridges (such as the North and South Downs, the Greensand Ridge, and the High Weald), and the weaker clays forming vales (such as the Low Weald ) between them. The very resistant rocks of the Lower Greensand, in particular the Hythe Beds, have produced prominent escarpments that form an arc around

1746-674: Is composed of alternating mudstones (sandy, with clay particles such as smectite ) and sandstones, up to a maximum thickness of about 400 metres (1,300 ft), and is composed of a number of distinct formations, namely the Folkestone Beds, Sandgate Beds, Bargate Beds, Hythe Beds and Atherfield Clay. The soil of the Greensand is quite varied, ranging from fertile to fairly sterile. On the fertile soils we see chestnut and stands of hazel and oak , while Scots Pine and Birch colonise

1843-418: Is contained in a spiny (very sharp) cupule 5–11 cm in diameter, also called "bur" or " burr ". The burrs are often paired or clustered on the branch and contain one to seven nuts according to the different species , varieties , and cultivars . Around the time the fruits reach maturity, the burrs turn yellow-brown and split open in two or four sections. They can remain on the tree longer than they hold

1940-684: Is derived from an earlier English term "chesten nut", which descends from the Old French word chastain (Modern French, châtaigne ). The French word in turn derives from Latin Castanea (also the scientific name of the tree), which traces to the Ancient Greek word κάστανον (sweet chestnut). A possible source of the Greek word is the ancient town of Casthanaea in Magnesia . Its location

2037-746: Is low, varying between 5 and 20 mg/(kg·h) depending on the temperature. Most chestnut wood production is done by coppice systems, cut on a 12-year rotation to provide small timber which does not split as badly as large logs. In southern England (particularly in Kent ), sweet chestnut has traditionally been grown as coppices, being recut every 10 years or so on rotation for poles used for firewood, and fencing (fence posts and chestnut paling). An excellent soil-enriching understory in pine forests, sustainable forest management incorporates more mixed plantings of proven efficiency, as opposed to monosylviculture. A study presented in 1997 has evaluated positively

SECTION 20

#1732765424963

2134-597: Is made between the Upper Greensand and Lower Greensand. The term greensand was originally applied by William Smith to glauconitic sandstones in the west of England and subsequently used for the similar deposits of the Weald , before it was appreciated that the latter are actually two distinct formations separated by the Gault Clay . The Upper Greensand was also once known as either the "Malm" or "Malm Rock Of Western Sussex". Both Upper and Lower Greensand outcrops appear in

2231-587: Is now a small stream following a line of a gentle west-east trending upfold. This stream, the River Lod , runs parallel to the larger River Rother which flows about 10 km further south in the lee of the chalk escarpment of the South Downs. Valley slope processes in the Vale of Fernhurst have resulted in escarpments to the north and south that are steep enough to have collapsed by land slipping. Further east,

2328-633: Is quite varied, ranging from fertile to fairly sterile. On the fertile soils chestnut and stands of hazel and oak are common, while Scots pine and birch colonise the poorer soils. These Greensand Ridges are popular long distance walking routes, for instance the Greensand Way in Kent. The Lower Greensand (known as the Woburn Sand north of the London Basin ) is of Aptian age. In

2425-522: Is recommended at least during summer and early autumn. Once established, they resist droughts well. In addition to being consumed fresh, chestnuts can also be canned, pureed, or preserved in sugar or syrup ( marrons glacés ). Shelled and cooked nuts should be covered, refrigerated, and used within 3–4 days. Cooked chestnuts, either whole, chopped, or pureed, may be frozen in an airtight container and held up to 9 months. Because of their high water content, transpiration rates, and consequent loss weight,

2522-476: Is required later. The optimum rainfall for chestnut trees is 800 mm (31 in) or more, ideally in even distribution throughout the year. Mulching during summer is recommended. Rainfall below 700 mm (28 in) per year needs be complemented with, for example, a drip irrigation system. This should water the soil at the outer half of the circle formed by the drip line to encourage root growth. Independently from annual rainfall, watering young trees

2619-494: Is sandstone and where hardest is locally termed Bargate stone , is a remnant of the Weald dome, part of the great Weald-Artois Anticline that runs from south-east England into northern France. The Weald dome consists of a series of geological strata laid down in the Cretaceous that have subsequently been lifted up, formed into a dome (i.e. anticline) and then deformed and faulted. The top-most and therefore youngest layer of

2716-598: Is the highest point in Sussex at 280 metres (919 ft). The eastern end of the ridge forms the northern boundary of Romney Marsh . About 51 per cent of the Wealden Greensand is protected as the South Downs National Park , Kent Downs Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty and Surrey Hills Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty . The Greensand Ridge, formed of Lower Greensand , much of which

2813-581: The Chalk Group which underlies the basin; the Gault lies directly on eroded Jurassic or Devonian rocks under much of the area. The Upper Greensand is of Albian age. It represents a sandy lithofacies deposited in areas of stronger currents than the Gault Clay . Like the Lower Greensand it is not present beneath the whole of the London Basin, apparently passing laterally into Gault clay east of

2910-412: The Greensand Way . Extending for 108 miles, it starts in the west at Haslemere and ends in the east at Ham Street, Kent, on the edge of Romney Marsh. The route passes through or close to Godalming, Cranleigh , Dorking , Reigate, South Nutfield, Oxted, Westerham , Sevenoaks , Maidstone and Ashford . The south-west part of the Greensand ridge and hills is in the South Downs National Park . Much of

3007-470: The Lower Cretaceous . It also contains important subsidiary elements of silty and argillaceous material. Chert, ironstone and calcareous deposits occur in small amounts. When fresh the rocks have a greenish colouration owing to the presence of glauconite , but on exposure to the atmosphere this is rapidly oxidised to limonite, giving rise to a yellow or reddish brown staining. The Lower Greensand

Greensand Ridge - Misplaced Pages Continue

3104-510: The Mugello sweet chestnut . It is markedly sweet, peels easily, is not excessively floury or astringent , and has notes of vanilla , hazelnut , and, more subtly, fresh bread. It has no unpleasant aroma, such as yeast , fungus , mold , or paper, which sometimes occur with other chestnuts. The main regions in France for chestnut production are the départements of Ardèche , with the famous "Châtaigne d'Ardèche" (A.O.C) Archived 2012-02-27 at

3201-808: The Serra da Saudade Formation, Bambuí Group, of Neoproterozoic / Ediacaran age. The outcrops occur in the Serra da Saudade ridge, in Alto Paranaíba region, Minas Gerais . It is a silt-clay sedimentary rock, laminated, bluish-green, composed of glauconite (40–80%), potassium feldspar (10–15%), quartz (10–60%), muscovite (5%) and minor quantities of biotite (2%), goethite (<1%), titanium and manganese oxides (<1%), barium phosphate and rare-earth elements phosphates (<1%). Enriched levels of potash have K 2 O grades between 8% and 12%, thickness up to 50 m (160 ft) and are associated to

3298-646: The Wayback Machine , of the Var (Eastern Provence), of the Cévennes (Gard and Lozère départements) and of the Lyon region. France annually produces over 1,000 metric tons, but still imports about 8,000 metric tons, mainly from Italy. In Portugal's archipelago of Madeira, chestnut liquor is a traditional beverage, and it is gaining popularity with the tourists and in continental Portugal. Always served as part of

3395-553: The dormant period. Frosts and snowfalls are beneficial rather than harmful to the trees. The dormant plant is very cold-hardy in Britain, to the Royal Horticultural Society 's H6 hardiness rating, to -20 °C. Chestnut is hardy to USDA zone 5 , which is −29 °C (−20 °F) lower in average minimal temperature than London in zone 9 . The young growth in spring, even on mature plants, however,

3492-759: The endemic talakatak or Philippine chestnut ( Castanopsis philippinensis ) is not cultivated commercially, though its nuts are harvested from the wild and consumed locally. Imported chestnuts (known as kastanyas in Tagalog , from Spanish castañas ) are traditionally sold as street food in the Philippines during the Christmas season . Native Americans were eating the American chestnut species, mainly C. dentata and some others, long before European immigrants introduced their stock to America, and before

3589-526: The genus Castanea , in the beech family Fagaceae . The name also refers to the edible nuts they produce. They are native to temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. Chestnut trees are of moderate growth rate (for the Chinese chestnut tree) to fast-growing for American and European species. Their mature heights vary from the smallest species of chinkapins, often shrubby, to

3686-538: The 'Dandong' chestnut (belonging to the Japanese chestnut C. crenata ) is a major cultivar in Liaoning Province . In South Korea , roasted chestnuts ( gunbam ) are a popular winter snack, and serve as a symbol of abundance in ancestral rituals. Roasted chestnuts are also included in folk songs of Korea , which include " Gunbam Taryeong " , a song that celebrates chestnuts, as well as " Jeongseokga ",

3783-451: The 1850s and 1860s led to the first recorded plantings of European chestnut trees, brought from Europe by settlers. Along the years, most chestnut tree plantations were C. sativa stock, which is still the dominant species. Some of these remain today. Some trees in northern Victoria are around 120 years old and up to 60 m tall. Chestnuts grow well in southwest Western Australia , which has cold winters and warm to hot summers. As of 2008,

3880-559: The American Chestnut Cooperators' Foundation and many others from education, research, and industry sectors contributing to the program) are in the last stages of developing a variety that is as close as possible to the American chestnut, while having incorporated the blight-resistant gene of the Asiatic species. Considering the additional advantage that chestnut trees can be easily grown organically, and assuming

3977-537: The American chestnuts is not completely resolved, particularly between the chinkapins ( Castanea ozarkensis and Castanea pumila ), which are sometimes considered to be the same species. Genetics have indicated the California native "golden chinkapin" ( Chrysolepis chrysophylla ) is worthy of inclusion in a different genus along with a species from Coastal China. There is also another chestnut, Castanea alabamensis , which may be its own species. The name "chestnut"

Greensand Ridge - Misplaced Pages Continue

4074-655: The American chestnuts were nearly wiped out by chestnut blight. The discovery of the blight fungus on some Asian chestnut trees planted on Long Island , New York , was made public in 1904. Within 40 years, the nearly four billion-strong American chestnut population in North America was devastated; only a few clumps of trees remained in Michigan, Wisconsin, California , and the Pacific Northwest . Due to disease, American chestnut wood almost disappeared from

4171-471: The Bargate and Sandgate Layers, was much quarried for the cloth industry. The seam, which lies about 20 to 30 feet below the surface between Nutfield and Bletchingley, was considered the best in the country and for several centuries large quantities were excavated. Resources are now running low and little is now extracted. Principal settlements lying on the southern part of the Greensand in Sussex, adjacent to

4268-744: The Greensand Ridge in Surrey is one limb of the Surrey Hills Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty while a section of the Greensand hills in western Kent, from Limpsfield Chart near Westerham through Sevenoaks to Plaxtol , forms part of the Kent Downs Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty , where it is known as the Sevenoaks Greensand Ridge . Hills on the Greensand Ridge at least 200 metres high and with 30 metres or more of topographical prominence are here listed, along

4365-507: The Hythe Beds, have yielded a distinctive yellow stone seen in many local buildings. Ironstone, from layers embedded in the Sandgate Beds, is often seen in chips ( gallets ) pressed into the mortar between such stones. To the east, especially around Maidstone, Kent, the Hythe Beds yield a blue-grey sandstone with a high lime content. Known as ragstone, this is seen in many local buildings. Fuller's earth , which lies interbedded between

4462-399: The Lower Greensand has not produced any pronounced topographical features. In many places along the escarpment of the Greensand Ridge erosion by wind and rain, landslips on the steep scarp face, and solifluction in glacial times have further combined to create steep-side coombes, and low hillocks below the scarp. The Greensand Ridge is sometimes associated with the Weald ; the ridge forms

4559-579: The New Year's menu in Japan, chestnuts represent both success and hard times—mastery and strength. The Japanese chestnut ( kuri ) was in cultivation before rice and the Chinese chestnut ( C. mollissima ) possibly for 2,000 to 6,000 years. During British colonial rule in the mid-1700s to 1947, the sweet chestnut, C. sativa , was widely introduced in the temperate parts of the Indian subcontinent , mainly in

4656-401: The South Downs, include Storrington (at the eastern end of the ridge) and Midhurst . Petersfield marks the western end, where the ridge turns north east. Settlements on the main part of the ridge, running from Surrey into Kent include Haslemere , Godalming , Reigate and Redhill , Oxted and Sevenoaks . Much of the ridge in Surrey and Kent is followed by a long-distance walking route,

4753-455: The US imports are from Southern Italy , with the large, meaty, and richly flavored Sicilian chestnuts being considered among the best quality for bulk sale and supermarket retail. Some imports come from Portugal and France. The next two largest sources of imports are China and South Korea. The French varieties of marrons are highly favored and sold at high prices in gourmet shops. As of 2024,

4850-411: The United States imports 7.5 million pounds of non-organic chestnuts per year. A study of the sector in 2005 found that U.S. producers are mainly part-timers diversifying an existing agricultural business, or hobbyists. Another recent study indicates that investment in a new plantation takes 13 years to break even, at least within the current Australian market. Starting a small-scale operation requires

4947-622: The Upper and Lower Greensands of England and occur within Eocene and Cretaceous sedimentary strata underlying the coastal plains of New Jersey and Delaware . Although greensand has been found throughout Phanerozoic and Late Precambrian sedimentary deposits, it appears to be most common in Eocene, Cambrian , and Cretaceous sedimentary deposits. In Brazil , greensand refers to a fertilizer produced from glauconitic siltstone units belonging to

SECTION 50

#1732765424963

5044-461: The Weald and the "Wealden Anticline" that embraces all the land bounded by the chalk escarpments of the North and South Downs, including the Greensand hills. The Folkestone Beds consist of seams of pebbles and sand. It is from here that the stone known as chert is found, familiar in the High Chart hills around Limpsfield , Surrey. In Surrey the Sandgate Beds and Bargate Beds, which lie on top of

5141-524: The Weald the Lower Greensand consists of four deposits which are partly diachronous : the Atherfield Clay 5–15 m (15–50 ft) thick, the Folkestone Beds 20–80 m (60–250 ft) thick; the Hythe beds 20–110 m (60–350 ft) thick and the Sandgate Beds 2–37 m (5–120 ft) thick. Although it appears both north and south of the London Basin it is not present everywhere beneath

5238-403: The Wealden anticline, causing the outcrop of resistant Hythe Beds to widen from 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) to more than 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) and to produce an escarpment that is particularly marked between Haslemere and Midhurst, where Blackdown rises to 280 metres (920 ft), the highest point in Sussex. South of here the Vale of Fernhurst has been eroded down into the Low Weald by what

5335-406: The addition of an oxidant, usually potassium permanganate, under controlled pH conditions. It is also used as a type of rock for stone walls in areas where greensand is common. In Roman times in Britain, coarse grits derived from the lower greensand were used to line the inner surface of mortars (grinding bowls) produced in Oxfordshire pottery kilns. Recently, glauconitic greensand has become

5432-425: The arrival of chestnut blight . In some places, such as the Appalachian Mountains , one-quarter of hardwoods were chestnuts. Mature trees often grew straight and branch-free for 50 ft (15 m), up to 100 ft, averaging up to 5 ft in diameter. For three centuries, most barns and homes east of the Mississippi River were made from it. In 1911, the food book The Grocer's Encyclopedia noted that

5529-501: The chestnut oak ( Quercus prinus ) and the American beech ( Fagus grandifolia ), both of which are also in the Fagaceae family. Brazil nuts , called "Brasil chestnuts" ( castañas de Brasil in Spanish) or "chestnuts from Pará" ( castanha-do-Pará in Portuguese) are also unrelated. Chestnuts belong to the family Fagaceae , which also includes oaks and beeches . The four main species groups are commonly known as American, European, Chinese, and Japanese chestnuts. The taxonomy of

5626-407: The chestnut tree is practically the sole subsistence of our highlanders", while in 1879 it was said that it almost exclusively fed whole populations for half the year, as "a temporary but complete substitution for cereals". In Britain, boundary records compiled in the reign of King John already showed the famous Tortworth Chestnut in South Gloucestershire , as a landmark; it was also known by

5723-584: The cold in their first winter, and also from mice and squirrels . Chestnuts are considered self-sterile, so at least two trees are needed for pollination. Castanea grows best in a soil with good drainage and adequate moisture. The tree prefers sloping, deep soils; it does not like shallow or heavy soils with impermeable, clay subsoils . The Chinese chestnut prefers a fertile, well-drained soil, but it grows well in fairly dry, rocky, or poor soils. Although Castanea can grow in very acidic soil, and while these soils are reasonably well tolerated,

5820-413: The country has nearly 350 growers, annually producing around 1,200 metric tons of chestnuts, of which 80% come from northeast Victoria . The produce is mostly sold to the domestic fresh fruit market. Chestnuts are slowly gaining popularity in Australia. A considerable increase in production is expected in the next 10 years, due to the increase in commercial plantings during the last 15 to 25 years. By far,

5917-402: The development of brands in the market and everything else being equal, home-grown products would reach higher prices than imports, the high volume of which indicates a market with expanding prospects. As of 2008, the price for chestnuts sold fresh in the shell ranges from $ 1.50/lb ($ 3.30/kg) wholesale to about $ 5/lb ($ 11/kg) retail, depending mainly on the size. The Australian gold rush of

SECTION 60

#1732765424963

6014-410: The disease-immune Asiatic species. Efforts started in the 1930s are still ongoing to repopulate the country with these trees, in Massachusetts and many places elsewhere in the United States. In the 1970s, geneticist Charles Burnham began back-breeding Asian chestnut into American chestnut populations to confer blight resistance with the minimum difference in genes. In the 1950s, the Dunstan chestnut

6111-406: The dome is Chalk , laid down in the Upper Cretaceous . Below it lie successively older strata of alternating clays and sandstones laid down in the Lower Cretaceous , namely Upper Greensand , Gault Clay , Lower Greensand , Weald Clay and the Hastings Beds . Differential fluvial erosion has virtually flattened the dome into a series of hills and vales. On the surface the strata of which the dome

6208-558: The flatulence induced by eating too much of it. To the early Christians, chestnuts symbolized chastity . Until the introduction of the potato , whole forest-dwelling communities which had scarce access to wheat flour relied on chestnuts as their main source of carbohydrates . In some parts of Italy, a cake made of chestnuts is used as a substitute for potatoes. In 1583, Charles Estienne and Jean Liébault wrote, "an infinity of people live on nothing else but (the chestnut)". In 1802, an Italian agronomist said of Tuscany that "the fruit of

6305-467: The foot of the chalk scarp (ridge). In some places the clay vale is very narrow: for example at Oxted the gap between summits of the Greensand Ridge and the North Downs is less than 2 kilometres (1.2 mi). The Greensand Ridge, capped by the resistant sands and sandstones of the Hythe Beds, reinforced by bands of chert , rises steeply as a series of high, wooded escarpments between Gibbet Hill, Hindhead (272 metres (892 ft)), north of Haslemere, and

6402-400: The founders of the National Trust . The ridge continues eastwards past Sevenoaks, until south-west of Maidstone it is broken by the valley of the River Medway . The ridge then continues as far as Pluckley , Kent. From there the land levels until it drops to the old sea-cliff line above Romney Marsh. In the area around Haslemere local anticlinal features are superimposed on the main axis of

6499-545: The fruit was a local staple food in the early 17th century. These synonyms are or have been in use: Fagus Castanea (used by Linnaeus in first edition of Species Plantarum , 1753), Sardian nut, Jupiter's nut, husked nut, and Spanish chestnut (U.S.). The tree is noted for attracting wildlife. The nuts are an important food for jays , pigeons , wild boar , deer, and squirrels . American and Chinese chinquapins ( C. pumila and C. henryi ) have very small nuts that are an important source of food for wildlife. It has been

6596-415: The fruit, but more often achieve complete opening and release the fruits only after having fallen on the ground; opening is partly due to soil humidity . The chestnut fruit has a pointed end with a small tuft at its tip (called "flame" in Italian ), and at the other end, a hilum – a pale brown attachment scar. In many varieties, the fruit is flattened on one or two sides. It has two skins. The first one

6693-642: The giant of past American forests, C. dentata that could reach 60 metres (200 feet). Between these extremes are found the Japanese chestnut ( C. crenata ) at 10 m average; followed by the Chinese chestnut ( C. mollissima ) at about 15 m , then the European chestnut ( C. sativa ) around 30 m . The Chinese and more so the Japanese chestnuts are both often multileadered and wide-spreading, whereas European and especially American species tend to grow very erect when planted among others, with little tapering of their columnar trunks , which are firmly set and massive. When standing on their own, they spread on

6790-555: The glauconitic levels, dark green in color. Glauconite is authigenic and highly mature. The high concentration of this mineral is related to a depositional environment with a low sedimentation rate. The glauconitic siltstone has resulted from a high level flooding event in the Bambuí Basin. The sedimentary provenance is from supracrustal feldsic elements on a continental margin environment with an acidic magmatic arc (foreland basin). In Great Britain , greensand usually refers to specific rock strata of Early Cretaceous age. A distinction

6887-402: The governor of Genoa , which dominated Corsica , ordered all the farmers and landowners to plant four trees yearly, among which was a chestnut tree – plus olive , fig and mulberry trees. Many communities owe their origin and former richness to the ensuing chestnut woods. In France, the marron glacé , a candied chestnut involving 16 different processes in a typically French cooking style,

6984-631: The ground in the autumn, with the roots emerging from the seed right away and the leaves and stem the following spring. The germ can lose viability soon after ripening and under drying conditions. The superior fruiting varieties among European chestnuts have good size, sweet taste, and easy-to-remove inner skins. American chestnuts are usually very small (around 5 g ), but sweet-tasting with easy-to-remove pellicles. Some Japanese varieties have very large nuts (around 40 g ), with typically difficult-to-remove pellicles. Chinese chestnut pellicles are usually easy to remove, and their sizes vary greatly according to

7081-531: The high border of area of the Weald. The Jutes and Saxons who settled in south-east England in the centuries following the collapse of the Roman empire applied the term Weald (a Germanic term for woodland) to the very large, heavily wooded forest that they found lying inland of the coastal lands and river valleys that they initially settled. This forest, difficult to penetrate and settle, and difficult to exploit agriculturally, in due course became an essential part of

7178-463: The highest point in Sussex, Blackdown . On the south side of the Weald the Lower Greensand also forms another arc of rather less pronounced hills parallel to and just north of the South Downs , which become less prominent the further east one goes. The Lower Greensand is a predominantly arenaceous sandstone consisting of sediment that accumulated apparently in a shallow sea in the later part of

7275-575: The huge reforestation efforts started in the 1930s in the United States to establish varieties of C. sativa which may be resistant to chestnut blight, as well as to relieve the strain on cereal supplies. The main region in Italy for chestnut production is the Mugello region ; in 1996, the European Community granted the fruit Protected Geographic Indication (equivalent to the French Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée ) status to

7372-410: The last few centuries, partly due to their reputation of "food for poor people". Many people did not want to take chestnut bread as " bread " because chestnut flour does not rise. Some slandered chestnut products in such words as the bread which "gives a sallow complexion" written in 1770, or in 1841 "this kind of mortar which is called a soup". The last decades' worldwide renewal may have profited from

7469-434: The later medieval colonisation of the Wealden portion of these parishes, called today Sevenoaks Weald, Sundridge Weald and Boughton Malherbe Weald. A practice of treating the Greensand Ridge regularly as part of the Weald arose in geology when natural scientists, starting in the late 18th century, began to include it in their analysis of the geological history of the Wealden dome. Geology still confuses by using interchangeably

7566-504: The life length is short. If kept moist, they can be stored in a cool place for a few months, but must be checked regularly for signs of germination. Low temperature prolongs dormancy. Sowing them as soon as ripe is better, either in cold frames or seedbeds outdoors, where they can be left in situ for one to two years before being planted in their permanent positions, or in pots, where the plants can be put out into their permanent positions in summer or autumn. They must be protected from

7663-607: The lower to middle Himalayas . They are widely found in British-founded hill stations in northern India , and to a lesser extent in Bhutan and Nepal . They are mainly used as an ornamental tree and are found in almost all British-founded botanical gardens and official governmental compounds (such as larger official residences) in temperate parts of the Indian subcontinent. China has about 300 chestnut cultivars . Moreover,

7760-434: The market for decades, although quantities can still be obtained as reclaimed lumber . Today, they only survive as single trees separated from any others (very rare), and as living stumps , or "stools", with only a few growing enough shoots to produce seeds shortly before dying. This is just enough to preserve the genetic material used to engineer an American chestnut tree with the minimal necessary genetic input from any of

7857-425: The more lightly wooded and open hills found on the sandstones of the Greensand Ridge, which also seem to have been settled earlier. Local people regarded the hills of the Greensand Ridge as overlooking the Weald, rather than forming a part of it, and hence a distinction came to be made between the settlements on the Greensand Ridge, such as Sevenoaks, Sundridge Upland and Boughton Malherbe Upland, and those formed during

7954-548: The most common species in Australia is the European chestnut, but small numbers of the other species, as well as some hybrids, have been planted. The Japanese chestnut ( C. crenata ) does well in wet and humid weather and in hot summers (about 30 °C); and was introduced to New Zealand in the early 1900s, more so in the upper North Island region. Chestnuts produce a better crop when subjected to chill temperatures during

8051-568: The need for sun for optimal growth. The butt of the tree is sometimes painted with white paint to protect the tree from sunburn until it has developed enough canopy . Wide spacing between the trees encourages low, broad crowns with maximum exposure to sunshine to increase fruit production. Where chestnut trees touch, virtually no fruit is produced. Current industrial planting spacings can range from 7 x 7 to 20 x 20 m. The closer plantings, which are more popular, mean quicker increases in short-term production, but heavy pruning or even tree removal

8148-527: The northern edge of the Low Weald, running parallel to and just south of the chalk escarpment of the North Downs . This stretch of the Greensand has become the most closely identified with the term "Greensand Ridge", and it includes the second highest point in south-east England, Leith Hill in Surrey. West of the Weald the Lower Greensand has produced a more extensive area of hills and valleys, including

8245-480: The nuts react as fresh fruits (not as nuts). They should be kept cool at all times, including in shops when on display for sale. To preserve their freshness for a few months with no artificial refrigeration, the chestnuts can be soaked in cold water for about 20 hours immediately after harvest , after which they are dried in the shade, then layered in dry sand. Chestnuts behave similarly to seeds in that they produce very little ethylene , and their respiration rate

8342-545: The place's name. Still others take the name as coming from the Greek name of Sardis glans (Sardis acorn) – Sardis being the capital of Lydia , Asia Minor, from where the fruit had spread. The name is cited twice in the King James Version of the Bible. In one instance, Jacob puts peeled twigs in the water troughs to promote healthy offspring of his livestock. Although it may indicate another tree, it indicates

8439-423: The poorer soils. Broadly speaking, the Greensand Ridge runs along the northern edge of the Weald in a west-east arc from Surrey into Kent, just south of and parallel to the chalk escarpment of the North Downs. The ridge is separated by a mixed deep and shallow, fertile depression from the North Downs referred to as the ' Vale of Holmesdale ', formed on Gault Clay, and a narrow band of Upper Greensand that outcrops at

8536-524: The potential increase in productivity with mixed stands and plantations, compared to plots of only one species. The relative yield total values of the mixed plantings steadily increase with time. C. sativa responds well to competitive pressure from Pseudotsuga menziesii , the latter also showing a higher productivity. C. dentata seedlings in Ohio reforestation efforts are best achieved by planting them in places with little or no arboreous land cover, because of

8633-473: The preferred range is from pH 5.5-6.0. It does not grow well on alkaline soils , such as chalk , but thrives on soils such as those derived from granite , sandstone , or schist . On alkaline soils, chestnut trees can be grown by grafting them onto oak rootstocks. Recently cleared land is best avoided to help resist the root rot , Armillaria mellia . Castanea likes a full sun position. An experiment with C. dentata seedlings in Ohio confirmed

8730-584: The range from west to east. 51°10′N 0°22′W  /  51.167°N 0.367°W  / 51.167; -0.367 Greensand (geology) Greensand forms in anoxic marine environments that are rich in organic detritus and low in sedimentary input. Having accumulated in marine environments, greensands can be fossil -rich, such as in the late- Cretaceous deposits of New Jersey . Important exposures are known from both northern and western Europe , North America , southeastern Brazil and north Africa . Well known and important greensands are

8827-502: The ridge's highest point, Leith Hill (294 metres (965 ft)). It then flattens for several miles, before re-emerging east of Nutfield to run eastwards as a high wooded ridge into an area between Oxted and Sevenoaks known locally as the Chartlands , where it reaches another high point at Toys Hill , Kent (235 metres (771 ft)). Here there are views to the south of the Weald from a terrace donated in 1898 by Octavia Hill , one of

8924-461: The same name of "Great Chestnut of Tortworth" in the days of Stephen . This tree measured over 50 ft (15 m) in circumference at 5 ft (1.5 m) from the ground in 1720. The Hundred Horse Chestnut in the chestnut forests on Mount Etna is the oldest living chestnut tree and is said to be even larger. Chestnut trees particularly flourish in the Mediterranean basin . In 1584,

9021-839: The scarp slopes surrounding the London Basin and the Weald. Prominent seams are to be found in the Vale of White Horse , in Bedfordshire , in Kent , Surrey , the South Downs National Park , elsewhere in Hampshire , the Isle of Wight , and the Jurassic Coast in Dorset . Some minor seams are found further west in Devon in the Blackdown and Haldon hills. The soil of the greensand

9118-434: The sides and develop broad, rounded, dense crowns at maturity. The foliage of the European and American species has striking yellow autumn coloring. Its bark is smooth when young, of a vinous maroon or red-brown color for the American chestnut, grey for the European chestnut. With age, American species' bark becomes grey and darker, thick, and deeply furrowed ; the furrows run longitudinally, and tend to twist around

9215-604: The trunk as the tree ages, sometimes reminiscent of a large cable with twisted strands. The leaves are simple, ovate or lanceolate , 10–30 cm long and 4–10 cm wide, with sharply pointed, widely spaced teeth, with shallow rounded sinuates between. The flowers follow the leaves, appearing in late spring or early summer or into July. They are arranged in long catkins of two kinds, with both kinds being borne on every tree. Some catkins are made of only male flowers, which mature first. Each flower has eight stamens , or 10 to 12 for C. mollissima . The ripe pollen carries

9312-445: The varieties, although usually smaller than the Japanese chestnut. The unrelated horse chestnuts (genus Aesculus ) are not true chestnuts, but are named for producing nuts of similar appearance that are mildly poisonous to humans. True chestnuts should also not be confused with water chestnuts , which are tubers of an aquatic herbaceous plant in the sedge family Cyperaceae . Other species commonly mistaken for chestnut trees are

9409-475: Was developed in Greensboro, N.C., and constitutes the majority of blight-free chestnuts produced in the United States annually. Today, the demand for the nut outstrips supply . The United States imported 4,056 metric tons of European in-shell chestnuts worth $ 10 million in 2007. The U.S. chestnut industry is in its infancy, producing less than 1% of total world production. Since the mid-20th century, most of

#962037