138-594: Sino-Indian border dispute The Grenadiers is an infantry regiment of the Indian Army , formerly part of the Bombay Army and later the pre-independence British Indian Army , when the regiment was known as the 4th Bombay Grenadiers . It has distinguished itself during the two world wars and also since the Independence of India . The regiment has won many battle honours and gallantry awards , and
276-529: A referendum , in which the Sikkemese voted overwhelmingly in favour of joining India. At the time China protested and rejected it as illegal. The Sino-Indian Memorandum of 2003 was hailed as a de facto Chinese acceptance of the annexation. China published a map showing Sikkim as a part of India and the Foreign Ministry deleted it from the list of China's "border countries and regions". However,
414-615: A boundary line along the crest of the Kun Lun Mountains north of the Yarkand River . At the time Britain was concerned at the danger of Russian expansion as China weakened, and Ardagh argued that his line was more defensible. The Ardagh line was effectively a modification of the Johnson line, and became known as the "Johnson-Ardagh Line". In 1893, Hung Ta-chen, a senior Chinese official at St. Petersburg , gave maps of
552-476: A conference in Simla , India and drew up an agreement concerning Tibet's status and borders. The McMahon Line, a proposed boundary between Tibet and India for the eastern sector, was drawn by British negotiator Henry McMahon on a map attached to the agreement. All three representatives initialled the agreement, but Beijing soon objected to the proposed Sino-Tibet boundary and repudiated the agreement, refusing to sign
690-481: A divisional commander to retreat without orders or permission from his superior was unheard-of in the Japanese Army.) This allowed XXXIII Corps to outflank Miyazaki's position on Aradura Spur and begin pushing south. Miyazaki's detachment continued to fight rearguard actions and demolish bridges along the road to Imphal, but was eventually driven off the road and forced to retreat eastwards. The remainder of
828-414: A fort at Shahidulla (modern-day Xaidulla ), and had troops stationed there for some years to protect caravans. Eventually, most sources placed Shahidulla and the upper Karakash River firmly within the territory of Xinjiang (see accompanying map). According to Francis Younghusband , who explored the region in the late 1880s, there was only an abandoned fort and not one inhabited house at Shahidulla when he
966-533: A further three sessions of talks, the "Official's" talks, between— 15 June-6 July 1960; 15 August-24 September 1960; and 7 November-12 December 1960. These discussions produced the ' Report of the Officials on the boundary question '. Boundary discussions have covered micro and macro issues of the dispute. At a local level, localised disputes and related events such as de-engagement and de-escalation are tackled. Wider overarching issues include discussion related to
1104-488: A kilometre at the northern tip of Sikkim . In 2009, India announced it would deploy additional military forces along the border. In 2014, India proposed China should acknowledge a "One India" policy to resolve the border dispute. The reactions of Indian officials to these successive incursions have also been to a pattern: Who is misled when information is suppressed? […] Not the Chinese— […] Not other countries, be they
1242-651: A mental breakdown and was unfit to stand trial. He was replaced as commander of the 31st Division by Lieutenant General Tsuchitaro Kawada . Major General Miyazaki was promoted and appointed to command the Japanese 54th Division , serving in Arakan. The huge losses the Japanese suffered in the Battles of Imphal and Kohima (mainly through starvation and disease) crippled their defence of Burma against Allied attacks during
1380-574: A military standoff occurred between India and China in the disputed territory of Doklam , near the Doka La pass. On 16 June 2017, the Chinese brought heavy road building equipment to the Doklam region and began constructing a road in the disputed area. Previously, China had built a dirt road terminating at Doka La where Indian troops were stationed. They would conduct foot patrol from this point up till
1518-547: A package settlement versus sector-wise, clarification of the LAC and border and accordingly the exchange of maps, and delinking or linking the boundary dispute to other bilateral ties. China made the so-called "package" offer in 1960, which again came to the table in 1980–85. As explained by former foreign secretary Shyam Saran , China "would be prepared to accept an alignment in the Eastern Sector, in general conforming to
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#17328022507961656-571: A series of military clashes in 1967, between India and China alongside the border of the Himalayan Kingdom of Sikkim, then an Indian protectorate. The Nathu La clashes started on 11 September 1967, when the People's Liberation Army (PLA) launched an attack on Indian posts at Nathu La, and lasted till 15 September 1967. In October 1967, another military duel took place at Cho La and ended on the same day. According to independent sources ,
1794-638: A subsidiary Japanese offensive at the Battle of the Admin Box . While the main body of the division went to Imphal (where some units had been isolated and almost all of IV Corps' reserves had already been committed), the 161st Indian Infantry Brigade , commanded by Brigadier Dermot Warren and with 24th Mountain Artillery Regiment, Indian Artillery attached, were flown to Dimapur. Early in March,
1932-580: A traditional border was recognised and defined by natural elements, and the border was not demarcated. The boundaries at the two extremities, Pangong Lake and Karakoram Pass , were reasonably well-defined, but the Aksai Chin area in between lay largely undefined. W. H. Johnson , a civil servant with the Survey of India proposed the "Johnson Line" in 1865, which put Aksai Chin in Jammu and Kashmir. This
2070-480: Is an ongoing territorial dispute over the sovereignty of two relatively large, and several smaller, separated pieces of territory between China and India . The territorial disputes between the two countries result from the historical consequences of colonialism in Asia and the lack of clear historical boundary demarcations. The first of the territories, Aksai Chin , is administered by China and claimed by India; it
2208-545: Is considered to be one of India's most decorated regiments with three Param Vir Chakra awardees in three different conflicts. The oldest grenadier regiment of the armies in the Commonwealth belongs to the Indian Army. The concept of 'Grenadiers' evolved from the practice of selecting the bravest and strongest men for the most dangerous tasks in combat. The Grenadiers have the longest unbroken record of existence in
2346-596: Is mostly uninhabited high-altitude wasteland but with some significant pasture lands at the margins. It lies at the intersection of Kashmir , Tibet and Xinjiang , and is crossed by China's Xinjiang-Tibet Highway ; the other disputed territory is south of the McMahon Line , in the area formerly known as the North-East Frontier Agency and now a state called Arunachal Pradesh . It is administered by India and claimed by China. The McMahon Line
2484-409: The 1913-1914 Simla Convention . The Republic of China rejected the proposed boundary. The unresolved dispute over the boundary became contentious after India gained its independence and the People's Republic of China was established. The disputed borders are complicated by the lack of administrative presence in the disputed areas, which are remote. Disagreements also result from the fact that
2622-822: The 23rd Long Range Penetration Brigade was removed from Major General Orde Wingate 's Chindit force, and was dispatched by rail from around Lalaghat to Jorhat , 50 miles (80 km) north of Dimapur, where they could threaten the flank of any Japanese attack on the base. Giffard and General Claude Auchinleck , the Commander-in-Chief of the British Indian Army , also prepared to send the British 2nd Division and Indian XXXIII Corps HQ under Lieutenant General Montagu Stopford from reserve in southern and central India to Dimapur, by road and rail. Until XXXIII Corps headquarters could arrive at Dimapur,
2760-602: The Bombay Army consisted of five companies of "Europeans, topasses ( Indian Christians ), and coffrees ( Kaffirs )" of which the first company was a European grenadier company. This company was merged into the Bombay European Regiment, which was later disbanded. In 1757, Robert Clive had raised the 1st Regiment of the Bengal Native Infantry of which two companies were grenadier companies, however, no regiments of grenadiers were formed from
2898-507: The Brahmaputra River valley. The 31st Division's commander, Lieutenant General Kotoku Sato , was unhappy with his role. He had not been involved in the planning of the offensive, and had grave misgivings about its chances. He had already told his staff that they might all starve to death. In common with many senior Japanese officers, Sato considered Mutaguchi a "blockhead". He and Mutaguchi had also been on opposite sides during
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#17328022507963036-667: The British Raj . If the Japanese were able to gain a strong foothold in India they would demonstrate the weakness of the British Empire and provide encouragement to Indian nationalists in their decolonization efforts. Moreover, occupation of the area around Imphal would severely impact American efforts to supply Chiang Kai-shek 's army in China. The objections of the staffs of various headquarters were eventually overcome, and
3174-718: The Karakoram Mountains as the Johnson Line. China and India still have disputes on these borders. British India annexed Assam in northeastern India in 1826, by Treaty of Yandabo at the conclusion of the First Anglo-Burmese War (1824–1826). After subsequent Anglo-Burmese Wars , the whole of Burma was annexed giving the British a border with China's Yunnan province. In 1913–14, representatives of Great Britain, China, and Tibet attended
3312-680: The Karakoram Mountains , was proposed and supported by British officials for a number of reasons. The Karakoram Mountains formed a natural boundary, which would set the British borders up to the Indus River watershed while leaving the Tarim River watershed in Chinese control, and Chinese control of this tract would present a further obstacle to Russian advance in Central Asia . The British presented this line, known as
3450-583: The War Office . Seventy years after the Battle of Kohima a memorial to him was unveiled at Jotsoma, the site of his 2nd Division Headquarters. Brigadier Dermot Warren, who commanded the 161st Indian Brigade during the siege, was promoted to command the 5th Indian Division, but was killed in an air crash the following year. The aerial resupply of Kohima was part of an effort that, at its height, delivered around 500 tons of supplies per day to Allied forces in
3588-536: The Xinhai Revolution resulted in the collapse of central power in China, and by the end of World War I , the British officially used the Johnson Line. However they took no steps to establish outposts or assert actual control on the ground. In 1927, the line was adjusted again as the government of British India abandoned the Johnson line in favour of a line along the Karakoram range further south. However,
3726-618: The intent of the treaty was to follow the main watershed ridge divide of the Himalayas based on memos from McMahon and the fact that over 90% of the McMahon Line does in fact follow the main watershed ridge divide of the Himalayas. They claimed that territory south of the high ridges here near Bhutan (as elsewhere along most of the McMahon Line) should be Indian territory and north of the high ridges should be Chinese territory. In
3864-701: The " Stalingrad of the East ". The Japanese plan to invade India, codenamed U-Go , was originally intended as a spoiling attack against the British IV Corps at Imphal in Manipur , to disrupt the Allied offensive plans for that year. The commander of the Japanese Fifteenth Army , Lieutenant General Renya Mutaguchi , enlarged the plan to invade India itself and perhaps even overthrow
4002-545: The 10th Battalion amalgamated with the 10th Battalion, Jat Regiment to form a Combined Training Centre at Bareilly . Following the Second World War they were one of the regiments allocated to the new Indian Army and renamed The Grenadiers The regiment consisted of six battalions, all former regiments themselves. These were: At the beginning of the Second World War there were only two battalions of
4140-612: The 161st Brigade with air, artillery and armour support to launch an attack towards Kohima on 18 April. After a day's heavy fighting, the leading troops of the Brigade (1st Battalion, 1st Punjab Regiment ) broke through and started to relieve the Kohima garrison. By this point, Kohima resembled a battlefield from the First World War , with smashed trees, ruined buildings and the ground covered in craters. Under cover of darkness,
4278-598: The 4th battalion. The Grenadiers consists of 23 battalions , four Rashtriya Rifles battalions and two Territorial Army battalions - § indicates former units. The Grenadiers has been affiliated with The Armoured Corps and with the Indian Navy . Prior to Indian independence, the Regiment had won many battle honours as part of the British Indian Army. These battle honour include: Since 1947,
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4416-441: The Aksai Chin for Sheng Shicai , warlord of Xinjiang in 1940–1941, they again advocated the Johnson Line. At this point the British had still made no attempts to establish outposts or control over the Aksai Chin, nor was the issue ever discussed with the governments of China or Tibet, and the boundary remained undemarcated at India's independence. Upon independence in 1947, the government of India fixed its official boundary in
4554-742: The Aksai Chin, to set a boundary at the Kunlun Mountains , and incorporating part of the Karakash River and Yarkand River watersheds. From there, it runs east along the Kunlun Mountains, before turning southwest through the Aksai Chin salt flats, through the Karakoram Mountains, and then to Pangong Lake . On 1 July 1954 Prime Minister Nehru wrote a memo directing that the maps of India be revised to show definite boundaries on all frontiers. Up to this point,
4692-566: The Allies, Slim asked his superior, General George Giffard (commanding Eleventh Army Group ), for more troops to protect Dimapur and to prepare to relieve Imphal. The Allies were already hastily reinforcing the Imphal Front. As part of this move, the infantry and artillery of the 5th Indian Infantry Division were flown from the Arakan , where they had just participated in the defeat of
4830-584: The Bengal Army until a battalion was formed in 1779. In 1759, as a response to French maneuvering in South India, the strength of the Bombay Army was enhanced, and the first company of sepoy grenadiers was raised with the best of Bombay sepoys "paying a regard to those having families on the island". It had only native officers and all sepoys wore red coats faced with blue. Later on, an adjutant
4968-426: The British and Indian troops of IV Corps (consisting of the 17th , 20th and 23rd Indian Infantry Divisions ) faced the main Japanese offensive. Kohima Ridge itself runs roughly north and south. The road from Dimapur to Imphal climbs to its northern end and runs along its eastern face. In 1944, Kohima was the administrative centre of Nagaland . The Deputy Commissioner was Charles Pawsey . His bungalow stood on
5106-476: The British government "not to annex Tibetan territory." Because of doubts concerning the legal status of the accord, the British did not put the McMahon Line on their maps until 1937, nor did they publish the Simla Convention in the treaty record until 1938. Rejecting Tibet's 1913 declaration of independence, China argued that the Simla Convention and McMahon Line were illegal and that Tibetan government
5244-536: The Chindits. The siege began on 6 April. The garrison was continually shelled and mortared, in many instances by Japanese using weapons and ammunition captured at Sangshak and from other depots, and was slowly driven into a small perimeter on Garrison Hill . They had artillery support from the main body of 161st Brigade, who were themselves cut off 2 miles (3.2 km) away at Jotsoma , but, as at Sangshak, they were very short of drinking water. The water supply point
5382-468: The Chinese military had set up a camp 3 km (1.9 mi) inside territory claimed by India. According to scholar Harsh V. Pant, China gains territory with every incursion. In September 2015, Chinese and Indian troops faced off in the Burtse region of northern Ladakh after Indian troops dismantled a disputed watchtower the Chinese were building close to the mutually agreed patrolling line. In June,
5520-541: The HQ of 202 Line of Communication Area under Major General R.P.L. Ranking took command of the area. Kohima's strategic importance in the wider 1944 Japanese Chindwin offensive lay in that it was the summit of a pass that offered the Japanese the best route from Burma into India. Through it ran the road which was the main supply route between the base at Dimapur in the Brahmaputra River valley and Imphal, where
5658-535: The HQ of Japanese Fifteenth Army were taking little notice of his situation, as they had issued several confusing and contradictory orders to him during April. Because the main attack on Imphal faltered around the middle of April, Mutaguchi wished 31st Division or parts of it to join in the attack on Imphal from the north, even while the division was struggling to capture and hold Kohima. Satō considered that Fifteenth Army headquarters were issuing unrealistic orders to his division without proper planning or consideration for
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5796-569: The Indian Army. The history of the Indian Grenadiers is linked to the troops recruited for the army of the Bombay Presidency . The first mention of a grenadier company hails back to 1684, when a little army of English troops, which had taken possession of the island of Bombay and comprising three companies of Europeans and local Christians, had a grenadier company, but nothing was heard about this unit subsequently. In 1710,
5934-662: The Indian claim, the two armies would be separated from each other by the highest mountains in the world. During and after the 1950s, when India began patrolling this area and mapping in greater detail, they confirmed what the 1914 Simla agreement map depicted: six river crossings that interrupted the main Himalayan watershed ridge. At the westernmost location near Bhutan north of Tawang, they modified their maps to extend their claim line northwards to include features such as Thag La ridge, Longju, and Khinzemane as Indian territory. Thus,
6072-557: The Indian forces achieved "decisive tactical advantage" and defeated the Chinese forces in these clashes. Many PLA fortifications at Nathu La were said to be destroyed, where the Indian troops drove back the attacking Chinese forces. The 1987 Sino-Indian skirmish was the third military conflict between the Chinese People's Liberation Army Ground Force and Indian Army that occurred at the Sumdorong Chu Valley, with
6210-471: The Indian version of the McMahon Line moves the Bhutan-China-India trijunction north to 27°51’30"N from 27°45’40"N. India would claim that the treaty map ran along features such as Thag La ridge, though the actual treaty map itself is topographically vague (as the treaty was not accompanied with demarcation) in places, shows a straight line (not a watershed ridge) near Bhutan and near Thag La, and
6348-489: The Japanese as yet more Allied reinforcements arrived. The 7th Indian Infantry Division, commanded by Major General Frank Messervy , was arriving piecemeal by road and rail from the Arakan. Its 33rd Indian Brigade had already been released from XXXIII Corps reserve to join the fighting on Kohima Ridge on 4 May. The 114th Indian Infantry Brigade and the Division HQ arrived on 12 May and (with 161st Brigade under command)
6486-683: The Japanese division retreated painfully south but found very little to eat, as most of what few supplies had been brought forward across the Chindwin had been consumed by other Japanese units, who were as desperately hungry as Satō's men. Many of the 31st Division were too enfeebled to drag themselves further south than Ukhrul (near the Sangshak battlefield), where hospitals had been set up, but with no medicines, medical staff or food, or Humine 20 miles (32 km) south of Ukhrul, where Sato vainly hoped to find supplies. Indian XXXIII Corps followed up
6624-478: The Japanese division, cut the Japanese supply lines and prevented them foraging in the Naga Hills to the east of Kohima. The Japanese had mounted two resupply missions, using captured jeeps to carry supplies forward from the Chindwin to 31st Division, but they brought mainly artillery and anti-tank ammunition, rather than food. By the middle of May, Satō's troops were starving. He considered that Mutaguchi and
6762-470: The Japanese had to exist on meagre captured stocks and what they could forage in increasingly hostile local villages. (Shortly before the siege of Kohima began, the Japanese had captured a huge warehouse in Naga Village with enough rice to feed the division "for three years", but it was immediately bombed and the stock of rice was destroyed.) The British 23rd LRP Brigade, which had been operating behind
6900-487: The Japanese trenches and bunkers there. The 2nd Bn, the Dorsetshire Regiment , followed up and captured the hillside where the bungalow formerly stood, thus finally clearing Kohima Ridge. The terrain had been reduced to a fly and rat-infested wilderness, with half-buried human remains everywhere. The conditions under which the Japanese troops had lived and fought have been described by several sources, including author Frank McLynn, as "unspeakable". The situation worsened for
7038-444: The Japanese would only be able to send a regiment to take Kohima. Slim knew that there were few fighting troops, as opposed to soldiers in line-of-communication units and supporting services, in Kohima and none at all at the vital base of Dimapur 30 miles (48 km) to the north. Dimapur contained an area of supply dumps 11 miles (18 km) long and 1 mile (1.6 km) wide. As the fall of Dimapur would have been disastrous for
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#17328022507967176-463: The Johnson Line through the Aksai Chin region claimed by India. Aksai Chin was easily accessible from China, but for the Indians on the south side of the Karakoram, the mountain range proved to be a complication in their access to Aksai Chin. The Indians did not learn of the existence of the road until 1957, which was confirmed when the road was shown in Chinese maps published in 1958. The Indian position, as argued by prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru ,
7314-457: The LAC. In June 2020, Indian and Chinese troops engaged in a brawl in the Galwan River valley which reportedly led to the deaths of 20 Indian soldiers. International media claimed 40+ Chinese soldiers had been killed, but this number has not been confirmed by Chinese authorities. One of the first set of formal talks between China and India on the border were following Zhou Enlai's visit to India in 19–25 April 1960. Following this there were
7452-519: The Line of Actual Control (LAC) location, that Chinese troops had established a camp in the Daulat Beg Oldi sector, 10 km (6.2 mi) on their side of the Line of Actual Control. This figure was later revised to a 19 km (12 mi) claim. According to Indian media, the incursion included Chinese military helicopters entering Indian airspace to drop supplies to the troops. However, Chinese officials denied any trespassing having taken place. Soldiers from both countries briefly set up camps on
7590-643: The Line of Actual Control has never been distinctly demarcated, with China and India often disagreeing over its precise location. From the area's lowest point on the Karakash River at about 14,000 feet (4,300 m) to the glaciated peaks up to 22,500 feet (6,900 m) above sea level, Aksai Chin is a desolate, largely uninhabited area. It covers an area of about 37,244 square kilometres (14,380 sq mi). The desolation of this area meant that it had no significant human importance other than ancient trade routes crossing it, providing brief passage during summer for caravans of yaks from Xinjiang and Tibet. One of
7728-418: The Macartney-MacDonald Line, to the Chinese in 1899 in a note by Sir Claude MacDonald . The Qing government did not respond to the note. According to some commentators, China believed that this had been the accepted boundary. Both the Johnson-Ardagh and the Macartney-MacDonald lines were used on British maps of India. Until at least 1908, the British took the Macdonald line to be the boundary, but in 1911,
7866-509: The Macartney-MacDonald Line, which left the Trans Karakoram Tract approximately 5,180 km (2,000 sq mi) to 5,300 km (2,000 sq mi) in China, although the agreement provided for renegotiation in the event of a settlement of the Kashmir conflict. India does not recognise that Pakistan and China have a common border, and claims the tract as part of the domains of the pre-1947 state of Kashmir and Jammu. However, India's claim line in that area does not extend as far north of
8004-436: The McMahon Line (albeit still South of the Line). He then went to Rima, met with Tibetan officials, and saw no Chinese influence in the area. By signing the Simla Convention with Tibet, the British had violated the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907 , in which both parties were not to negotiate with Tibet, "except through the intermediary of the Chinese Government", as well as the Anglo-Chinese Convention of 1906 , which bound
8142-402: The McMahon Line, but India would have to concede Aksai Chin to China in the Western Sector [...] For the Central Sector, the differences were regarded as relatively minor and manageable." In other words, China "offered to hold 26% of the disputed land". Battle of Kohima [REDACTED] United Kingdom [REDACTED] Japan Second Sino-Japanese War The Battle of Kohima
8280-404: The Regiment has won the following battle honours as part of the Indian Army: The Grenadiers have the unique and distinct honour of having the most number of Param Vir Chakras , India's highest medal for gallantry, among all the Indian Army's Infantry Regiments. Of note also, is the fact that prior to independence, British officers serving with The Grenadiers won four Victoria Crosses . Members of
8418-517: The Regiment have also received a number of other decorations prior to independence. Victoria Cross Military Cross Order of British India Indian Order of Merit Indian Distinguished Service Medal Indian Meritorious Service Medal Member of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (MBE) Mentioned in dispatches Param Vir Chakra Ashok Chakra Maha Vir Chakra Kirti Chakra Sino-Indian border dispute The Sino–Indian border dispute
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#17328022507968556-410: The Regiment, the 1st and 2nd. This was soon changed, though, as a number of battalions were raised for wartime service, including: 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, 14th, 25th, 26th and 27th Battalions. The 10th (Training Battalion) was also de-linked from the Jat Regiment. Some of these battalions were to be garrison or rear area troops only, while others went on to serve with distinction in a number of theatres during
8694-419: The Royal Bhutanese Army (RBA) post at Jampheri Ridge. The dispute that ensued post 16 June stemmed from the fact that the Chinese had begun building a road below Doka La, in what India and Bhutan claim to be disputed territory. This resulted in Indian intervention of China's road construction on 18 June, two days after construction began. Bhutan claims that the Chinese have violated the written agreements between
8832-410: The Sikhs signed the Treaty of Chushul in September 1842, which stipulated no transgressions or interference in the other country's frontiers. The British defeat of the Sikhs in 1846 resulted in transfer of sovereignty over Ladakh to the British, and British commissioners attempted to meet with Chinese officials to discuss the border they now shared. However, both sides were sufficiently satisfied that
8970-429: The Sikkim-China border's northernmost point, "The Finger", continues to be the subject of dispute and military activity. Chinese Prime Minister Wen Jiabao said in 2005 that "Sikkim is no longer the problem between China and India." During the 1950s, the People's Republic of China built a 1,200 kilometres (750 mi) road connecting Xinjiang and western Tibet , of which 179 kilometres (111 mi) ran south of
9108-448: The US or Vietnam [….] The people who are lulled are the people of India. And the object of lulling them is straightforward—not just that they should not come to think that their government has been negligent, but that they should not pressurize the government into doing anything more than what it is doing. Arun Shourie , Self-Deception: India's China Policies, 2013 In April 2013 India claimed, referencing their own perception of
9246-514: The ambiguity of earlier rounds of border talks beginning from the 1890 Anglo-Chinese Convention that was signed in Kolkata on 17 March 1890, each country refers to different agreements drawn when trying to defend its position on the border dispute. Following the incursion, on 28 June, the Chinese military claimed that India had blocked the construction of a road that was taking place in China's sovereign territory. On 30 June, India's Foreign Ministry claimed that China's road construction in violation of
9384-405: The artillery regiment's mountain guns and the infantry regiments' heavy weapons were left behind. Only three week's supply of food and ammunition was carried. Although the march was arduous, good progress was made. The left wing of the division, consisting of the bulk of the 58th Regiment and commanded by the division's Infantry Group commander, Major General Shigesaburō Miyazaki , was ahead of
9522-412: The boundaries China proposed in Ladakh and Arunachal Pradesh have no written basis and no documentation of acceptance by anyone apart from China. The Indian government has argued that China claims the territory on the basis that it was under Chinese imperial control in the past, while the Chinese government argues that India claims the territory on the basis that it was under British imperial control in
9660-409: The boundary in the Aksai Chin sector, based on the Johnson Line, had been described as "undemarcated." The Johnson Line is not used west of the Karakoram Pass , where China adjoins Pakistan-administered Gilgit–Baltistan . On 13 October 1962, China and Pakistan began negotiations over the boundary west of the Karakoram Pass. In 1963, the two countries settled their boundaries largely on the basis of
9798-507: The condition of the garrison; one battle hardened officer commented: "They looked like aged, bloodstained scarecrows, dropping with fatigue; the only clean thing about them was their weapons, and they smelt of blood, sweat and death." Miyazaki continued to try to capture Garrison Hill , and there was heavy fighting for this position for several more nights, with high casualties on both sides. The Japanese positions on Kuki Picquet were only 50 yards (46 m) from Garrison Hill , and fighting
9936-446: The conditions. Nor did he believe that they were exerting themselves to move supplies to his division. He began considering pulling his troops back to allow for resupply. On 25 May, Satō notified Fifteenth Army HQ that he would withdraw on 1 June, unless his division received supplies. Finally on 31 May, he abandoned Naga Village and other positions north of the road, in spite of orders from Mutaguchi to hang on to his position. (For
10074-459: The declaration secret. V. K. Singh argues that the basis of these boundaries, accepted by British India and Tibet, was that the historical boundaries of India were the Himalayas and the areas south of the Himalayas were traditionally Indian and associated with India. The high watershed of the Himalayas was proposed as the border between India and its northern neighbours. India's government held
10212-507: The division concentrated on recapturing the Naga Village from the north. The independent 268th Indian Infantry Brigade was used to relieve the brigades of British 2nd Division and allow them to rest, before they resumed their drive southwards along the Imphal Road. Nevertheless, when the Allies launched another attack on 16 May, the Japanese continued to defend Naga Village and Aradura Spur tenaciously. An attack on Naga Hill on
10350-619: The earliest treaties regarding the boundaries in the western sector was issued in 1842 following the Dogra–Tibetan War . The Sikh Empire of the Punjab region had annexed Ladakh into the state of Jammu in 1834. In 1841, they invaded Tibet with an army. Tibetan forces defeated the Sikh army and in turn entered Ladakh and besieged Leh . After being checked by the Sikh forces, the Tibetan and
10488-568: The east of Kohima, elements of the Assam Regiment fought delaying actions against them commencing on 1 April. Nevertheless, the men in the forward positions were soon overrun and the Assam regiment was ordered to withdraw. By the night of 3 April, Miyazaki's troops reached the outskirts of the Naga village and began probing Kohima from the south. Stopford's Corps HQ took over responsibility for
10626-637: The east. There was a brief border clash in 1967 in the region of Sikkim , despite there being an agreed border in that region. In 1987 and in 2013, potential conflicts over the Lines of Actual Control were successfully de-escalated. A conflict involving a Bhutanese-controlled area on the border between Bhutan and China was successfully de-escalated in 2017 following injuries to both Indian and Chinese troops. Multiple skirmishes broke out in 2020, escalating to dozens of deaths in June 2020. Agreements signed pending
10764-722: The fighting at Kohima between the Japanese vs. the Anglo-Indian troops: "Nowhere in World War II – even on the Eastern Front – did the combatants fight with more mindless savagery". On the night of 17/18 April, the Japanese finally captured the DC's bungalow area. Other Japanese captured Kuki Picquet , cutting the garrison in two. The defenders' situation was desperate, but the Japanese did not follow up by attacking Garrison Hill as by now they were exhausted by hunger and by
10902-675: The fighting, and when daylight broke, troops of 161st Indian Brigade arrived to relieve the garrison. The British 2nd Division, commanded by Major General John M. L. Grover , had begun to arrive at Dimapur in early April. By 11 April, the Fourteenth Army had about the same number of troops in the area as the Japanese. The British 5th Brigade of the 2nd Division broke through Japanese roadblocks to relieve 161st Brigade in Jotsoma on 15 April. The British 6th Brigade took over 161st Brigade's defensive position (the "Jotsoma Box"), allowing
11040-437: The final, more detailed map. After approving a note which stated that China could not enjoy rights under the agreement unless she ratified it, the British and Tibetan negotiators signed the Simla Convention and more detailed map as a bilateral accord. Neville Maxwell states that McMahon had been instructed not to sign bilaterally with Tibetans if China refused, but he did so without the Chinese representative present and then kept
11178-501: The following year. On the Allied side, Major General Grover was dismissed from command of the British 2nd Division on 5 July, for perceived slowness in conducting the offensive, and also after complaints about his handling of Indian formations (161st and 33rd Indian Brigades) attached to his division, and replaced by Major General Cameron Nicholson . He accepted his dismissal stoically and was appointed Director of Army Welfare Services at
11316-410: The front from Ranking on 3 April. The next day, he ordered the 161st Indian Brigade to move forward to Kohima again, but only one battalion, 4th Battalion Queen's Own Royal West Kent Regiment commanded by Lieutenant Colonel John Laverty, and a company of the 4th Battalion, 7th Rajput Regiment arrived in Kohima before the Japanese cut the road west of the ridge. Besides these troops from 161st Brigade,
11454-615: The garrison consisted of a raw battalion (the Shere Regiment) from the Royal Nepalese Army , some companies from the Burma Regiment , some of the Assam Regiment which had retired to Kohima and various detachments of convalescents and line-of-communication troops. The garrison numbered about 2,500, of which about 1,000 were non-combatants and was commanded by Colonel Hugh Richards , who had served formerly with
11592-572: The heaviest fighting took place at the north end of Kohima Ridge, around the Deputy Commissioner's bungalow and tennis court, in what became known as the Battle of the Tennis Court . The tennis court became a no man's land , with the Japanese and the defenders of Kohima dug in on opposite sides, so close to each other that grenades were thrown between the trenches. The American historians Alan Millet and Williamson Murray wrote about
11730-483: The hillside at a bend in the road, with its gardens and tennis court, and a clubhouse, on terraces above. Although some terraces around the village were cleared for cultivation, the steep slopes of the ridge were densely forested. North of the ridge lay the densely inhabited area of Naga Village , crowned by Treasury Hill , and Church Knoll (Baptist and other Christian missionaries had been active in Nagaland over
11868-440: The ill-defined frontier facing each other, but the tension was defused when both sides pulled back soldiers in early May. In September 2014, India and China had a standoff at the LAC, when Indian workers began constructing a canal in the border village of Demchok, Ladakh , and Chinese civilians protested with the army's support. It ended after about three weeks, when both sides agreed to withdraw troops. The Indian army claimed that
12006-444: The issue. India's claim line in the eastern sector follows its interpretation of the McMahon Line. The line drawn by McMahon on the detailed 24–25 March 1914 Simla Treaty maps clearly starts at 27°45’40"N, a trijunction between Bhutan, China, and India, and from there, extends eastwards. Most of the fighting in the eastern sector before the start of the war would take place immediately north of this line. However, India claimed that
12144-522: The maps were not updated and still showed the Johnson Line. From 1917 to 1933, the "Postal Atlas of China", published by the Government of China in Peking had shown the boundary in Aksai Chin as per the Johnson line, which runs along the Kunlun Mountains . The "Peking University Atlas", published in 1925, also put the Aksai Chin in India. When British officials learned of Soviet officials surveying
12282-507: The neighbouring formation (the Japanese 15th Infantry Division ) when they clashed with Indian troops covering the northern approaches to Imphal on 20 March. The Indian troops were the 50th Indian Parachute Brigade under Brigadier Maxwell Hope-Thomson , at Sangshak. Although they were not Miyazaki's objective, he decided to clear them from his line of advance. The Battle of Sangshak continued for six days. The parachute brigade's troops were desperately short of drinking water, but Miyazaki
12420-484: The night of 24/25 May gained no ground. Another attack, mounted against both ends of Aradura Spur on the night of 28/29 May was even more decisively repulsed. The repeated setbacks, with exhaustion and the effects of the climate began to affect the morale of the British 2nd Division especially. The decisive factor was the Japanese lack of supplies. The Japanese 31st Division had begun the operation with only three weeks' supply of food. Once these supplies were exhausted,
12558-552: The north and east. To support their attack against the Japanese position, the British had amassed thirty-eight 3.7 Inch Mountain Howitzers , forty-eight 25-pounder field guns and two 5.5-inch medium guns . The RAF (chiefly Hurricane fighter-bombers of 34 Squadron and Vultee Vengeance dive-bombers of 84 Squadron ) also bombed and strafed the Japanese positions. The Japanese could oppose them with only seventeen light mountain guns, with very little ammunition. Nevertheless,
12696-504: The offensive was approved by Imperial General Headquarters on 7 January 1944. Part of the plan involved sending the Japanese 31st Division (which was composed of the 58th, 124th and 138th Infantry Regiments and the 31st Mountain Artillery Regiment) to capture Kohima and thus cut off Imphal. Mutaguchi wished to exploit the capture of Kohima by pushing the 31st Division on to Dimapur , the vital railhead and logistic base in
12834-405: The original plan, and the antipathy between himself and Sato which led Sato to concentrate on saving his division rather than driving on distant objectives. After Satō was removed from command, he refused an invitation to commit seppuku and demanded a court martial to clear his name and make his complaints about Fifteenth Army HQ public. At Kawabe's prompting, Satō was declared to have suffered
12972-554: The past. The last Qing emperor's 1912 edict of abdication authorised its succeeding republican government to form a union of "five peoples, namely, Manchus , Han Chinese , Mongols , Muslims , and Tibetans together with their territory in its integrity ." However, the practice that India does not place a claim to the regions which previously had the presence of the Mauryan Empire and Chola Dynasty , but which were heavily influenced by Indian culture, further complicates
13110-428: The patrol unit were initially listed as missing before confirmation via diplomatic channels they had been killed by the Chinese troops; their bodies were later returned. The Indian government registered a strong protest with the Chinese. In 2006, the Chinese ambassador to India claimed that all of Arunachal Pradesh is Chinese territory amidst a military buildup. At the time, both countries claimed incursions as much as
13248-523: The permanent raising of a grenadier battalion which duly took place on 12 March 1779, thirty-six years before the first time that a British battalion was given the honour of calling itself "grenadiers". The Governor General of Bombay made an Order dated 12 November 1779, according to which the grenadier companies of the following regiments combined to form the first Grenadier Regiment in the world, namely "The Grenadier Battalion, First Regiment of Infantry": The 4th Bombay Grenadiers were an infantry regiment of
13386-592: The pre-independence Indian Army , formed on 1 March 1922 as part of the reforms of the Indian Army that took place after the end of the First World War . Following this, the Regiment spent the next fifteen years serving in the British Somaliland protectorate in present-day Somaliland , as well as in China and on the North-West Frontier . The 3rd, 4th and 5th Battalions were all disbanded and
13524-442: The preceding half century). South and west of Kohima Ridge were GPT Ridge and the jungle-covered Aradura Spur . The various British and Indian service troop encampments in the area gave their names to the features which were to be important in the battle e.g. "Field Supply Depot" became FSD Hill or merely FSD . The Japanese later assigned their own code-names to the features; for example, Garrison Hill , which overlooked Kohima,
13662-600: The previous one taking place 20 years earlier. On 20 October 1975, 4 Indian soldiers were killed at Tulung La in Arunachal Pradesh . According to the official statement by the Indian government, a patrol of the Assam Rifles comprising a non-commissioned officer (NCO) and four other soldiers was ambushed by about 40 Chinese soldiers while in an area well within Indian territory, and which had been regularly patrolled for years without incident. Four members of
13800-447: The progress of the British counter-attack was slow. Tanks could not easily be used, and the Japanese occupied bunkers which were very deeply dug in, well-concealed and mutually supporting. While the British 6th Brigade defended Garrison Hill , the other two brigades of 2nd Division tried to outflank both ends of the Japanese position, in Naga Village to the north and on GPT Ridge to the south. The monsoon had broken by this time and
13938-614: The region to George Macartney , the British consul general at Kashgar, which coincided in broad details. In 1899, Britain proposed a revised boundary, initially suggested by Macartney and developed by the Governor General of India Lord Elgin . This boundary placed the Lingzi Tang plains, which are south of the Laktsang range, in India, and Aksai Chin proper, which is north of the Laktsang range, in China. This border, along
14076-420: The retreating Japanese. The British 2nd Division advanced down the main road, while the 7th Indian Division (using mules and jeeps for most of its transport), moved through the rough terrain east of the road. On 22 June, the leading troops of British 2nd Division met the main body of 5th Indian Infantry Division advancing north from Imphal at Milestone 109, 30 miles (48 km) south of Kohima. The siege of Imphal
14214-408: The reverse slope of GPT Ridge repeatedly caught British troops attacking Jail Hill in the flank, inflicting heavy casualties and preventing them from capturing the hill for a week. However, the various positions were slowly taken. Jail Hill , together with Kuki Picquet , FSD and DIS , was finally captured on 11 May, after a barrage of smoke shells blinded the Japanese machine-gunners and allowed
14352-594: The road. The battle ended on 22 June when British and British Indian troops from Kohima and Imphal met at Milestone 109, ending the Siege of Imphal . In 2013, a poll conducted by the British National Army Museum voted the Battles of Kohima and Imphal as "Britain's Greatest Battle". The Battles of Kohima and Imphal have been referred to by authors such as Martin Dougherty and Jonathan Ritter as
14490-477: The shortest and easiest route to Kohima, were delayed by a week. Meanwhile, the commander of the British Fourteenth Army , Lieutenant General William Slim , belatedly realised (partly from Japanese documents that had been captured at Sangshak) that a whole Japanese division was moving towards Kohima. He and his staff had originally believed that, because of the forbidding terrain in the area,
14628-412: The siege, on 8 April, Mutaguchi directly ordered Sato to send a detachment to advance on Dimapur. Satō unwillingly dispatched a battalion of the 138th Regiment but a few hours later Mutaguchi's superior, Lieutenant General Masakasu Kawabe commanding Burma Area Army , vetoed the move.) As the right wing and centre of the Japanese 31st Division approached Jessami , over 80 miles (130 km) by road to
14766-467: The small British and British Indian force at Kohima was relieved. From 18 April to 13 May British and British Indian reinforcements counter-attacked to drive the Japanese from the positions they had captured. The Japanese abandoned the ridge at this point but continued to block the Kohima–Imphal road. From 16 May to 22 June the British and British Indian troops pursued the retreating Japanese and reopened
14904-475: The south-west, attacked GPT Ridge in driving rain and captured part of the ridge by surprise but were unable to secure the entire ridge. Two successive commanders of British 4th Brigade were killed in the subsequent close-range fighting on the ridge. Both outflanking moves having failed because of the terrain and the weather, the British 2nd Division concentrated on attacking the Japanese positions along Kohima Ridge from 4 May onwards. Fire from Japanese posts on
15042-517: The split between the Toseiha and Kodoha factions within the Japanese Army during the early 1930s, and Sato believed he had reason to distrust Mutaguchi's motives. Starting on 15 March 1944, the Japanese 31st Division crossed the Chindwin River near Homalin and moved north-west along jungle trails on a front almost 60 miles (97 km) wide. Because of a shortage of transport, half
15180-459: The status quo had security implications for India. Following this, on 5 July, Bhutan issued a demarche asking China to restore the status quo as of before 16 June. Throughout July and August, the Doklam issue remained unresolved. On 28 August, India issued a statement saying that both countries have agreed to "expeditious disengagement" in the Doklam region. In 2019, India and China decided to coordinate border patrolling at one disputed point along
15318-446: The status quo. In 1960, Nehru and Zhou Enlai agreed to hold discussions between officials from India and China for examining the historical, political and administrative basis of the boundary dispute. The two sides disagreed on the major watershed that defined the boundary in the western sector. The Chinese statements with respect to their border claims often misrepresented the cited sources. The Nathu La and Cho La clashes were
15456-442: The steep slopes were covered in mud, making movement and supply very difficult. In places the British 4th Brigade had to cut steps up hillsides and build handrails in order to make progress. On 4 May, the British 5th Brigade secured a foothold in the outskirts of Naga Village but lost it to a counter-attack. On the same day, the British 4th Brigade, having made a long flank march around Mount Pulebadze to approach Kohima Ridge from
15594-411: The theatre. At the sieges of both Kohima and Imphal, the Allies relied entirely on resupply from the air by British and American aircraft flying from India until the road from the railhead at Dimapur was cleared. At Kohima, due to the narrow ridgelines, accuracy in the dropping of air delivered logistics proved to be a considerable problem and as the fighting intensified and the defended area decreased,
15732-533: The treaty includes no verbal description of geographic features nor description of the highest ridges. The Nathu La and Cho La clashes were a series of military clashes in 1967 between India and China alongside the border of the Himalayan Kingdom of Sikkim , then an Indian protectorate . The end of the conflicts saw a Chinese military withdrawal from Sikkim. In 1975, the Sikkimese monarchy held
15870-421: The troops to secure the hill and dig in. The last Japanese positions on the ridge to be captured were the tennis court and gardens above the Deputy Commissioner's bungalow. On 13 May, after several failed attempts to outflank or storm the position, the British finally bulldozed a track to the summit above the position, up which a tank could be dragged. A Lee tank crashed down onto the tennis court and destroyed
16008-416: The two countries that were drawn up in 1988 and 1998 after extensive rounds of talks. The agreements drawn state that status quo must be maintained in the Doklam area as of before March 1959. It is these agreements that China has violated by constructing a road below Doka La. A series of statements from each countries' respective External Affairs ministries were issued defending each countries' actions. Due to
16146-664: The ultimate resolution of the boundary question were concluded in 1993 and 1996. This included "confidence-building measures" and the Line of Actual Control . To address the boundary question formalised groups were created such as the Joint Working Group (JWG) on the boundary question. It was to be assisted by the Diplomatic and Military Expert Group. In 2003 the Special Representatives (SRs) mechanism
16284-562: The view that the Himalayas were the ancient boundaries of the Indian subcontinent and thus should be the modern boundaries of British India and later the Republic of India . Chinese boundary markers, including one set up by the newly created Chinese Republic, stood near Walong until January 1914, when T. O'Callaghan, an assistant administrator of North East Frontier Agency (NEFA)'s eastern sector, relocated them north to locations closer to
16422-535: The war including the Middle East and Burma, notably during the Arakan campaigns and at Kohima . The 4th Grenadiers formed the motorised infantry element of the Indian Armoured and Tank brigades, distinguishing themselves as 'tank escort' infantry protecting tanks against sniper attack in jungle conditions: In October 1945, the Indian infantry regiments lost their numerical designation and the regiment
16560-541: The west, which included the Aksai Chin, in a manner that resembled the Ardagh–Johnson Line. India's basis for defining the border was "chiefly by long usage and custom". Unlike the Johnson line, India did not claim the northern areas near Shahidulla and Khotan . From the Karakoram Pass (which is not under dispute), the Indian claim line extends northeast of the Karakoram Mountains north of the salt flats of
16698-434: The wounded (numbering 300) were brought out under fire. Although contact had been established, it took a further 24 hours to fully secure the road between Jotsoma and Kohima. During 19 April and into the early hours of 20 April, the British 6th Brigade replaced the original garrison and at 06:00 hours on 20 April, the garrison commander (Colonel Richards) handed over command of the area. 6th Brigade observers were taken aback by
16836-493: Was "undoubtedly British" but noted that it was "controlled by Tibet, and none of its inhabitants have any idea that they are not Tibetan." During World War II, with India's east threatened by Japanese troops and with the threat of Chinese expansionism, British troops secured Tawang for extra defence. China's claim on areas south of the McMahon Line, encompassed in the NEFA, were based on the traditional boundaries. India believes that
16974-527: Was appointed to the corps. Later the Bombay Army comprised a number of sepoy battalions, each having one or two grenadier companies. These were clubbed together as a composite battalion comprising the grenadier companies of the Bombay sepoy battalions, and they won the famous battle of Talegaon in 1778. So impressive was the performance of this composite battalion that the Bombay Presidency ordered
17112-486: Was constituted. In 2012 another dispute resolution mechanism, the Working Mechanism for Consultation and Coordination (WMCC) was framed. The territorial disputes between the two countries result from the historical consequences of colonialism in Asia and the lack of clear historical boundary demarcations. There was one historical attempt to set a proposed boundary, the McMahon Line, by Great Britain during
17250-438: Was felt initially that Dimapur had more strategic importance. Kohima was regarded as a roadblock, while Dimapur was the railhead where the majority of Allied supplies were stored. Slim also feared that the Japanese might leave only a detachment to contain the garrison of Kohima while the main body of the 31st Division moved by tracks to the east to attack Dimapur. To Slim's relief, Satō concentrated on capturing Kohima. (Early in
17388-499: Was handicapped by lack of artillery until near the end of the battle. Eventually, as some of the Japanese 15th Division's troops joined the battle, Hope-Thomson withdrew. The 50th Parachute Brigade lost 600 men, while the Japanese had suffered over 400 casualties. Miyazaki had also captured some of the food and munitions that had been dropped by the Royal Air Force (RAF) to the defenders of Sangshak. However, his troops, who had
17526-499: Was known as Inu (dog) and Kuki Piquet (see map of Kohima Ridge) as Saru (monkey). Before the 161st Indian Brigade arrived, the only fighting troops in the Kohima area were the newly raised 1st Battalion, the Assam Regiment and a few platoons from the 3rd (Naga Hills) Battalion of the paramilitary Assam Rifles . Late in March 161st Brigade deployed in Kohima, but Major-General Ranking ordered them back to Dimapur, as it
17664-534: Was merely a local government without treaty-making powers. The British records show that the Tibetan government's acceptance of the new border in 1914 was conditional on China accepting the Simla Convention. Since the British were not able to get an acceptance from China, Tibetans considered the McMahon line invalid. Tibetan officials continued to administer Tawang and refused to concede territory during negotiations in 1938. The governor of Assam asserted that Tawang
17802-589: Was often hand-to-hand. On the other flank of Garrison Hill , on the night of 26/27 April, a British attack recaptured the clubhouse above the Deputy Commissioner's bungalow, which overlooked most of the Japanese centre. The Japanese reorganised their forces for defence. Their Left Force under Miyazaki held Kohima Ridge with four battalions. The divisional HQ under Sato himself and the Centre Force under Colonel Shiraishi held Naga Village with another four battalions. The much smaller Right Force held villages to
17940-650: Was on GPT Ridge , which was captured by the Japanese on the first day of the siege. Some of its defenders were unable to retreat to other positions on the ridge and instead withdrew towards Dimapur. Canvas water tanks on FSD and at the Indian General Hospital had neither been filled nor dug in to protect them from fire. While a small spring was discovered on the north side of Garrison Hill , it could be reached only at night. The medical dressing stations were exposed to Japanese fire, and wounded men were often hit again as they waited for treatment. Some of
18078-442: Was over, and truck convoys quickly carried vital heavy supplies to the troops at Imphal. During the Battle of Kohima, the British and Indian forces had lost 4,064 men, dead, missing and wounded. Against this the Japanese had lost at least 5,764 battle casualties in the Kohima area, and many of the 31st Division subsequently died of disease or starvation, or took their own lives. After ignoring army orders for several weeks, Satō
18216-535: Was re-designated as the Indian Grenadiers , thus severing its last link with the erstwhile Bombay Army (Special Indian Army Order 132/S/45). Following the partition of India , the regiment was allotted to India. The active units at that time were the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 25th. The Muslim troops in the regiment were allotted to Pakistan . Dogras from 5 Baluch joined the 1st battalion, The Frontier Force Rifles to 2nd battalion, and from 1/16 Punjab to
18354-502: Was removed from command of Japanese 31st Division early in July. The entire Japanese offensive was broken off at the same time. Slim derided Satō as the most unenterprising of his opponents, and even dissuaded the RAF from bombing Satō's HQ because he wanted him kept alive, as doing so would help the Allied cause. Japanese sources, however, blame his superior, Mutaguchi, for both the weaknesses of
18492-469: Was signed between British India and Tibet to form part of the 1914 Simla Convention , but the latter was never ratified by China. China disowns the McMahon Line agreement, stating that Tibet was not independent when it signed the Simla Convention. The 1962 Sino-Indian War was fought in both disputed areas. Chinese troops attacked Indian border posts in Ladakh in the west and crossed the McMahon line in
18630-567: Was that the Aksai Chin was "part of the Ladakh region of India for centuries". The Chinese premier Zhou Enlai argued that the western border had never been delimited, that the Macartney-MacDonald Line, which left part of Aksai Chin within Chinese borders was the only line ever proposed to a Chinese government. He also claimed that Aksai Chin was already under Chinese jurisdiction, and that negotiations should take into account
18768-594: Was the time of the Dungan revolt , when China did not control Xinjiang , so this line was never presented to the Chinese. Johnson presented this line to the Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir, who then claimed the 18,000 square kilometres contained within his territory and by some accounts he claimed territory further north as far as the Sanju Pass in the Kun Lun Mountains . The Maharajah of Jammu and Kashmir constructed
18906-597: Was the turning point of the Japanese U-Go offensive into India in 1944 during the Second World War . The battle took place in three stages from 4 April to 22 June 1944 around the town of Kohima , now the capital city of Nagaland in Northeast India . From 3 to 16 April, the Japanese attempted to capture Kohima ridge, a feature which dominated the road by which the besieged British and Indian troops of IV Corps at Imphal were supplied. By mid-April,
19044-493: Was there – it was just a convenient staging post and a convenient headquarters for the nomadic Kirghiz . The abandoned fort had apparently been built a few years earlier by the Dogras . In 1878 the Chinese had reconquered Xinjiang, and by 1890 they already had Shahidulla before the issue was decided. By 1892, China had erected boundary markers at Karakoram Pass . In 1897 a British military officer, Sir John Ardagh, proposed
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