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106-538: The Grindletonians were a Puritan sect that arose in the town of Grindleton , at that time in the West Riding of Yorkshire , England, in around 1610. The sect remained active in the North of England until the 1660s. Its most notable leader was Roger Brearley (or Brereley). Grindletonian beliefs were Antinomian . John Wilson, who led the congregation at Kildwick before Grindletonianism appeared, has been called

212-426: A Christian could never be reduced to simple "intellectual acknowledgment" of the truth of Christianity. Puritans agreed "that the effectual call of each elect saint of God would always come as an individuated personal encounter with God's promises". The process by which the elect are brought from spiritual death to spiritual life ( regeneration ) was described as conversion . Early on, Puritans did not consider

318-464: A congregation of "visible saints" (meaning those who had experienced conversion). Members would be required to abide by a church covenant , in which they "pledged to join in the proper worship of God and to nourish each other in the search for further religious truth". Such churches were regarded as complete within themselves, with full authority to determine their own membership, administer their own discipline and ordain their own ministers. Furthermore,

424-593: A diverse religious reform movement in Britain committed to the Continental Reformed tradition. While Puritans did not agree on all doctrinal points, most shared similar views on the nature of God , human sinfulness , and the relationship between God and mankind. They believed that all of their beliefs should be based on the Bible , which they considered to be divinely inspired . The concept of covenant

530-539: A large number of followers in Lancashire and Yorkshire, and spinning off other antinomian sects. In 1635 John Webster , curate at Kildwick , was brought before a church court charged with being a Grindletonian. A preacher named Robert Towne carried the Grindletonian message into western Yorkshire and eastern Lancashire in the 1640s, although he himself disavowed the label. The last known Grindletonian died in

636-622: A new English national church. By the late 1630s, Puritans were in alliance with the growing commercial world, with the parliamentary opposition to the royal prerogative , and with the Scottish Presbyterians with whom they had much in common. Consequently, they became a major political force in England and came to power as a result of the First English Civil War (1642–1646). Almost all Puritan clergy left

742-663: A new constitution known as the Instrument of Government , closely modelled on the Heads of Proposals . It made Cromwell Lord Protector for life to undertake "the chief magistracy and the administration of government". He had the power to call and dissolve parliaments but was obliged under the Instrument to seek the majority vote of the Council of State . However, Cromwell's power was also buttressed by his continuing popularity among

848-679: A pardon for all crimes committed during the Civil War and the Interregnum to those who recognized him as the lawful king. On 8 May 1660, the Convention Parliament declared Charles II the lawful successor of Charles I and king. The Convention Parliament then began the transition back to monarchy through the passage of the Restoration Settlement . According to Derek Hirst , outside of politics and religion,

954-692: A reformed episcopacy , presbyterianism , congregationalism , and Erastianism . The membership of the Assembly was strongly weighted towards the Presbyterians, but Oliver Cromwell was a Puritan and an independent Congregationalist Separatist who imposed his doctrines upon them. The Church of England of the Interregnum (1649–60) was run along Presbyterian lines but never became a national Presbyterian church, such as existed in Scotland. England

1060-490: A religious radical and may have introduced some of the basic concepts of the sect. The community may therefore have held some Grindletonian beliefs before Brearley arrived. Brearley, who was the curate at Grindleton from 1615 to 1622, was the main leader of the Grindletonians. John Everard (c. 1584–1641) was a friend of Brearley's and may have influenced him. Brearley had a local following, attracting worshippers from

1166-549: A republic, had been passed on 19 May 1649, following the trial and execution of Charles I in January of that year. All of Ireland came under the same governance after the successful Cromwellian conquest of Ireland with the appointment of a Parliamentary military governor in Dublin. On 20 April 1653, after learning that Parliament was attempting to stay in session despite an agreement to dissolve and having failed to come up with

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1272-632: A result, Puritans were among the most literate societies in the world. By the time of the American Revolution there were 40 newspapers in the United States (at a time when there were only two cities—New York and Philadelphia—with as many as 20,000 people in them). The Puritans also set up a college (now Harvard University ) only six years after arriving in Boston. Christianity • Protestantism Puritanism broadly refers to

1378-444: A royalist uprising, led by Sir John Penruddock , Cromwell, influenced by Lambert, divided England into military districts ruled by Army Major-Generals, who answered only to him. The fifteen major generals and deputy major generals, called "godly governors" were central not only to national security but also to Cromwell's moral crusade. The generals supervised militia forces and security commissions, collected taxes and ensured support for

1484-434: A specific conversion experience normative or necessary, but many gained assurance of salvation from such experiences. Over time, however, Puritan theologians developed a framework for authentic religious experience based on their own experiences as well as those of their parishioners. Eventually, Puritans came to regard a specific conversion experience as an essential mark of one's election. The Puritan conversion experience

1590-496: A speech on 13 April 1657, he made it clear that God's providence had spoken against the office of king: “I would not seek to set up that which Providence hath destroyed and laid in the dust, and I would not build Jericho again". Instead, Cromwell was ceremonially reinstalled as Lord Protector , with greater powers than had previously been granted him under this title, at Westminster Hall . He sat upon King Edward's Chair , which had been specially moved from Westminster Abbey for

1696-619: A time of day at which the house usually had few members in attendance. Those who refused to recognise the motion were forcibly ejected by soldiers. The collapse of the radical consensus that had spawned the Nominated Assembly led to the Grandees passing the Instrument of Government in the Council of State , which paved the way for the Protectorate. After the dissolution of Barebone's Parliament, John Lambert put forward

1802-572: A tyrannical government of the "Sword", in diametric opposition to a "Civil" government with a free parliament. Three things undermined the Protectorate: the "anxieties of the army, the irresponsibility of the Parliament and the rashness of Richard Cromwell". What ultimately prevented the retention of the Protectorate was the opposition of the "junior officers" and "many of the common soldiers". Richard had proved that he could neither manage

1908-491: A uniform reform of the established church was called for to create a godly nation, while others advocated separation from, or the end of, any established state church entirely in favour of autonomous gathered churches , called-out from the world. These Separatist and Independents became more prominent in the 1640s, when the supporters of a presbyterian polity in the Westminster Assembly were unable to forge

2014-648: A working constitution, Cromwell, with the backing of the Grandees in the Army Council , marched soldiers into the debating chamber and forcibly ended the Rump's session. Within a month of the Rump's dismissal, Oliver Cromwell, on the advice of Thomas Harrison and with the support of other officers in the Army, sent a request to Congregational churches in every county to nominate those they considered fit to take part in

2120-456: Is that around 2,400 Puritan clergy left the Church in the " Great Ejection " of 1662. At this point, the term " Dissenter " came to include "Puritan", but more accurately described those (clergy or lay) who "dissented" from the 1662 Book of Common Prayer . The Dissenters divided themselves from all other Christians in the Church of England and established their own Separatist congregations in

2226-656: The Book of Common Prayer , traditional clerical vestments , and episcopal polity . Many English Protestants — especially those former Marian exiles returning to England to work as clergy and bishops — considered the settlement merely the first step in reforming England's church. The years of exile during the Marian Restoration had exposed them to the practices of the Continental Reformed churches . The most impatient clergy began introducing reforms within their local parishes. The initial conflict between Puritans and

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2332-690: The Theologia Germanica . His teachings were antinomian : He thought that the power of God's Spirit alone is sufficient to bring a person to salvation. Grindletonians thought that a true Christian who has the Spirit within them does not sin. The Grindletonians were close to the Familists in their beliefs. They thought the Spirit is privileged over the Letter (meaning the Bible), that anyone who has

2438-472: The Brownists , would split from the established church and become known as Separatists. Other Separatists embraced more radical positions on separation of church and state and believer's baptism , becoming early Baptists . Based on Biblical portrayals of Adam and Eve , Puritans believed that marriage was rooted in procreation, love, and, most importantly, salvation. Husbands were the spiritual heads of

2544-573: The Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland , was the English form of government lasting from 16 December 1653 to 25 May 1659, under which the kingdoms of England , Scotland , and Ireland , with their associated territories were joined together in the Commonwealth of England , governed by a Lord Protector . It began when Barebone's Parliament was dissolved, and the Instrument of Government appointed Oliver Cromwell as Lord Protector of

2650-602: The Humble Petition and Advice , a legislative instrument that replaced the Instrument of Government. Cromwell himself, however, was at pains to minimise his role by describing himself as a constable or watchman. However, Cromwell "had never gained the willing consent of the nation", and the Protectorate relied on armed force. After Oliver's death in September 1658, his third son, Richard Cromwell , succeeded as Lord Protector. The impression of strength and durability of

2756-536: The Reformation of the Church of England but remained within it, advocating for further reform; they disagreed among themselves about how much further reformation was possible or even necessary. Others, who were later termed " Nonconformists ", " Separatists ", or "separating Puritans", thought the Church of England was so corrupt that true Christians should separate from it altogether. In its widest historical sense,

2862-519: The evangelical Protestants of the 18th century. While evangelical views on conversion were heavily influenced by Puritan theology, the Puritans believed that assurance of one's salvation was "rare, late and the fruit of struggle in the experience of believers", whereas evangelicals believed that assurance was normative for all the truly converted. While most Puritans were members of the Church of England, they were critical of its worship practices. In

2968-414: The prelatical party) were conservatives who supported retaining bishops if those leaders supported reform and agreed to share power with local churches. They also supported the idea of having a Book of Common Prayer , but they were against demanding strict conformity or having too much ceremony. In addition, these Puritans called for a renewal of preaching, pastoral care and Christian discipline within

3074-431: The revised Book of Common Prayer . The Puritan movement of Jacobean times became distinctive by adaptation and compromise, with the emergence of "semi-separatism", "moderate puritanism", the writings of William Bradshaw (who adopted the term "Puritan" for himself), and the beginnings of Congregationalism . Most Puritans of this period were non-separating and remained within the Church of England; Separatists who left

3180-413: The vestments controversy , church authorities attempted and failed to enforce the use of clerical vestments. While never a mass movement, the Puritans had the support and protection of powerful patrons in the aristocracy. In the 1570s, the primary dispute between Puritans and the authorities was over the appropriate form of church government. Many Puritans believed that the Church of England should follow

3286-465: The 1640s and the 1650s saw a revived economy characterized by growth in manufacturing, the elaboration of financial and credit instruments and the commercialization of communication. The gentry found time for leisure activities such as horse racing and bowling. In high culture , important innovations included the development of a mass market for music, increased scientific research and an expansion of publishing. All of those trends were discussed in depth at

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3392-520: The 1660s and 1670s. An estimated 1,800 of the ejected clergy continued in some fashion as ministers of religion, according to Richard Baxter . The government initially attempted to suppress these schismatic organisations by using the Clarendon Code . There followed a period in which schemes of "comprehension" were proposed, under which Presbyterians could be brought back into the Church of England, but nothing resulted from them. The Whigs opposed

3498-435: The 1680s. In a sermon preached at Paul's Cross on 11 February 1627, and published under the title The White Wolfe in 1627, Stephen Denison, minister of St. Catherine Cree , charged the "Gringltonian [ sic ] familists " with adhering nine points of antinomian tendency. These nine points are repeated from Denison by Pagitt (1645), and glanced at by Ross (1655). Some of Brearley's ideas were probably drawn from

3604-620: The 17th century, Sunday worship in the established church took the form of the Morning Prayer service in the Book of Common Prayer . This may include a sermon, but Holy Communion or the Lord's Supper was only occasionally observed. Officially, lay people were only required to receive communion three times a year, but most people only received communion once a year at Easter. Puritans were concerned about biblical errors and Catholic remnants within

3710-680: The Catholic veneration of virginity (associated with the Virgin Mary), citing Edward Taylor and John Cotton . One Puritan settlement in western Massachusetts banished a husband because he refused to fulfill his sexual duties to his wife. Puritanism had a historical importance over a period of a century, followed by fifty years of development in New England. It changed character and emphasis nearly decade by decade over that time. The Elizabethan Religious Settlement of 1559 established

3816-690: The Church of England after the restoration of the monarchy in 1660 and the Act of Uniformity 1662 . Many continued to practise their faith in nonconformist denominations, especially in Congregationalist and Presbyterian churches. The nature of the Puritan movement in England changed radically. In New England, it retained its character for a longer period . Puritanism was never a formally defined religious division within Protestantism, and

3922-402: The Church of England altogether were numerically much fewer. The Puritan movement in England was riven over decades by emigration and inconsistent interpretations of Scripture, as well as some political differences that surfaced at that time. The Fifth Monarchy Men , a radical millenarian wing of Puritanism, aided by strident, popular clergy like Vavasor Powell , agitated from the right wing of

4028-485: The Church of England as a Protestant church and brought the English Reformation to a close. During the reign of Elizabeth I (r. 1558–1603), the Church of England was widely considered a Reformed church, and Calvinists held the best bishoprics and deaneries . Nevertheless, it preserved certain characteristics of medieval Catholicism , such as cathedrals, church choirs , a formal liturgy contained in

4134-436: The Church of England for allowing unrepentant sinners to receive communion. Puritans wanted better spiritual preparation (such as clergy home visits and testing people on their knowledge of the catechism) for communion and better church discipline to ensure that the unworthy were kept from the sacrament. Puritans did not believe confirmation was necessary and thought candidates were poorly prepared since bishops did not have

4240-483: The Church of England had not been fully reformed and should become more Protestant. Puritanism played a significant role in English and early American history, especially in the Protectorate in Great Britain, and the earlier settlement of New England . Puritans were dissatisfied with the limited extent of the English Reformation and with the Church of England's toleration of certain practices associated with

4346-409: The Church of England. Like the episcopalians, the presbyterians agreed that there should be a national church but one structured on the model of the Church of Scotland . They wanted to replace bishops with a system of elective and representative governing bodies of clergy and laity (local sessions , presbyteries , synods , and ultimately a national general assembly ). During the Interregnum ,

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4452-687: The Civil War period, such as when an axe was taken to the organ of Worcester Cathedral in 1642. While the Puritans were united in their goal of furthering the English Reformation, they were always divided over issues of ecclesiology and church polity, specifically questions relating to the manner of organizing congregations, how individual congregations should relate with one another and whether established national churches were scriptural. On these questions, Puritans divided between supporters of episcopal polity , presbyterian polity and congregational polity . The episcopalians (known as

4558-775: The Commonwealth. Cromwell died in September 1658 and was succeeded by his son Richard Cromwell . Richard resigned in May 1659 due to his inability to control either the Army or Parliament . He was replaced by the English Committee of Safety , which dissolved the Third Protectorate Parliament , and reseated the Rump Parliament dismissed by his father in April 1653. This marked the end of

4664-607: The Council of State issued an "Ordinance for uniting Scotland into one Commonwealth with England", which would be called the "Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland". This remained the legal basis of the union until the Ordinance became an Act of Union under the Second Protectorate Parliament on 26 June 1657. Initially, the country was run by eight English commissioners. In 1655 Lord Broghill

4770-688: The English Parliament and the deputies of Scotland's shires and burghs began to formalise the incorporation of Scottish legal and political structures into the new British state. Under the terms of the Tender of Union , a declaration of the English Parliament proclaimed in Scotland in 1652, the Scottish Parliament was permanently dissolved and Scotland was given 30 seats in the Westminster Parliament. In 1654,

4876-523: The New England colonies (around 700,000 by 1790) was almost entirely due to the high birth rate and lower death rate per year. They had formed families more rapidly than did the southern colonies. Puritan hegemony lasted for at least a century. That century can be broken down into three parts: the generation of John Cotton and Richard Mather , 1630–62 from the founding to the Restoration, years of virtual independence and nearly autonomous development;

4982-475: The Parliament nor control the army. On 7 May, a Committee of Safety was formed on the authority of the Rump Parliament , displacing the Protector's Council of State, and was in turn replaced by a new Council of State on 19 May 1659. "Richard was never formally deposed or arrested, but allowed to fade away. The Protectorate was treated as having been from the first a mere usurpation". After Richard Cromwell

5088-481: The Protectorate when Richard succeeded proved deceptive; the lack of unity would destroy the Protectorate. Richard sought to expand the basis for the Protectorate beyond the army to civilians. He summoned a Parliament in 1659, but the republicans engaged in "endless obstruction and filibustering", attacked the "quasi-monarchal" aspects of the Protectorate and "condemned Oliver's rule as a period of tyranny and economic depression". Both father and son were seen as leading

5194-548: The Protectorate, with the Rump acting as the legislature and the English Council of State as the executive . Since 1649 until the Protectorate, England, Ireland and later Scotland had been governed as a republic by the Council of State and the Rump Parliament . The Act declaring England to be a Commonwealth , which established England, together with " all the Dominions and Territoryes thereunto belonging ", as

5300-439: The Puritans "liberated men from the treadmill of indulgences and penances , but cast them on the iron couch of introspection". It was expected that conversion would be followed by sanctification —"the progressive growth in the saint's ability to better perceive and seek God's will, and thus to lead a holy life". Some Puritans attempted to find assurance of their faith by keeping detailed records of their behavior and looking for

5406-457: The Puritans stressed "that Christ comes down to us in the sacrament by His Word and Spirit, offering Himself as our spiritual food and drink". They criticised the prayer book service for being too similar to the Catholic mass. For example, the requirement that people kneel to receive communion implied adoration of the Eucharist , a practice linked to transubstantiation. Puritans also criticised

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5512-512: The Roman Catholic Church. They formed and identified with various religious groups advocating greater purity of worship and doctrine , as well as personal and corporate piety . Puritans adopted a covenant theology , and in that sense they were Calvinists (as were many of their earlier opponents). In church polity, Puritans were divided between supporters of episcopal , presbyterian , and congregational polities. Some believed

5618-515: The Settlement of Ireland 1652 which directed that large numbers of the Irish population be executed and that most Catholic property owners should lose their lands and be made to relocate to the west of the country. The English army of occupation stood at 9,000 in 1657, although it had been reduced significantly from its 1649 complement of 35,000. The Instrument of Government specified that Ireland

5724-690: The Spanish colonies in the Caribbean and resulted in the invasion of Jamaica , which then became an English colony. The Lord Protector became aware of the contribution the Jewish community made to the economic success of the Netherlands, now England's leading commercial rival. Allied to Cromwell's toleration of private worship of non-Puritans, that led to his encouragement of Jews to return to England , 350 years after their banishment by Edward I , in

5830-449: The United States was not descended from all of the original colonists, since many returned to England shortly after arriving on the continent, but it produced more than 16 million descendants. This so-called "Great Migration" is not so named because of sheer numbers, which were much less than the number of English citizens who immigrated to Virginia and the Caribbean during this time, many as indentured servants. The rapid growth of

5936-452: The army, which he had built up during the civil wars and subsequently prudently guarded. Cromwell was sworn in as Lord Protector on 16 December 1653. The First Protectorate Parliament met on 3 September 1654, and after some initial gestures approving appointments previously made by Cromwell, began to work on a moderate programme of constitutional reform. Rather than opposing Parliament's bill, Cromwell dissolved it on 22 January 1655. After

6042-491: The authorities included instances of nonconformity, such as omitting parts of the liturgy to allow more time for the sermon and singing of metrical psalms . Some Puritans refused to bow on hearing the name of Jesus, or to make the sign of the cross in baptism, or to use wedding rings or the organ. Yet, the main complaint Puritans had was the requirement that clergy wear the white surplice and clerical cap . Puritan clergymen preferred to wear black academic attire . During

6148-779: The church government to be God's agency in social life. The Puritans in the Colonies wanted their children to be able to read and interpret the Bible themselves, rather than have to rely on the clergy for interpretation. In 1635, they established the Boston Latin School to educate their sons, the first and oldest formal education institution in the English-speaking New World. They also set up what were called dame schools for their daughters, and in other cases taught their daughters at home how to read. As

6254-673: The country and adopted a more conciliatory approach to the country's administration. During this period, Oliver Cromwell also faced challenges in foreign policy. The First Anglo-Dutch War , which had broken out in 1652, against the Dutch Republic , was eventually won by Admiral Robert Blake in 1654. Having negotiated peace with the Dutch, Cromwell then proceeded to engage the Spanish Empire in warfare through his Western Design . That involved secret preparations for an attack on

6360-406: The court religious policies and argued that the Dissenters should be allowed to worship separately from the established Church. This position ultimately prevailed when the Toleration Act was passed in the wake of the Glorious Revolution in 1689. This permitted the licensing of Dissenting ministers and the building of chapels. The term " Nonconformist " generally replaced the term "Dissenter" from

6466-466: The cross made possible the covenant of grace, by which those selected by God could be saved. Puritans believed in unconditional election and irresistible grace —God's grace was given freely without condition to the elect and could not be refused. Covenant theology made individual salvation deeply personal. It held that God's predestination was not "impersonal and mechanical" but was a "covenant of grace" that one entered into by faith . Therefore, being

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6572-405: The doctrines of the Church of England , mother Church of the Anglican Communion . In the 17th century, the word Puritan was a term applied not to just one group but to many. Historians still debate a precise definition of Puritanism. Originally, Puritan was a pejorative term characterizing certain Protestant groups as extremist. Thomas Fuller , in his Church History , dates the first use of

6678-410: The effect of baptism was disputed. Puritans objected to the prayer book's assertion of baptismal regeneration . In Puritan theology, infant baptism was understood in terms of covenant theology—baptism replaced circumcision as a sign of the covenant and marked a child's admission into the visible church . It could not be assumed that baptism produces regeneration. The Westminster Confession states that

6784-760: The evidence of salvation in their lives. Puritan clergy wrote many spiritual guides to help their parishioners pursue personal piety and sanctification. These included Arthur Dent's The Plain Man's Pathway to Heaven (1601), Richard Rogers's Seven Treatises (1603), Henry Scudder's Christian's Daily Walk (1627) and Richard Sibbes's The Bruised Reed and Smoking Flax (1630). Too much emphasis on one's good works could be criticized for being too close to Arminianism , and too much emphasis on subjective religious experience could be criticized as Antinomianism . Many Puritans relied on both personal religious experience and self-examination to assess their spiritual condition. Puritanism's experiential piety would be inherited by

6890-526: The example of Reformed churches in other parts of Europe and adopt presbyterian polity , under which government by bishops would be replaced with government by elders . But all attempts to enact further reforms through Parliament were blocked by the Queen. Despite such setbacks, Puritan leaders such as John Field and Thomas Cartwright continued to promote presbyterianism through the formation of unofficial clerical conferences that allowed Puritan clergymen to organise and network. This covert Puritan network

6996-438: The generation of Increase Mather , 1662–89 from the Restoration and the Halfway Covenant to the Glorious Revolution, years of struggle with the British crown; and the generation of Cotton Mather , 1689–1728 from the overthrow of Edmund Andros (in which Cotton Mather played a part) and the new charter, mediated by Increase Mather, to the death of Cotton Mather. Puritan leaders were political thinkers and writers who considered

7102-485: The government in the English provinces and in Wales. Commissioners for securing the peace of the commonwealth were appointed to work with them in every county. While a few of the commissioners were career politicians, most were zealous Puritans who welcomed the major-generals, with open arms and embraced their work with enthusiasm. However, the major-generals lasted less than a year. Many feared that they threatened their reform efforts and authority. The major-generals' position

7208-559: The grace of baptism is only effective for those who are among the elect, and its effects lie dormant until one experiences conversion later in life. Puritans wanted to do away with godparents , who made baptismal vows on behalf of infants, and give that responsibility to the child's father. Puritans also objected to priests making the sign of the cross in baptism. Private baptisms were opposed because Puritans believed that preaching should always accompany sacraments. Some Puritan clergy even refused to baptise dying infants because that implied

7314-416: The hope that they would help speed up the recovery of the country after the disruption of the Civil Wars. In 1655 a crypto-Jew known as Simón de Casseres proposed to Cromwell a plan to take over Spanish-rule Chile with only four ships and a thousand men. However English plans to engage in Chile came into fruition only in 1669, with John Narborough's expedition . After the Battle of the Dunes (1658) ,

7420-466: The household, while women were to demonstrate religious piety and obedience under male authority. Furthermore, marriage represented not only the relationship between husband and wife, but also the relationship between spouses and God. Puritan husbands commanded authority through family direction and prayer. The female relationship to her husband and to God was marked by submissiveness and humility. The Protectorate The Protectorate , officially

7526-404: The inner light is qualified to preach, whether ordained or not, and that a person could live without sin and attain Heaven on Earth. Grindleton stands at the foot of Pendle Hill , where George Fox (1624–1691), the founder of Quakerism , received the visions that convinced him to launch his sect. A number of other unorthodox sects arose in the region around the same time. It is possible that Fox

7632-405: The liturgy to allow more time for preaching. Puritan churchgoers attended two sermons on Sundays and as many weekday sermons and lectures they could find, often traveling for miles. Puritans were distinct for their adherence to Sabbatarianism . Puritans taught that there were two sacraments : baptism and the Lord's Supper. Puritans agreed with the church's practice of infant baptism . However,

7738-619: The middle of the 18th century. Some Puritans left for New England , particularly from 1629 to 1640 (the Eleven Years' Tyranny under King Charles I ), supporting the founding of the Massachusetts Bay Colony and other settlements among the northern colonies. The large-scale Puritan migration to New England ceased by 1641, with around 21,000 persons having moved across the Atlantic. This English-speaking population in

7844-557: The movement, even as sectarian groups like the Ranters , Levellers , and Quakers pulled from the left. The fragmentation created a collapse of the centre and, ultimately, sealed a political failure, while depositing an enduring spiritual legacy that would remain and grow in English-speaking Christianity. The Westminster Assembly was called in 1643, assembling clergy of the Church of England. The Assembly

7950-1017: The nearby parish of Giggleswick , but became more widely known after the proceedings against him. He was brought before the High Commission of the Archdiocese of York in October 1616 to answer charges that he was a radical nonconformist, that he relied on the motion of the spirit and that he thought that all doubt about salvation could be removed from believers. He was also asked to reject fifty erroneous beliefs that he and his followers allegedly held. Brearley seems to have renounced his views and to have promised to conform in future, presumably in order to escape punishment. Brearley left Grindleton in 1634 to teach at Kildwick , twenty miles away. His successor as curate at Grindleton, John Webster (1610-1683), taught ideas similar to Brearley's, and Grindletonianism continued to grow between 1615 and 1640, gaining

8056-416: The new government. On 4 July a Nominated Assembly, nicknamed the "Assembly of Saints" or Barebone's Parliament after one of its members, took on the role of more traditional English Parliaments. However, it proved just as difficult for the Grandees to control and was in addition a subject of popular ridicule and so on 8 December, MPs who supported Cromwell engineered its end by passing a dissolution motion at

8162-486: The occasion. The event in part echoed a coronation by using many of its symbols and regalia, such as a purple ermine-lined robe, a sword of justice, a sceptre and an ermine-lined coronet but not a crown or an orb. However, a crown and an orb were present on the lord protector's seal. However, most notably, the office of Lord Protector was still not to become hereditary though Cromwell was now able to nominate his own successor. Cromwell's new rights and powers were laid out in

8268-420: The prayer book. Puritans objected to bowing at the name of Jesus, the requirement that priests wear the surplice , and the use of written, set prayers in place of improvised prayers. The sermon was central to Puritan piety. It was not only a means of religious education; Puritans believed it was the most common way that God prepared a sinner's heart for conversion. On Sundays, Puritan ministers often shortened

8374-480: The presbyterians had limited success at reorganizing the Church of England. The Westminster Assembly proposed the creation of a presbyterian system, but the Long Parliament left implementation to local authorities. As a result, the Church of England never developed a complete presbyterian hierarchy. Congregationalists or Independents believed in the autonomy of the local church, which ideally would be

8480-446: The recent conquest of those countries with armies of occupation; punish those who had opposed the English conquest; reshape both countries in the image of England. Barry Coward observed that "While there were reforming aspirations and coercion in the Protectorate's British policies, these can hardly said to amount to a 'British vision' designed to create a new British state from the separate kingdoms of England, Ireland and Scotland. What

8586-635: The regime seems to have intended was the anglicisation of the British Isles". Following the defeat of the Scottish army in the Anglo-Scottish war of 1650 to 1652 the Scottish government was dissolved and the English Parliament absorbed the kingdom of Scotland into the Commonwealth. Military rule was imposed, with 10,000 English troops garrisoned across the country to quell the threat of local uprisings. Negotiations between commissioners of

8692-478: The sacrament contributed to salvation. Puritans rejected both Roman Catholic ( transubstantiation ) and Lutheran ( sacramental union ) teachings that Christ is physically present in the bread and wine of the Lord's Supper. Instead, Puritans embraced the Reformed doctrine of real spiritual presence , believing that in the Lord's Supper the faithful receive Christ spiritually. In agreement with Thomas Cranmer ,

8798-471: The sacraments would only be administered to those in the church covenant. Most congregational Puritans remained within the Church of England, hoping to reform it according to their own views. The New England Congregationalists were also adamant that they were not separating from the Church of England. However, some Puritans equated the Church of England with the Roman Catholic Church, and therefore considered it no Christian church at all. These groups, such as

8904-427: The teachings of four prominent Puritan leaders, including Laurence Chaderton , but largely sided with his bishops. He was well informed on theological matters by his education and Scottish upbringing, and he dealt shortly with the peevish legacy of Elizabethan Puritanism, pursuing an eirenic religious policy, in which he was arbiter. Many of James's episcopal appointments were Calvinists, notably James Montague , who

9010-569: The term Puritan includes both groups. Puritans should not be confused with other radical Protestant groups of the 16th and 17th centuries, such as Quakers , Seekers , and Familists , who believed that individuals could be directly guided by the Holy Spirit . The latter denominations give precedence to direct revelation over the Bible . In current English, puritan often means "against pleasure". In such usage, hedonism and puritanism are antonyms . William Shakespeare described

9116-644: The term Puritan itself was rarely used after the turn of the 18th century. The Congregationalist Churches , widely considered to be a part of the Reformed tradition of Christianity, are descended from the Puritans. Moreover, Puritan beliefs are enshrined in the Savoy Declaration , the confession of faith held by the Congregationalist churches. Some Puritan ideals, including the formal rejection of Roman Catholicism, were incorporated into

9222-477: The time to examine them properly. The marriage service was criticised for using a wedding ring (which implied that marriage was a sacrament) and having the groom vow to his bride "with my body I thee worship", which Puritans considered blasphemous . In the funeral service, the priest committed the body to the ground "in sure and certain hope of resurrection to eternal life, through our Lord Jesus Christ." Puritans objected to this phrase because they did not believe it

9328-442: The town of Dunkirk was awarded by France to the Protectorate. It would be sold back to France by Charles II in 1662. In 1657, Oliver Cromwell was offered the crown by Parliament as part of a revised constitutional settlement. That presented him with a dilemma since he had been instrumental in abolishing the monarchy. Cromwell agonised for six weeks over the offer. He was attracted by the prospect of stability that it held out, but in

9434-519: The vain, pompous killjoy Malvolio in Twelfth Night as "a kind of Puritan". H. L. Mencken defined Puritanism as "the haunting fear that someone, somewhere, may be happy." Puritans embraced sexuality but placed it in the context of marriage. Peter Gay writes that the Puritans' standard reputation for "dour prudery" was a "misreading that went unquestioned in the nineteenth century". He said they were in favour of married sexuality, and opposed

9540-509: The word to 1564. Archbishop Matthew Parker of that time used it and precisian with a sense similar to the modern stickler . Puritans, then, were distinguished for being "more intensely protestant than their protestant neighbors or even the Church of England". As a term of abuse, Puritan was not used by Puritans themselves. Those referred to as Puritan called themselves terms such as "the godly", "saints", "professors", or "God's children". "Non-separating Puritans" were dissatisfied with

9646-585: The wounds of the 1640s and deepened antipathies to the regime. By the end of 1653, the Protectorate was in the unique position of being the first government in history to be in control of the entirety of the British Isles. The scope of the Instrument of Government extended to the governance of Scotland and Ireland; it provided for representatives from Scotland and Ireland, as well as England and Wales, to sit in Parliament in London. The regime's policy towards Ireland and Scotland initially had three components: secure

9752-688: Was able to agree to the Westminster Confession of Faith doctrinally, a consistent Reformed theological position. The Directory of Public Worship was made official in 1645, and the larger framework (now called the Westminster Standards ) was adopted by the Church of Scotland . In England, the Standards were contested by Independents up to 1660. The Westminster Divines , on the other hand, were divided over questions of church polity and split into factions supporting

9858-614: Was an influential courtier. Puritans still opposed much of the Roman Catholic summation in the Church of England, notably the Book of Common Prayer , but also the use of non-secular vestments (cap and gown) during services, the sign of the Cross in baptism, and kneeling to receive Holy Communion. Some of the bishops under both Elizabeth and James tried to suppress Puritanism, though other bishops were more tolerant. In many places, individual ministers were able to omit disliked portions of

9964-466: Was appointed as President of a new Council for Scotland which was part of an attempt to recast the government along civilian lines and to begin to win over the major landholders to the regime. The council was made up of six Englishmen and two Scots. With the completion of the brutal Cromwellian conquest of Ireland in 1653, the Protectorate implemented the Rump Parliament's draconian Act for

10070-426: Was commonly described as occurring in discrete phases. It began with a preparatory phase designed to produce contrition for sin through introspection, Bible study and listening to preaching . This was followed by humiliation, when the sinner realized that he or she was helpless to break free from sin and that their good works could never earn forgiveness. It was after reaching this point—the realization that salvation

10176-641: Was discovered and dismantled during the Marprelate controversy of the 1580s. For the remainder of Elizabeth's reign, Puritans ceased to agitate for further reform. The accession of James I to the English throne brought the Millenary Petition , a Puritan manifesto of 1603 for reform of the English church, but James wanted a religious settlement along different lines. He called the Hampton Court Conference in 1604, and heard

10282-458: Was entitled to 30 seats in the Parliament in London, the same number as Scotland. Initially, the country was ruled on behalf of the Protectorate by Cromwell's son-in-law, Charles Fleetwood , a military governor with the title Lord Deputy of Ireland , and a group of hard line radical parliamentary commissioners. As in Scotland, a more moderate policy was adopted in 1655. In that year, Cromwell sent his son, Henry , to Ireland who assumed control over

10388-533: Was extremely important to Puritans, and covenant theology was central to their beliefs. With roots in the writings of Reformed theologians John Calvin and Heinrich Bullinger , covenant theology was further developed by Puritan theologians Dudley Fenner , William Perkins , John Preston , Richard Sibbes , William Ames and, most fully by Ames's Dutch student, Johannes Cocceius . Covenant theology asserts that when God created Adam and Eve he promised them eternal life in return for perfect obedience; this promise

10494-435: Was further harmed by a tax proposal by Major General John Desborough to provide financial backing for their work, which the Second Protectorate Parliament , instated in September 1656, voted down for fear of a permanent military state. Ultimately, however, Cromwell's failure to support his men by sacrificing them to his opponents caused their demise. Their activities between November 1655 and September 1656 had, however, reopened

10600-480: Was influenced by Grindletonian thinking. The Quakers Francis Howgill (1618-69) and John Camm (1605-1657) were Grindletonians who became Seekers and then Quakers. Antinomianism or Grindletonianism may also have had an influence on Anne Hutchinson (1591-1643). Puritan The Puritans were English Protestants in the 16th and 17th centuries who sought to rid the Church of England of what they considered to be Roman Catholic practices, maintaining that

10706-642: Was not the theocratic state which leading Puritans had called for as "godly rule". At the time of the English Restoration in 1660, the Savoy Conference was called to determine a new religious settlement for England and Wales. Under the Act of Uniformity 1662 , the Church of England was restored to its pre- Civil War constitution with only minor changes, and the Puritans found themselves sidelined. A traditional estimate of historian Calamy

10812-442: Was possible only because of divine mercy —that the person would experience justification , when the righteousness of Christ is imputed to the elect and their minds and hearts are regenerated. For some Puritans, this was a dramatic experience and they referred to it as being born again . Confirming that such a conversion had actually happened often required prolonged and continual introspection. Historian Perry Miller wrote that

10918-610: Was removed from power by the Grandees of the New Army, the Rump Parliament was instated and soon after was replaced by the Committee of Safety and Council of State under the authority of Charles Fleetwood . The Committee of Safety then ordered General John Lambert to meet George Monck , the commander of English forces in Scotland and a royalist sympathizer, to force Monck's submission or defeat. Monck instead marched south. As Lambert's army marched north, his ranks began to dwindle and he

11024-653: Was termed the covenant of works . After the fall of man , human nature was corrupted by original sin and unable to fulfill the covenant of works, since each person inevitably violated God's law as expressed in the Ten Commandments . As sinners, every person deserved damnation . Puritans shared with other Calvinists a belief in double predestination , that some people (the elect ) were destined by God to receive grace and salvation while others were destined for Hell . No one, however, could merit salvation. According to covenant theology, Christ's sacrifice on

11130-504: Was true for everyone. They suggested it be rewritten as "we commit his body [etc.] believing a resurrection of the just and unjust, some to joy, and some to punishment." Puritans eliminated choral music and musical instruments in their religious services because these were associated with Roman Catholicism; however, singing the Psalms was considered appropriate (see Exclusive psalmody ). Church organs were commonly damaged or destroyed in

11236-611: Was ultimately forced to retreat back to London. When Monck reached London he allowed Presbyterian members, who had been removed by Pride's Purge , to re-enter Parliament on 21 February 1660. On 16 March 1660, the Long Parliament dissolved itself after preparations were made for the Convention Parliament of 1660 to succeed it. On 4 April 1660, Charles II proclaimed the Declaration of Breda , which granted

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