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147-468: The origins of Grodzisk Mazowiecki can be traced back to the 12th century when medieval village Grodzisk was founded. This settlement was built on the outskirts of the Jaktorowska Forest and its remains are a part of the existing town area. In 1355 the first known owner of the settlement Tomasz Grodzinski founded a church which was later destroyed by fire (1441). In 15th century Grodzisk remained

294-526: A Franco-Hungarian alliance with King John Zápolya in 1528. After the death of Janusz III of Masovia in 1526, Sigismund succeeded in uniting the Duchy of Masovia and Warsaw with the Kingdom of Poland. There was speculation whether Janusz and his younger brother Stanisław were poisoned by a subject of Queen Bona. The accusations were so pervasive and rampant that Sigismund ordered an investigation, as

441-503: A litter . However, despite his age, Sigismund was of sound mind throughout and remained active in politics until death. In 1543, he recovered from an influenza which spread in Kraków and in 1545 he enjoyed a last hunting excursion to Niepołomice. Sigismund died on 1 April 1548, Easter day at the age of 81 and was buried on 7 July at Wawel Cathedral in Kraków. He was succeeded by his only legitimate son, Sigismund II Augustus , who became

588-489: A Hungarian noblewoman, with whom he had two daughters: In 1517, Sigismund married Bona Sforza , with whom he had two sons and four daughters: By his mistress , Katarzyna Telniczanka (d. 1528), he also fathered three children prior to his first marriage: Hasidic Judaism Hasidism ( Hebrew : חסידות , romanized :  Ḥăsīdus ) or Hasidic Judaism is a religious movement within Judaism that arose in

735-594: A blend of Ashkenazi and Sephardi liturgies, based on the innovations of Rabbi Isaac Luria . Many dynasties have their own specific adaptation of Nusach Sefard; some, such as the versions of the Belzer, Bobover, and Dushinsky Hasidim, are closer to Nusach Ashkenaz, while others, such as the Munkacz version, are closer to the old Lurianic. Many sects believe that their version reflects Luria's mystical devotions best. The Baal Shem Tov added two segments to Friday services on

882-490: A body of ideas has failed". Even motifs presented by scholars in the past as unique Hasidic contributions were later revealed to have been common among both their predecessors and opponents, all the more so regarding many other traits that are widely extant – these play, Dan added, "a prominent role in modern non-Hasidic and anti-Hasidic writings as well". The difficulty of separating the movement's philosophy from that of its main inspiration, Lurianic Kabbalah, and determining what

1029-908: A cause for tension. Notable feuds between "courts" include the 1926–1934 strife after Chaim Elazar Spira of Munkatch cursed the deceased Yissachar Dov Rokeach I of Belz; the 1980–2012 Satmar-Belz collision after Yissachar Dov Rokeach II broke with the Orthodox Council of Jerusalem , which culminated when he had to travel in a bulletproof car; and the 2006–present Satmar succession dispute between brothers Aaron Teitelbaum and Zalman Teitelbaum , which saw mass riots. As in other Haredi groups, apostates may face threats, hostility, violence, and various punitive measures, among them separation of children from their disaffiliated parents, especially in divorce cases. Due to their strictly religious education and traditionalist upbringing, many who leave their sects have few viable work skills or even command of

1176-576: A charismatic-populist line, centered on the admiration of the masses for the Righteous, his effervescent style of prayer and conduct and his purported miracle-working capabilities. Fewer still retain a high proportion of the mystical-spiritualist themes of early Hasidism, and encourage members to study much kabbalistic literature and (carefully) engage in the field. The various Ziditchover dynasties mostly adhere to this philosophy. Others still focus on contemplation and achieving inner perfection. No dynasty

1323-594: A clear, if not implicit, antinomian edge, possibly equating sacred rituals mandated by Judaism with everyday activities, granting them the same status in the believer's eyes and having him content to commit the latter at the expense of the former. While at some occasions the movement did appear to step at that direction – for example, in its early days, prayer and preparation for it consumed so much time that adherents were blamed of neglecting sufficient Torah study – Hasidic masters proved highly conservative. Unlike in other, more radical sects influenced by kabbalistic ideas, like

1470-436: A complex philosophic system which presented a dialectic nature in history, arguing that great progress had to be preceded by crisis and calamity. The Hasidic community is organized in a sect known as "court" ( Hebrew : חצר , romanized :  chatzer ; Yiddish : הויף , romanized :  Hoif ; from German Hof/Gerichtshof ). In the early days of the movement, a particular Rebbe's following usually resided in

1617-571: A contemporary 200- złoty banknote. Sigismund was married twice, first to noblewoman Barbara Zápolya from Hungary and then to Bona Sforza, the daughter of Gian Galeazzo Sforza , Duke of Milan . Their only son and the last Jagiellon king, Sigismund Augustus, was co-crowned vivente rege in 1529 and formally assumed throne when Sigismund the Old died in 1548. Sigismund was the son of King Casimir IV Jagiellon and Elisabeth Habsburg of Austria . He followed his brothers John Albert and Alexander to

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1764-459: A dynasty of Rebbes – as it is a religious one. There are several "courts" with many thousands of member households each, and hundreds of smaller ones. As of 2016 , there were over 130,000 Hasidic households worldwide, about 5% of the global Jewish population. The terms hasid and hasidut , meaning "pietist" and "piety", have a long history in Judaism. The Talmud and other old sources refer to

1911-540: A fence around the property. Plans to build the residential complex were originally halted in 2014 when residents of the nearby Jewish community of Warsaw, as well as activist Robert Augustyniak , protested the plan. Sigismund I the Old Sigismund I the Old ( Polish : Zygmunt I Stary , Lithuanian : Žygimantas I Senasis ; 1 January 1467 – 1 April 1548) was King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania from 1506 until his death in 1548. Sigismund I

2058-707: A few decades challenge the rabbinic establishment, which relied on the authority of Torah acumen, but affirmed the centrality of study very soon. Concurrently, the image of its Opponents as dreary intellectuals who lacked spiritual fervour and opposed mysticism is likewise unfounded. Neither did Hasidism, often portrayed as promoting healthy sensuality, unanimously reject the asceticism and self-mortification associated primarily with its rivals. Joseph Dan ascribed all these perceptions to so-called " Neo-Hasidic " writers and thinkers, like Martin Buber . In their attempt to build new models of spirituality for modern Jews, they propagated

2205-605: A folk tale. In 1522, a truce was signed between Lithuania and Muscovy which extended until 1534. In 1534, when Grand Hetman Jerzy Radziwiłł and the Tatars pillaged western Russia, the Muscovites in retaliation invaded Lithuania once more. They were eventually stopped by Polish commander Jan Amor Tarnowski and allies at Starodub in 1535. Their defeat strengthened the Polish-Lithuanian union's eastern flank until

2352-459: A full-fledged social movement." In Hasidic discourse, the willingness of the leader to sacrifice the ecstasy and fulfillment of unity in God was deemed a heavy sacrifice undertaken for the benefit of the congregation. His followers were to sustain and especially to obey him, as he possessed superior knowledge and insight gained through communion. The "descent of the Righteous" ( Yeridat ha-Tzaddiq ) into

2499-472: A major factor in the economics of most "courts", is the Pidyon , "Ransom", better known by its Yiddish name Kvitel , "little note": Adherents submit a written petition, which the master may assist with on behalf of his sanctity, adding a sum of money for either charity or the leader's needs. Occasions in the "court" serve as pretext for mass gatherings, flaunting the power, wealth and size of each. Weddings of

2646-473: A mystical bridge, drawing down effluence and elevating the prayers and petitions of his admirers. The Saintly forged a well-defined relationship with the masses: they provided the latter with inspiration, were consulted in all matters, and were expected to intercede on behalf of their adherents with God and ensure they gained financial prosperity, health and male offspring. The pattern still characterizes Hasidic sects, though prolonged routinization in many turned

2793-570: A result of which a special edict was declared on 9 February 1528 confirming that the Masovian princes died naturally or due to related illness. According to chronicler Jan Długosz , the real cause of the death of both princes could have been inherited tuberculosis . In other matters of policy, Sigismund sought peaceful coexistence with the Khanate of Crimea , but was unable to completely end border skirmishes . Over two centuries of wars against

2940-410: A romantic, sentimental image of the movement. The "Neo-Hasidic" interpretation influenced even scholarly discourse to a great degree, but had a tenuous connection with reality. A further complication is the divide between what researchers term "early Hasidism", which ended roughly in the 1810s, and established Hasidism since then onwards. While the former was a highly dynamic religious revival movement,

3087-773: A similarly long, black jacket, but of satin fabric traditionally silk. Indoors, the colorful tish bekishe is still worn. Some Hasidim wear a satin overcoat, known as rezhvolke . Most Hasidim do not wear neckties. On the Sabbath , the Hasidic Rebbes traditionally wore a white bekishe. This practice has fallen into disuse among most. Many of them wear a black silk bekishe that is trimmed with velvet, known as stro-kes or samet , and in Hungarian ones, gold-embroidered. Various symbolic and religious qualities are attributed to Hasidic dress, though they are mainly apocryphal, and

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3234-517: A sufficient spiritual level and could be certain evil thoughts did not derive from his animalistic soul, then sudden urges to transgress revealed Law were God-inspired and may be pursued. This volatile, potentially antinomian doctrine of "Transgression for the Sake of Heaven" is found also in other Hasidic writings, especially from the early period. His successors de-emphasized it in their commentaries. Leiner's disciple Zadok HaKohen of Lublin also developed

3381-504: A title for an instructor in Chabad and Breslov only, the institutionalized nature of the established "courts" led many adherents to seek guidance and inspiration from persons who did not declare themselves new leaders, but only Mashpi'im . Technically, they fill the original role of Rebbes in providing for spiritual welfare; yet, they do not usurp the title, and are therefore countenanced. Most Hasidim use some variation of Nusach Sefard ,

3528-522: A well-organized sect. Among the traits particularly associated with Hasidism in common understanding which are in fact widespread, is the importance of joy and happiness at worship and religious life – though the sect undoubtedly stressed this aspect and still possesses a clear populist bent. Another example is the value placed on the simple, ordinary Jew in supposed contradiction with the favouring of elitist scholars beforehand; such ideas are common in ethical works far preceding Hasidism. The movement did for

3675-590: A wig and a hat. Hasidic Jews, like many other Orthodox Jews, typically produce large families; the average Hasidic family in the United States has 8 children. This is followed out of a desire to fulfill the Biblical mandate to " be fruitful and multiply ". Most Hasidim speak the language of their countries of residence but use Yiddish among themselves as a way of remaining distinct and preserving tradition. Thus, children are still learning Yiddish today, and

3822-540: Is Wawel Castle in Kraków, the seat of Polish monarchs as well as one of the largest castles in Central Europe. Situated on a hill overlooking Old Town , the fortified residence was extensively reconstructed in the Renaissance style and to the personal needs of the royal family. The Italian cloistered courtyard in the shape of a quadrangle , corridors, archways and portals were designed by Fiorentino with

3969-434: Is a popularization of it. Teachings emphasize God's immanence in the universe, the need to cleave and be one with Him at all times, the devotional aspect of religious practice, and the spiritual dimension of corporeality and mundane acts. Hasidim , the adherents of Hasidism, are organized in independent sects known as "courts" or dynasties , each headed by its own hereditary male leader, a Rebbe . Reverence and submission to

4116-606: Is a sub-group within Haredi Judaism and is noted for its religious conservatism and social seclusion. Its members adhere closely both to Orthodox Jewish practice – with the movement's own unique emphases – and the traditions of Eastern European Jews. Many of the latter, including various special styles of dress and the use of the Yiddish language , are nowadays associated almost exclusively with Hasidism. Hasidic thought draws heavily on Lurianic Kabbalah , and, to an extent,

4263-541: Is better to eat before prayer if due to the later time of prayers finishing one will be hungry and unable to properly concentrate. Another reglement is daily immersion in a ritual bath by males for spiritual cleansing, at a rate much higher than is customary among other Orthodox Jews. Hasidism developed a unique emphasis on the spirituality of melody ( Nigunim ) as a means to reach Deveikut Divine communion, during prayer and communal gatherings. Ecstatic, often wordless Hasidic melodies developed new expressions and depths of

4410-659: Is controversial in many dynasties, which do follow the specifics of Jewish Law on praying earlier, and not eating beforehand. Chabad makes use of the permission granted in Jewish law to eat before prayer in certain circumstances, and to have later praying times, as a result of longer periods of preparatory study and contemplation beforehand. A common saying to explain this (attributed to the Third Chabad Rebbe, Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneerson I) goes, "Better to eat in order to pray, than to pray in order to eat", implying it

4557-437: Is from 1815. Many revolve around the righteous. The Baal Shem, in particular, was subject to excess hagiography. Characterized by vivid metaphors, miracles, and piety, each reflects the surrounding and era it was composed in. Common themes include dissenting the question what is acceptable to pray for, whether or not the commoner may gain communion, or the meaning of wisdom. The tales were a popular, accessible medium to convey

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4704-446: Is personally attended by aides known as Gabbai or Mashbak . Many particular Hasidic rites surround the leader. On the Sabbath, holidays, and celebratory occasions, Rebbes hold a Tisch (table), a large feast for their male adherents. Together, they sing, dance, and eat, and the head of the sect shakes the hands of his followers to bless them, and often delivers a sermon. A Chozer , "repeater", selected for his good memory, commits

4851-613: Is termed Hitpashtut ha-Gashmi'yut , "the expansion (or removal) of corporeality". It is the dialectic opposite of God's contraction into the world. To be enlightened and capable of Bitul ha-Yesh , pursuing the pure spiritual aims and defying the primitive impulses of the body, one must overcome his inferior "Bestial Soul", connected with the Eyes of the Flesh. He may be able to tap into his "Divine Soul" ( Nefesh Elohit ), which craves communion, by employing constant contemplation, Hitbonenut , on

4998-459: Is the shtreimel , which is seen especially among Galician and Hungarian sects like Satmar or Belz. A taller spodik is donned by Polish dynasties such as Ger . A kolpik is worn by unmarried sons and grandsons of many Rebbes on the Sabbath. Some Rebbes don it on special occasions. There are many other distinct items of clothing. Such are the Gerrer hoyznzokn – long black socks into which

5145-410: Is the notion of devekut , "communion". As God was everywhere, connection with Him had to be pursued ceaselessly as well, in all times, places and occasions. Such an experience was in the reach of every person, who only had to negate his inferior impulses and grasp the truth of divine immanence, enabling him to unite with it and attain the state of perfect, selfless bliss. Hasidic masters, well versed in

5292-415: Is the vernacular and common tongue for most Hasidim around the world. Hasidic tales are a literary genre, concerning both hagiography of various Rebbes and moralistic themes. Some are anecdotes or recorded conversations dealing with matters of faith, practice, and the like. The most famous tend to be terse and carry a strong and obvious point. They were often transmitted orally, though the earliest compendium

5439-657: Is wholly devoted to a single approach of the above, and all offer some combination with differing emphasis on each of those. In 1812, a schism occurred between the Seer of Lublin and his prime disciple, the Holy Jew of Przysucha , due to both personal and doctrinal disagreements. The Seer adopted a populist approach, centered on the Righteous' theurgical functions to draw the masses. He was famous for his lavish, enthusiastic conduct during prayer and worship, and extremely charismatic demeanour. He stressed that as Tzaddiq , his mission

5586-614: The Boston Hasidic Dynasty . Akin to his spiritual status, the Rebbe is also the administrative head of the community. Sects often possess their own synagogues, study halls and internal charity mechanisms, and ones sufficiently large also maintain entire educational systems. The Rebbe is the supreme figure of authority, and not just for the institutions. The rank-and-file Hasidim are also expected to consult with him on important matters, and often seek his blessing and advice. He

5733-591: The Duchy of Mazovia with Warsaw , while retaining the nation's wealth and prominence in the region. He made sure that his nephew Albert, Duke of Prussia , and Albert's Protestant successors would pay feudal homage or tribute to Polish monarchs as a sign of political and diplomatic dependence. This was observed until the Treaty of Bromberg in 1657 when Prussia gained its sovereignty. Sigismund and his commander Jan Amor Tarnowski also defeated Moldavia at Obertyn in 1531, and Muscovy in 1535, thereby strengthening

5880-487: The Rebbes into de facto political leaders of strong, institutionalized communities. The role of a Saint was obtained by charisma, erudition and appeal in the early days of Hasidism. But by the dawn of the 19th century, the Righteous began to claim legitimacy by descent to the masters of the past, arguing that since they linked matter with infinity, their abilities had to be associated with their own corporeal body. Therefore, it

6027-563: The Sabbateans , Worship through Corporeality was largely limited to the elite and carefully restrained. The common adherents were taught they may engage it only mildly, through small deeds like earning money to support their leaders. The complementary opposite of corporeal worship, or the elation of the finite into infinite, is the concept of Hamshacha , "drawing down" or "absorbing", and specifically, Hamshachat ha-Shefa , "absorption of effluence". During spiritual ascension, one could siphon

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6174-683: The Teutonic Knights ended in 1525 with the Treaty of Kraków after the final Polish–Teutonic War (1519–1521) . Previously, the Second Peace of Thorn (1466) placed the Teutonic Order under Polish suzerainty and interfered with German interests in Livonia , Pomerania , Warmia and Masuria . The Order attempted to avoid paying tribute to Polish monarchs which was a demonstration of weakness and dependence. In accordance with

6321-726: The " Prussian Homage ", which was often featured in arts. The Prussian Landtag and parliament assembled in Königsberg , where envoys embraced both the new Duke and the Protestant Reformation . Thereupon, the Teutonic Order lost its importance as a military order in Prussia and retreated to the Holy Roman Empire where it became secluded. Sigismund had a profound interest in Renaissance humanism and

6468-422: The "Corporeal". Hasidism teaches that while a superficial observance of the universe by the "eyes of the flesh" ( Einei ha-Basar ) purportedly reflects the reality of all things profane and worldly, a true devotee must transcend this illusory façade and realize that there is nothing but God. It is not only a matter of perception, but very practical, for it entails also abandoning material concerns and cleaving only to

6615-452: The "Pietists of Old" ( Hasidim haRishonim ) who would contemplate an entire hour in preparation for prayer. The phrase denoted extremely devoted individuals who not only observed the Law to its letter, but performed good deeds even beyond it. Adam himself is honored with the title, in tractate Eruvin 18b by Rabbi Meir : "Adam was a great hasid , having fasted for 130 years." The first to adopt

6762-512: The 18th century as a spiritual revival movement in contemporary Western Ukraine before spreading rapidly throughout Eastern Europe . Today, most of those affiliated with the movement, known as hassidim , reside in Israel and in the United States (mostly Brooklyn and Rockland County, New York ). Israel Ben Eliezer , the " Baal Shem Tov ", is regarded as its founding father, and his disciples developed and disseminated it. Present-day Hasidism

6909-515: The Austrian throne. Both efforts failed. In 1497, King John I Albert, his older brother, led an invasion of Moldavia that was intended to place Sigismund on its throne. This, too, was a disastrous failure. Finally, his eldest brother Vladislaus II , King of Bohemia and Hungary, granted him the duchies of Głogów (1499) and Opava (1501), and in 1504 Sigismund became governor of Silesia and Lower Lusatia . John I Albert died suddenly in 1501, and

7056-480: The English language, and their integration into the broader society is often difficult. The segregated communities are also a comfortable setting for sexual abuse of children , and numerous incidents have been reported. While Hasidic leadership has often been accused of silencing the matter, awareness of it is rising within the sects. Another related phenomenon is the recent rise of Mashpi'im ("influencers"). Once

7203-571: The Hasidic one. In the beginning, in order to create the world , God contracted ( Tzimtzum ) His omnipresence, the Ein Sof , leaving a Vacant Void ( Chalal panuy ), bereft of obvious presence and therefore able to entertain free will, contradictions and other phenomena seemingly separate from God Himself. These would have been impossible within His original, perfect existence. Yet, the very reality of

7350-636: The House of Habsburg in 1526, on the death of Sigismund's nephew, Louis II , who led his forces against Suleiman the Magnificent of the Ottoman Empire in the disastrous Battle of Mohács . Worried about the growing ties between the Habsburgs and Russia, in 1524 Sigismund signed a Franco-Polish alliance with King Francis I of France to avoid a possible war on two fronts. Francis I himself

7497-538: The Nations by Yad Vashem . Among those she saved was the mother of the Israeli businessperson Yossi Maiman . After the war, it was administratively located in the "large" Warsaw Voivodeship until 1975, and then the "small" Warsaw Voivodeship until 1998. Currently, Grodzisk Mazowiecki is a local industrial center for the area of Warsaw. According to a legend regarding the town charter, monarchs were riding through

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7644-484: The Polish throne. Their eldest brother Vladislaus became king of Bohemia , Hungary , and Croatia . Sigismund was christened as the namesake of his maternal great-grandfather, Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund . When Casimir died in 1492, Sigismund was his only son without any titles or land. From 1495 to 1496, he petitioned his brother Alexander to provide him with land, and Elisabeth of Austria attempted to install him on

7791-453: The Polish-Lithuanian realm was divided between the remaining two older sons, with John Albert being crowned King of Poland, and Alexander as Grand Duke of Lithuania. Alexander inherited Poland following John Albert's sudden death in 1501. Hence, Sigismund's reign only began when he succeeded Alexander to both titles in 1506 at the age of 39. A capable monarch and a patron of arts, Sigismund established Polish rule over Ducal Prussia and annexed

7938-401: The Rebbe are key tenets, as he is considered a spiritual authority with whom the follower must bond to gain closeness to God. The various "courts" share basic convictions, but operate apart and possess unique traits and customs. Affiliation is often retained in families for generations, and being Hasidic is as much a sociological factor – entailing birth into a specific community and allegiance to

8085-513: The Sejm, usually obtaining funds on state defence. However he was unsuccessful at attempting to create a permanent fund for defence from the annual income tax. Despite this, in 1527 he established a conscript army and the bureaucracy needed to finance it. He set up the legal codes that formalised serfdom in Poland, placing the peasants into the private estates of nobles. Likely related to tax matters

8232-586: The Tatars to destroy Christendom". Regardless of victory, the Polish–Lithuanian troops were incapable of moving quickly enough to retake Smolensk. In 1518, Russian forces were again beaten during the siege of Polotsk , when according to legend the Lithuanian forces were inspired by the sight of their patron saint , Saint Casimir , the older brother of Sigismund. However, this was dubbed by historians as

8379-452: The act, unlike the senators, whom he personally appointed. Eventually, during his reign, Sigismund benefited from the advice of the local nobility, competent ministers in charge of the royal judiciary system, and the wealthy influential treasurers of Kraków. Although he was reluctant to the parliamentary system and political independence of the nobility, he recognised the authority of legal norms, supported legalism and summoned annual sessions of

8526-456: The agreement, the son of Francis, Henry, Duke of Orléans , was to marry one of Sigismund's daughters, and Sigismund's eldest son was to marry a daughter of Francis I. The negotiations came to an end and the alliance was disbanded when Francis' troops were defeated by Charles V at the Battle of Pavia in 1525. Disturbed by the failure of his campaign, Francis turned to Hungary instead and formed

8673-543: The agricultural economy, looked after the development of the royal cities and recovered numerous goods of the treasury belonging to the crown that were under lien. During the financial activities, the King received full support of his wife, Queen Bona, who aimed to expand the royal estates by purchasing and improving economic efficiency. In 1514 he set up the Council of Four Lands and put Abraham of Bohemia in charge of it. At

8820-409: The army. Supported by his Italian consort Bona Sforza, he began buying up land and issue agriculture reformas to enlarge the royal treasury. He initiated a process of restitution of royal properties, previously pawned or rented to the nobles. The nobility gathered near the city to meet to a levée en masse and called for a military campaign against Moldavia . However, the lesser and middle strata of

8967-593: The beginning of the Livonian War in 1558. In 1515 Sigismund entered into an alliance with the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I . In return for Maximilian lending weight to the provisions of the Second Peace of Thorn (1466) , Sigismund consented to the marriage of the children of Vladislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary , his brother, to the grandchildren of Maximilian. Through this double marriage contract, Bohemia and Hungary passed to

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9114-407: The bell rung on some of the most significant moments in Polish history and is one of Poland's national symbols . Sigismund suffered from numerous illnesses and diseases, especially towards the end of his life. Most notably, he was tormented by constant fevers since youth as well as gout and acute rheumatism in the autumn of 1528. The condition, which severely affected his joints and right leg,

9261-554: The clothes' origin is cultural and historical. For example, the long overcoats are considered modest, the shtreimel is supposedly related to shaatnez and keeps one warm, without using wool , and Sabbath shoes are laceless in order not to have to tie a knot, a prohibited action. A gartel divides the Hasid's lower parts from his upper parts, implying modesty and chastity, and for kabbalistic reasons, Hasidim button their clothes right over left. Hasidic men customarily wear black hats during

9408-406: The clothing of all Eastern European Jews, influenced by the style of Polish–Lithuanian nobility . Furthermore, Hasidim have attributed religious origins to specific Hasidic items of clothing. Hasidic men most commonly wear dark overclothes. On weekdays, they wear a long, black, cloth jacket called a rekel , and on Jewish Holy Days , the bekishe zaydene kapote (Yiddish; lit., satin caftan),

9555-517: The corporeal world back into divine infinity. To a certain extent, the Saint even fulfilled for his congregation, and for it alone, a limited Messianic capacity in his lifetime. After the Sabbatean debacle, this moderate approach provided a safe outlet for the eschatological urges. At least two leaders radicalized in this sphere and caused severe controversy: Nachman of Breslov , who declared himself

9702-611: The country's eastern borders. His 42-year reign was further marked by decisive contributions to Polish architecture , cuisine , language , and customs, especially at the behest of his second wife, the Italian-born Bona Sforza . Italian styles and fashions dominated at the height of the Polish Renaissance and Polish Golden Age , which developed the Catholic identity of Poland . He was commemorated on

9849-512: The country. The role of the Incompatibilitas was to prevent wealthy magnates from usurping too much power at the expense of lesser nobles. However, the revolt soon transpired that the nobility's leaders were divided and that achieving a settlement was almost impossible. Too weak to start a civil war against the King, the protesters finally agreed to what was thought a compromise. Sigismund rejected most of their demands, while accepting

9996-628: The defining doctrine of Hasidism is that of the saintly leader, serving both as an ideal inspiration and an institutional figure around whom followers are organized. In the movement's sacral literature, this person is referred to as the Tzaddiq , the Righteous One – often also known by the general honorific Admor (acronym of Hebrew for "our master, teacher and Rabbi"), granted to rabbis in general, or colloquially as Rebbe . The idea that, in every generation, there are righteous persons through whom

10143-460: The divine effluence is drawn to the material world is rooted in the kabbalistic thought, which also claims that one of them is supreme, the reincarnation of Moses . Hasidism elaborated the notion of the Tzaddiq into the basis of its entire system – so much that the very term gained an independent meaning within it, apart from the original which denoted God-fearing, highly observant people. When

10290-539: The doctrinal sphere, the dynasties may be divided along many lines. Some are characterized by Rebbes who are predominantly Torah scholars and decisors , deriving their authority much like ordinary non-Hasidic rabbis do. Such "courts" place great emphasis on strict observance and study, and are among the most meticulous in the Orthodox world in practice. Prominent examples are the House of Sanz and its scions, such as Satmar , or Belz . Other sects, like Vizhnitz , espouse

10437-491: The early generations – charismatic presence was to reassure the faithful and demonstrate the truth in Hasidic philosophy by countering doubts and despair. But more than spiritual welfare was concerned: Since it was believed he could ascend to the higher realms, the leader was able to harvest effluence and bring it down upon his adherents, providing them with very material benefits. "The crystallization of that theurgical phase", noted Glenn Dynner , "marked Hasidism's evolution into

10584-494: The end of 16th century. After the reconstruction, Grodzisk became a local trade and production centre due to its location and the local traffic routes. In 1655 it was again destroyed during Swedish Deluge and then restored. In 1708 the town was struck by a cholera epidemic and as a result, its population diminished down to 370 people. Grodzisk was annexed by Prussia in the Third Partition of Poland in 1795. In 1807 it

10731-620: The epithet collectively were apparently the hasidim in Second Temple period Judea , known as Hasideans after the Greek rendering of their name, who perhaps served as the model for those mentioned in the Talmud. The title continued to be applied as an honorific for the exceptionally devout. In 12th-century Rhineland , or Ashkenaz in Jewish parlance, another prominent school of ascetics named themselves hasidim ; to distinguish them from

10878-751: The eve of Sabbath: Psalm 107 before afternoon prayer , and Psalm 23 at the end of evening service . Hasidim use the Ashkenazi pronunciation of Hebrew and Aramaic for liturgical purposes, reflecting their Eastern European background. Wordless, emotional melodies, nigunim , are particularly common in their services. Hasidim lend great importance to kavana , devotion or intention, and their services tend to be extremely long and repetitive. Some courts nearly abolished traditional specified times by which prayers must be conducted ( zemanim ), to prepare and concentrate. This practice, still enacted in Chabad for one,

11025-651: The field. In 1512, Grand Hetman of Lithuania , Konstanty Ostrogski , ransacked the region of Severia and vanquished a Russian force of approximately 6,000 men. On 8 September 1514, Muscovy suffered a major defeat at the Battle of Orsha , which prevented the Russians to place all the former Kievan Rus ' lands under their lordship. Poland exploited the battle for propaganda purposes with strong anti-Russian sentiment. A letter sent to Rome stated that "Muscovites are not Christians; they are cruel and barbaric; they are Asians and not Europeans; they are in league with Turks and

11172-711: The fruit of the Lignum Scientiae . The Holy Jew and his successors did neither repudiate miracle working, nor did they eschew dramatic conduct; but they were much more restrained in general. The Przysucha School became dominant in Central Poland , while populist Hasidism resembling the Lublin ethos often prevailed in Galicia . One extreme and renowned philosopher who emerged from the Przysucha School

11319-520: The help of Benedykt from Sandomierz . A similar design was undertaken in Niepołomice Castle , the hunting retreat of the Jagiellons. The most prominent example of Sigismund's architectural legacy is a funerary monument in the form of a chapel at Wawel Cathedral . It was constructed between 1519 and 1533 according to plans by Bartolomeo Berrecci of Florence , and serves as a mausoleum of

11466-501: The hidden Godly dimension of all that exists. Then he could understand his surroundings with the "Eyes of the Intellect". The ideal adherent was intended to develop equanimity, or Hishtavut in Hasidic parlance, toward all matters worldly, not ignoring them, but understanding their superficiality. Hasidic masters exhorted their followers to "negate themselves", paying as little heed as they could for worldly concerns, and thus, to clear

11613-493: The high-ranking nobles and their interests. Sigismund I achieved several economic successes, including partial debt reduction, separation of accounts of public taxation from the royal treasury, strengthening of the activities of the mint operating in Kraków, and the attempt to organise the processing of income from operating salt mines. Furthermore, he issued a statute for the Armenians (1519) and strongly intended to harmonise

11760-405: The illustrious figures that guested or lived in Poland at the time were Bartholommeo Berecci , Francesco Fiorentino , Santi and Mateo Gucci , Bernardo Morando , Giovanni Battista di Quadro and Hans Dürer . Most of the decorators working for the court were foreigners, especially Italians and Germans who had a profound impact on Poland's architecture as a whole. The centrepiece of their work

11907-439: The importance of intellectually grasping the dynamics of the hidden divine aspect and how they affect the human psyche; the very acronym Chabad is for the three penultimate Sephirot , associated with the cerebral side of consciousness. Another famous philosophy is that formulated by Nachman of Breslov and adhered to by Breslov Hasidim. In contrast to most of his peers who believed that God must be worshiped through enjoyment of

12054-412: The importance of this dialectic, but mainly (though not exclusively) evoked it in cosmic terms, referring for example to the manner in which God progressively diminished Himself into the world through the various dimensions, or Sephirot . Hasidism applied it also to the most mundane details of human existence. All Hasidic schools devoted a prominent place in their teaching, with differing accentuation, to

12201-501: The interchanging nature of Ein , both infinite and imperceptible, becoming Yesh , "Existent" – and vice versa. They used the concept as a prism to gauge the world, and the needs of the spirit in particular. Elior noted: "Reality lost its static nature and permanent value, now measured by a new standard, seeking to expose the Godly, boundless essence, manifest in its tangible, circumscribed opposite." One major derivative of this philosophy

12348-420: The judicial system across the country. Between 1530 and 1538 the king issued two statutes defining the rules for the selection of the monarch, which permanently established the election viritim . The laws held that all social groups, regardless of their wealth, could watch the election process ( unusquisque qui vellet ), and the election was to be free ( electio Regis libera ). Sigismund successfully organised

12495-535: The language, despite predictions to the contrary, has not died. Yiddish newspapers are still published, and Yiddish fiction is being written, primarily aimed at women. Even films in Yiddish are being produced within the Hasidic community. Some Hasidic groups, such as Satmar and Toldot Aharon, actively oppose the everyday use of Hebrew, which they consider a holy tongue. The use of Hebrew for anything other than prayer and study is, according to them, profane, and so, Yiddish

12642-684: The last Jagiellon king of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania. In 1587 Sigismund the Old's grandson, Sigismund III from the House of Vasa , was elected King of Poland. He was the son of Catherine Jagiellon and her husband John III Vasa of Sweden . Hence, Sigismund III could not belong to the Jagiellonian dynasty by his mother, but the Jagiellon bloodline of Polish monarchs continued until the death of Sigismund Vasa's second son John II Casimir . In 1512, Sigismund married Barbara Zápolya (d. 1515),

12789-605: The last Jagiellons. The exterior dome is gold-plated and interior tombs made of marble were designed by Santi Gucci. Historians, experts and architects unanimously voted the chapel as "the most beautiful example of the Tuscan Renaissance north of the Alps". The monarch also commissioned a 12.6-tonne bell which was named in his honour. The Royal Sigismund Bell was installed 13 July 1521 on Wawel Cathedral's northernmost tower. Apart from religious and national holidays,

12936-469: The latter phase is characterized by consolidation into sects with hereditary leadership. The mystical teachings formulated during the first era were by no means repudiated, and many Hasidic masters remained consummate spiritualists and original thinkers; as noted by Benjamin Brown , Buber's once commonly accepted view that the routinization constituted "decadence" was refuted by later studies, demonstrating that

13083-470: The leader's family, for example, are often held with large multistoried stands (פארענטשעס, Parentches ) filled with Hasidim surround the main floor, where the Rebbe and his relatives dine, celebrate, and perform the Mitzvah tantz . This is a festive dance with the bride: Both parties hold one end of a long sash, a Hasidic gartel , for reasons of modesty. Allegiance to the dynasty and Rebbe is also sometimes

13230-489: The masses to access, with common actions, a religious experience once deemed esoteric. Yet another reflection of the Ein - Yesh dialectic is pronounced in the transformation of evil to goodness and the relations between these two poles and other contradicting elements – including various traits and emotions of the human psyche, like pride and humility, purity and profanity, et cetera. Hasidic thinkers argued that in order to redeem

13377-453: The matters of the world was depicted as identical with the need to save the sinners and redeem the sparks concealed in the most lowly places. Such a link between his functions as communal leader and spiritual guide legitimized the political power he wielded. It also prevented a retreat of Hasidic masters into hermitism and passivity, as many mystics before them did. Their worldly authority was perceived as part of their long-term mission to elevate

13524-411: The most part supported the King and claimed that the "war's" only effect was the near-extinction of the local chickens, eaten by the nobles gathered for the rebellion at Lwów in eastern part of Lesser Poland . To strengthen his power, Sigismund initiated a set of reforms, establishing a permanent conscription army in 1527 and extending the bureaucratic apparatus necessary to govern the state and finance

13671-434: The movement remained very much innovative. Yet many aspects of early Hasidism were indeed de-emphasized in favour of more conventional religious expressions, and its radical concepts were largely neutralized. Some Rebbes adopted a relatively rationalist bent, sidelining their explicit mystical, theurgical roles, and many others functioned almost solely as political leaders of large communities. As to their Hasidim, affiliation

13818-792: The movement's messages. Additional to these tales, Hasidim study the numerous mystical / spiritual works of Hasidic philosophy . (Chabad Hasidim, for example, daily study the Tanya , the Likutei Torah , and the voluminous works of the Rebbes of Chabad ; Breslovers study the teachings of Rabbi Nachman , additional to his "tales".) These works draw on the earlier esoteric theology of Kabbalah but articulate this in terms of inner psychological awareness and personal analogies. Additional to its formal, intellectual component, this study thus makes Jewish mysticism accessible and tangible, so that it inspires emotional dveikus (cleaving to God) and embeds

13965-621: The new Treaty of Kraków, the Order was abruptly secularized and turned de facto into a puppet state of Poland which lasted until the Treaty of Bromberg in 1655. Sigismund's nephew Albert, Duke of Prussia , converted to Lutheranism under the persuasion of Martin Luther , and paid a feudal homage to Sigismund. In return he was granted the domains of the Order as the First Duke of Prussia . This became known in Polish and Lithuanian history as

14112-428: The nobility organised a revolt to force the King to abandon his risky reforms. The nobles presented him with 36 demands, most notably a cessation of further land acquisitions by Queen Bona, exemption of the nobility from the tithe , confirmation and extension of privileges for nobles and adoption of a law concerning Incompatibilitas — an individual wouldn't be able to hold two or more official administrative positions in

14259-533: The often hereditary master heading a sect of followers. The lengthy history of Hasidism, the numerous schools of thought therein, and its definitive use of homiletic literature and sermons – comprising numerous references to earlier sources in the Torah , Talmud, and exegesis as a means to grounding itself in tradition – to convey its ideas make the isolation of a common doctrine highly challenging to researchers. As noted by Joseph Dan , "Every attempt to present such

14406-409: The old one, and its enemies derisively mocked its members as Mithasdim , "[those who] pretend [to be] hasidim ". Yet, eventually, the young sect gained such a mass following that the old connotation was sidelined. In popular discourse, at least, "Hasid" came to denote someone who follows a religious teacher from the movement. It also entered Modern Hebrew as such, meaning "adherent" or "disciple". One

14553-605: The only true Tzaddiq , and Menachem Mendel Schneerson , whom many of his followers believed to be the Messiah. The Rebbe s were subject to intense hagiography, even subtly compared with Biblical figures by employing prefiguration. It was argued that since followers could not "negate themselves" sufficiently to transcend matter, they should instead "negate themselves" in submission to the Saint ( Hitbatlut la-Tzaddiq ), thus bonding with him and enabling themselves to access what he achieved in terms of spirituality. The Righteous served as

14700-679: The parish seat. Dating from the end of the 15th century to 1623 Grodzisk was owned by the Okunia and Mokrowski families. In 1522 Grodzisk has received municipal rights from king Sigismund I the Old . It was administratively located in the Mszczonów County in the Rawa Voivodeship in the Greater Poland Province of the Kingdom of Poland. In 1540 Grodzisk was destroyed by the fire and was not reconstructed until

14847-519: The physical side, false but ineluctable, with each evolving into the other: as God must compress and disguise Himself, so must humans and matter in general ascend and reunite with the Omnipresence. Rachel Elior quoted Shneur Zalman of Liadi , in his commentary Torah Or on Genesis 28:22, who wrote that "this is the purpose of Creation, from Infinity to Finitude, so it may be reversed from the state of Finite to that of Infinity". Kabbalah stressed

14994-611: The physical world, Nachman portrayed the corporeal world in grim colors, as a place devoid of God's immediate presence from which the soul yearns to liberate itself. He mocked the attempts to perceive the nature of infinite-finite dialectics and the manner in which God still occupies the Vacant Void albeit not, stating these were paradoxical, beyond human understanding. Only naive faith in their reality would do. Mortals were in constant struggle to overcome their profane instincts and had to free themselves from their limited intellects to see

15141-450: The power animating the higher dimensions down into the material world, where it would manifest as benevolent influence of all kinds. These included spiritual enlightenment, zest in worship and other high-minded aims, but also the more prosaic health and healing, deliverance from various troubles and simple economic prosperity. Thus, a very tangible and alluring motivation to become followers emerged. Both corporeal worship and absorption allowed

15288-413: The principle of Incompatibilitas the following year and agreeing not to force the election of the future king in vivente rege . Thereupon, the nobility returned to their homes having achieved little. Sigismund was intermittently at war with Vasili III of Muscovy beginning in 1507, before the Polish army was fully under his command. Further tensions escalated when Vasili also discovered that Sigismund

15435-506: The purely intellectual level, a fortiori in actual life. Another implication of this dualism is the notion of "Worship through Corporeality", Avodah be-Gashmiyut . As the Ein Sof metamorphosed into substance, so may it in turn be raised back to its higher state; likewise, since the machinations in the higher Sephirot exert their influence on this world, even the most simple action may, if performed correctly and with understanding, achieve

15582-534: The rest, later research employed the term Ashkenazi Hasidim . In the 16th century, when Kabbalah spread, the title also became associated with it. Jacob ben Hayyim Zemah wrote in his glossa on Isaac Luria 's version of the Shulchan Aruch that, "One who wishes to tap the hidden wisdom, must conduct himself in the manner of the Pious." The movement founded by Israel Ben Eliezer in the 18th century adopted

15729-460: The reverse effect. According to Lurianic doctrine, the netherworld was suffused with divine sparks, concealed within "husks", qlippoth . The glints had to be recovered and elevated to their proper place in the cosmos. "Materiality itself could be embraced and consecrated", noted Glenn Dynner , and Hasidism taught that by common acts like dancing or eating, performed with intention, the sparks could be extricated and set free. Avodah be-Gashmiyut had

15876-501: The revival of classical antiquity. His second consort Bona Sforza, daughter of Gian Galeazzo Sforza of Milan, was also instrumental in developing the Polish Renaissance and brought renowned Italian artists, architects and sculptors from her native country. It was under Sigismund's reign that Renaissance began to flourish in Poland and in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Sigismund II Augustus later continued his father's legacy. Among

16023-670: The same town, and Hasidim were categorized by their leaders' settlement: a Hasid of Belz, Vizhnitz, and so forth. Later, especially after World War II, the dynasties retained the names of their original Eastern European settlements when moving to the West or Israel. Thus, for example, the "court" established by Joel Teitelbaum in 1905 at Transylvania remained known after its namesake town, Sathmar , even though its headquarters lay in New York, and almost all other Hasidic sects likewise – albeit some groups founded overseas were named accordingly, like

16170-468: The sect began to attract following and expanded from a small circle of learned disciples to a mass movement, it became evident that its complex philosophy could be imparted only partially to the new rank and file. As even intellectuals struggled with the sublime dialectics of infinity and corporeality, there was little hope to have the common folk truly internalize these, not as mere abstractions to pay lip service to. Ideologues exhorted them to have faith, but

16317-582: The settlement of Grodzisk on their way to hunt in Jaktorowska forest. One of the monarchs, who was tired, was offered a cup of water from the town's spring to regain his strength. It was the extraordinary taste of the water that convinced the king to grant the town a charter. The town had a Jewish community and it had been the center of the Hasidic Grodzhisk dynasty , (Grodzisk Mazowiecki being pronounced as "Grodzhisk" in Yiddish .) Grodzisk

16464-484: The shaving of one's beard. Most Hasidic boys receive their first haircuts ceremonially at the age of three years (only the Skverrer Hasidim do this at their boys' second birthday). Until then, Hasidic boys have long hair. Hasidic women wear clothing adhering to the principles of modest dress in Jewish law . This includes long conservative skirts and sleeves past the elbow, as well as covered necklines. Also,

16611-409: The soul in Jewish life, often drawing from folk idioms of the surrounding gentile culture, which were adapted to elevate their concealed sparks of divinity, according to Lurianic theology. Within the Hasidic world, it is possible to distinguish different Hasidic groups by subtle differences in dress. Some details of their dress are shared by non-Hasidic Haredim. Much of Hasidic dress was historically

16758-407: The sparks hidden, one had to associate not merely with the corporeal, but with sin and evil. One example is the elevation of impure thoughts during prayer, transforming them to noble ones rather than repressing them, advocated mainly in the early days of the sect; or "breaking" one's own character by directly confronting profane inclinations. This aspect, once more, had sharp antinomian implications and

16905-526: The start of his reign, King Sigismund I the Old inherited a Kingdom of Poland with a century-long tradition of liberties of the nobility, confirmed in numerous privileges. A rebellion in Lwów widely known as the Chicken War ( Polish : Wojna kokosza ) was an anti-royalist and anti-absolutist rokosz (revolt) by the Polish nobility that occurred in 1537. The derisive name was coined by the magnates, who for

17052-461: The teachings concerning communion, are supposed not only to gain it themselves, but to guide their flock to it. Devekut was not a strictly defined experience; many varieties were described, from the utmost ecstasy of the learned leaders to the common man's more humble yet no less significant emotion during prayer. Closely linked with the former is Bitul ha-Yesh , "Negation of the Existent", or of

17199-450: The term hasidim in the original connotation. But when the sect grew and developed specific attributes, from the 1770s, the names gradually acquired a new meaning. Its common adherents, belonging to groups each headed by a spiritual leader, were henceforth known as Hasidim. The transformation was slow: The movement was at first referred to as "New Hasidism" by outsiders (as recalled in the autobiography of Salomon Maimon ), to separate it from

17346-561: The text to writing after the Sabbath (any form of writing during the Sabbath itself being forbidden ). In many "courts", the remnants of his meal, supposedly suffused with holiness, are handed out and even fought over. Often, a very large dish is prepared beforehand, and the Rebbe only tastes it before passing it to the crowd. Apart from the gathering at noon, the third repast on Sabbath and the " Melaveh Malkah " meal when it ends are also particularly important and an occasion for song, feasting, tales, and sermons. A central custom, which serves as

17493-467: The town was renamed to Grodzisk Mazowiecki by the addition of the adjective "Mazowiecki" after the region of Masovia , within which it is located, to distinguish it from the town of Grodzisk Wielkopolski in western Poland. Following the joint German-Soviet invasion of Poland , which started World War II in September 1939, Grodzisk Mazowiecki was occupied by Germany until 1945. Administratively it

17640-536: The town's municipal rights were taken away by the Tsarist authorities as punishment for the unsuccessful Polish January Uprising . Between the 19th and 20th century Grodzisk was known as recreation center with hydropathic establishment founded by Michał Bojasiński . In 1915 Grodzisk regained its municipal rights In interwar Poland, Grodzisk was the seat of Błonie County in the Warsaw Voivodeship . In 1928,

17787-546: The trousers are tucked. Some Hasidic men from Eastern Galicia wear black socks with their breeches on the Sabbath, as opposed to white ones on weekdays, particularly Belzer Hasidim. Following a Biblical commandment not to shave the sides of one's face (Leviticus 19:27), male members of most Hasidic groups wear long, uncut sidelocks called payot (or peyes ). Some Hasidic men shave off the rest of their hair. Not every Hasidic group requires long peyos, and not all Jewish men with peyos are Hasidic, but all Hasidic groups discourage

17934-498: The true answer, which marked their rise as a distinct sect, was the concept of the Tzaddiq . A Hasidic master was to serve as a living embodiment of the recondite teachings. He was able to transcend matter, gain spiritual communion, Worship through Corporeality and fulfill all the theoretical ideals. As the vast majority of his flock could not do so themselves, they were to cleave to him instead, acquiring at least some semblance of those vicariously. His commanding and often – especially in

18081-506: The true, spiritual ones, oblivious to the surrounding false distractions of life. The practitioner's success in detaching from his sense of person, and conceive himself as Ein (in the double meaning of 'naught' and 'infinite'), is regarded as the highest state of elation in Hasidism. The true divine essence of man – the soul – may then ascend and return to the upper realm, where it does not possess an existence independent from God. This ideal

18228-414: The way for this transformation. The struggle and doubt of being torn between the belief in God's immanence and the very real sensual experience of the indifferent world is a key theme in the movement's literature. Many tracts have been devoted to the subject, acknowledging that the "callous and rude" flesh hinders one from holding fast to the ideal, and these shortcomings are extremely hard to overcome even in

18375-583: The weekdays, as do nearly all Haredi men today. A variety of hats are worn depending on the group: Chabad men often pinch their hats to form a triangle on the top, Satmar men wear an open-crown hat with rounded edges, and Samet (velvet) or biber ( beaver ) hats are worn by many Galician and Hungarian Hasidic men. Married Hasidic men don a variety of fur headdresses on the Sabbath, once common among all wedded Eastern European Jewish males and still worn by non-Hasidic Perushim in Jerusalem. The most ubiquitous

18522-403: The women wear stockings to cover their legs; in some Hasidic groups, such as Satmar or Toldot Aharon , the stockings must be opaque. In keeping with Jewish law , married women cover their hair, using either a sheitel (wig), a tichel (headscarf), a shpitzel , a snood , a hat, or a beret. In some Hasidic groups, such as Satmar , women may wear two headcoverings – a wig and a scarf, or

18669-582: The world as it truly is. Tzvi Hirsh of Zidichov , a major Galician Tzadik , was a disciple of the Seer of Lublin, but combined his populist inclination with a strict observance even among his most common followers, and great pluralism in matters pertaining to mysticism, as those were eventually emanating from each person's unique soul. Mordechai Yosef Leiner of Izbica promulgated a radical understanding of free will, which he considered illusory and also derived directly from God. He argued that when one attained

18816-499: The world which was created in the Void is entirely dependent on its divine origin. Matter would have been null and void without the true, spiritual essence it possesses. Just the same, the infinite Ein Sof cannot manifest in the Vacant Void, and must limit itself in the guise of measurable corporeality that may be perceived. Thus, there is a dualism between the true aspect of everything and

18963-487: Was Menachem Mendel of Kotzk . Adopting an elitist, hard-line attitude, he openly denounced the folky nature of other Tzaddiqim , and rejected financial support. Gathering a small group of devout scholars who sought to attain spiritual perfection, whom he often berated and mocked, he always stressed the importance of both somberness and totality, stating it was better to be fully wicked than only somewhat good. The Chabad school, limited to its namesake dynasty, but prominent,

19110-562: Was a member of the Jagiellonian dynasty , the son of Casimir IV and younger brother of Kings John I Albert and Alexander I Jagiellon . He was nicknamed "the Old" in later historiography to distinguish him from his son and successor, Sigismund II Augustus . Before ascending to the Polish and Lithuanian thrones, he was Duke of Głogów from 1499, Duke of Opava from 1501, and governor of Silesia from 1504 on behalf of his brother, King Vladislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary. Sigismund

19257-598: Was accepted "there can be no Tzaddiq but the son of a Tzaddiq ". Virtually all modern sects maintain this hereditary principle. For example, the Rebbe s' families maintain endogamy and marry almost solely with scions of other dynasties. Some Hasidic "courts", and not a few individual prominent masters, developed distinct philosophies with particular accentuation of various themes in the movement's general teachings. Several of these Hasidic schools had lasting influence over many dynasties, while others died with their proponents. In

19404-491: Was an unsuccessful attempt on the life of the king, made on 5 May 1523. The identity of the would-be assassin - who shot the ruler while he was strolling in the evening around the cloisters of the Wawel castle - and his potential supporters was never established. Unclear motives remained after the assassination attempt. Three weeks before the event, Sigismund I introduced a new edict that was very unfavourable and somewhat hostile to

19551-643: Was born in the town of Kozienice in 1467 as the fifth son of Casimir IV and his wife Elizabeth of Austria . He was one of thirteen children and was not expected to assume the throne after his father. Sigismund's eldest brother and rightful heir Vladislaus II instead became the King of Bohemia , Hungary and Croatia as the successor to George of Poděbrady in Bohemia and then to Matthias Corvinus in Hungary, thus temporarily uniting these kingdoms. When Casimir died,

19698-522: Was bribing Khan Meñli I Giray to attack the Grand Duchy of Moscow . In December 1512, Muscovite forces marched into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania seeking to capture Smolensk , a major trading center between Russia and Europe. The initial six- and four-week sieges in 1513 were a failure, but the city fell to the Muscovites in July 1514 . Russia subsequently suffered a series of disastrous defeats in

19845-606: Was crowned four days later in Wawel Cathedral by Primate Andrzej Boryszewski. The internal situation in Poland was characterised by broad authorisation of the Chamber of Deputies, confirmed and extended in the constitution of Nihil novi . During Alexander's reign, the law of Nihil novi had been instituted, which forbade kings of Poland from enacting laws without the consent of the Sejm . Sigismund had little control over

19992-399: Was founded by Shneur Zalman of Liadi and was elaborated by his successors, until the late 20th century. The movement retained many of the attributes of early Hasidism, before a clear divide between Righteous and ordinary followers was cemented. Chabad Rebbes insisted their adherents acquire proficiency in the sect's lore, and not relegate most responsibility to the leaders. The sect emphasizes

20139-448: Was less a matter of admiring a charismatic leader as in the early days, but rather birth into a family belonging to a specific "court". The most fundamental theme underlying all Hasidic theory is the immanence of God in the universe, often expressed in a phrase from Tikunei haZohar , Leit atar panuy miné ( Aramaic : "no site is devoid of Him"). This panentheistic concept was derived from Lurianic discourse, but greatly expanded in

20286-812: Was located in the Warsaw District of the General Government . The Polish resistance was active in the town, and even the underground University of the Western Lands gave secret lectures. In 1944, the National Military Union was founded in Grodzisk Mazowiecki. Local Polish farmer Stanisława Sławińska hid Jews from the Nazis in her house in Grodzisk Mazowiecki. In 2008, she was honoured as Righteous Among

20433-501: Was looking for allies in Central Europe to curtail the increasing power of Habsburg Emperor Charles V , whose realms were labelled " the empire on which the sun never sets ". Furthermore, Queen Bona was instrumental in establishing an alliance between Poland and France, with the objective of recovering Milan . The official negotiations were conducted by Antonio Rincon in 1524, who was then followed by Jerome Laski . Through

20580-433: Was not merely a Hasid anymore, observed historian David Assaf, but a Hasid of someone or some dynasty in particular. This linguistic transformation paralleled that of the word tzaddik , "righteous", which the Hasidic leaders adopted for themselves – though they are known colloquially as Rebbes or by the honorific Admor . Originally denoting an observant, moral person, in Hasidic literature, tzaddik became synonymous with

20727-414: Was novel and what merely a recapitulation, also baffled historians. Some, like Louis Jacobs , regarded the early masters as innovators who introduced "much that was new if only by emphasis"; others, primarily Mendel Piekarz , argued to the contrary that but a little was not found in much earlier tracts, and the movement's originality lay in the manner it popularized these teachings to become the ideology of

20874-561: Was regained by Poles and included within the short-lived Duchy of Warsaw , and after its dissolution in 1815, it fell to the Russian Partition of Poland. During the November Uprising (1830–1831) the town was the place of fights between the insurrectionists’ forces and Russian army. The recovery of the local economy was possible to the prosperous railway route connecting Warsaw and Skierniewice built in 1846. In 1870

21021-407: Was repetitive and continued in 1529 and 1534. It is likely that Sigismund Augustus was co-crowned vivente rege in 1529 as a result of these pervasive pains and in case his father died unexpectedly. Furthermore, bad eating habits and a poor diet contributed to the king's ailing health, in particular large amounts of beer and mead . Eventually, the king's inability to walk forced him to be carried in

21168-818: Was succeeded by Alexander I, who died in 1506. After his death, Sigismund arrived in Vilnius , where he was elected by the Lithuanian Ducal Council on 13 September 1506 as Grand Duke of Lithuania , contrary to the Union of Mielnik (1501), which proposed a joint Polish-Lithuanian election of a monarch. On 8 December 1506, during the session of the Polish Senate in Piotrków , Sigismund was elected King of Poland. He arrived in Kraków on 20 January 1507 and

21315-476: Was the birthplace of Kalonymus Kalman Shapira (1889–1943), also known as the Rebbe of the Warsaw Ghetto . During the wartime, all the Jewish population was deported and murdered. In 2016, the remains of the Jewish cemetery in town were saved from being developed into a residential complex, and the city council pledged to preserve the cemetery, restore the original gate with Hebrew inscription, and build

21462-439: Was to influence the common folk by absorbing Divine Light and satisfying their material needs, thus converting them to his cause and elating them. The Holy Jew pursued a more introspective course, maintaining that the Rebbe's duty was to serve as a spiritual mentor for a more elitist group, helping them to achieve a senseless state of contemplation, aiming to restore man to his oneness with God which Adam supposedly lost when he ate

21609-531: Was used by the Sabbateans to justify excessive sinning. It was mostly toned down in late Hasidism, and even before that, leaders were careful to stress that it was not exercised in the physical sense, but in the contemplative, spiritual one. This kabbalistic notion, too, was not unique to the movement and appeared frequently among other Jewish groups. While its mystical and ethical teachings are not easily sharply distinguished from those of other Jewish currents,

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