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94-515: A verdant and species rich valley in the highest reaches of the Andes, Guandera represents the last of forest type that once carpeted the upper slopes of moister valleys within the tropical Andes from Colombia to Peru. With unusual and often unique plant forms, Guandera’s appearance is similar to that of a lowland tropical rainforest. However, this forest is nearly 2 ½ miles above sea level and evening temperatures hover around freezing. Also stretching above

188-419: A syconium , derived from an arrangement of many small flowers on an inverted, nearly closed receptacle. The many small flowers are unseen unless the fig is cut open. The fruit typically has a bulbous shape with a small opening (the ostiole ) at the outward end that allows access to pollinators . The flowers are pollinated by very small wasps such as Pegoscapus that crawl through the opening in search of

282-404: A constant source of inspiration and wonder to biologists. Notably, three vegetative traits together are unique to figs. All figs present a white to yellowish latex , some in copious quantities; the twig shows paired stipules —or circular scars if the stipules have fallen off; the lateral veins at the base of the leaf are steep, forming a tighter angle with the midrib than the other lateral veins,

376-597: A distinctive shape or habit, and their fruits distinguish them from other plants. The fruit of Ficus is an inflorescence enclosed in an urn-like structure called a syconium , which is lined on the inside with the fig's tiny flowers that develop into multiple ovaries on the inside surface. In essence, the fig fruit is a fleshy stem with multiple tiny flowers that fruit and coalesce. The unique fig pollination system, involving tiny, highly specific wasps, known as fig wasps that enter via ostiole these subclosed inflorescences to both pollinate and lay their own eggs, has been

470-418: A feature referred to as "triveined". Current molecular clock estimates indicate that Ficus is a relatively ancient genus, being at least 60 million years old, and possibly as old as 80 million years. The main radiation of extant species, however, may have taken place more recently, between 20 and 40 million years ago. Some better-known species that represent the diversity of the genus include, alongside

564-515: A fibrous cloth used for clothing. Figs have figured prominently in some human cultures. There is evidence that figs, specifically the common fig ( F. carica ) and sycamore fig ( Ficus sycomorus ), were among the first – if not the very first – plant species that were deliberately bred for agriculture in the Middle East, starting more than 11,000 years ago. Nine subfossil F. carica figs dated to about 9400–9200 BCE were found in

658-689: A fresh fig, individual fruit will appear as fleshy "threads", each bearing a single seed inside. The genus Dorstenia , also in the fig family (Moraceae), exhibits similar tiny flowers arranged on a receptacle but in this case the receptacle is a more or less flat, open surface. Fig plants can be monoecious ( hermaphrodite ) or gynodioecious (hermaphrodite and female). Nearly half of fig species are gynodioecious, and therefore have some plants with inflorescences (syconium) with long styled pistillate flowers, and other plants with staminate flowers mixed with short styled pistillate flowers. The long-styled flowers tend to prevent wasps from laying their eggs within

752-443: A key resource for some frugivores including fruit bats , and primates including: capuchin monkeys , langurs , gibbons and mangabeys . They are even more important for birds such as Asian barbets , pigeons , hornbills , fig-parrots and bulbuls , which may almost entirely subsist on figs when these are in plenty. Many Lepidoptera caterpillars feed on fig leaves, for example several Euploea species (crow butterflies),

846-403: A natural transition from Guandera’s form of moist, montane forest to an arid scrub vegetation, now highly degraded after hundreds of years of Afro-Ecuadorian inhabitation. The 10 km Guandera Biological Station protects the heart of this remnant forest and extends this protection beyond the private reserve through active community extension efforts and regular engagement of Ecuador’s Ministry of

940-519: A near maze of multiple trunks similar in appearance to the banyan trees ( Ficus sp.) widely planted in tropical lowlands. Another unique vegetative character of the forest is that the transition from forest to alpine grassland (in this case, paramo) is atypical of vegetative zonation in the American tropics. In most cases, there is a slow transition from robust forest to alpine grassland with various stages of dwarf (or elvin) forest and shrubland between

1034-802: A reddish hue. The species typically has distinctive beige or ginger-coloured markings across its face and upper chest, though not all spectacled bears have "spectacle" markings. The pattern and extent of pale markings are slightly different on each individual bear, and bears can be readily distinguished by this. Males are a third larger than females in dimensions and sometimes twice their weight. Males can weigh from 100 to 200 kg (220 to 440 lb), and females can weigh from 35 to 82 kg (77 to 181 lb). Head-and-body length can range from 120 to 200 cm (47 to 78.5 in), though mature males do not measure less than 150 cm (59 in). On average males weigh about 115 kg (254 lb) and females average about 65 kg (143 lb), thus it rivals

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1128-491: A single vicinity. Animal prey is usually quite small, but these bears can prey on adult deer , llama ( Lama glama ) and domestic cattle ( Bos taurus ) and horses ( Equus caballus ). A spectacled bear was captured on a remote video-monitor predaceously attacking an adult mountain tapir perhaps nearly twice its own body mass, and adult horse and cattle killed by spectacled bears have been even heavier. Animal prey has included rabbits , mice , other rodents , birds at

1222-448: A suitable place to lay eggs. Without this pollinator service fig trees could not reproduce by seed. In turn, the flowers provide a safe haven and nourishment for the next generation of wasps. This accounts for the frequent presence of wasp larvae in the fruit, and has led to a coevolutionary relationship. Technically, a fig fruit proper would be only one of the many tiny matured, seed-bearing gynoecia found inside one fig – if you cut open

1316-528: Is a sura in Quran named "The Fig" or At-Tin (سوره تین). In Asia, figs are important in Buddhism and Hinduism . In Jainism , the consumption of any fruit belonging to this genus is prohibited. The Buddha is traditionally held to have found bodhi (enlightenment) while meditating for 49 days under a sacred fig . The same species was Ashvattha , the " world tree " of Hinduism. The Plaksa Pra-sravana

1410-494: Is a gynodioecious plant, as well as lofty fig or clown fig ( F. aspera ), Roxburgh fig ( F. auriculata ), mistletoe fig ( F. deltoidea ), F. pseudopalma , creeping fig ( F. pumila ) and related species. The hermaphrodite common figs are called "inedible figs" or "caprifigs"; in traditional culture in the Mediterranean region they were considered food for goats ( Capra aegagrus ). In

1504-425: Is an example of mutualism , in which each organism (fig plant and fig wasp ) benefit each other, in this case reproductively. The intimate association between fig species and their wasp pollinators, along with the high incidence of a one-to-one plant-pollinator ratio have long led scientists to believe that figs and wasps are a clear example of coevolution . Morphological and reproductive behavior evidence, such as

1598-569: Is by far the largest genus in the Moraceae, and is one of the largest genera of flowering plants currently described. The species currently classified within Ficus were originally split into several genera in the mid-1800s, providing the basis for a subgeneric classification when reunited into one genus in 1867. This classification put functionally dioecious species into four subgenera based on floral characters. In 1965, E. J. H. Corner reorganized

1692-462: Is compromised if they are small, isolated populations, even without facing habitat lost or hunting. Second, the transformation of the landscape represents loss of availability of the type of habitats spectacled bears need. Third, fragmentation exposes bears to hunting and killing due to its accessibility. Tremarctos ornatus is commonly referred to in English as the "spectacled bear", a reference to

1786-411: Is frequently found as a pest on figs grown as potted plants and is spread through the export of these plants to other localities. For a list of other diseases common to fig trees, see List of foliage plant diseases (Moraceae) . Many fig species are grown for their fruits, though only Ficus carica is cultivated to any extent for this purpose. A fig "fruit" is a type of multiple fruit known as

1880-643: Is higher because not all wasp species were detected. On the other hand, species of wasps pollinate multiple host fig species. Molecular techniques, like microsatellite markers and mitochondrial sequence analysis, allowed a discovery of multiple genetically distinct, cryptic wasp species. Not all these cryptic species are sister taxa and thus must have experienced a host fig shift at some point. These cryptic species lacked evidence of genetic introgression or backcrosses indicating limited fitness for hybrids and effective reproductive isolation and speciation . The existence of cryptic species suggests that neither

1974-424: Is immediately attributed to them, becoming persecuted and hunted. The IUCN has recommended the following courses for spectacled bear conservation: expansion and implementation of conservation land to prevent further development, greater species level research and monitoring of trends and threats, more concerted management of current conservation areas, stewardship programs for bears which engage local residents and

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2068-537: Is in favor of the subsistence of the bear population is their longevity, since they are able to raise at least two cubs to adulthood, contributing to population replacement. Wild bears can live for an average of 20 years. The Andean bear is threatened due to poaching and habitat loss, attributable to agricultural expansion and illegal mining . Poaching might have several reasons: trophy hunting , pet trade , religious or magical beliefs, natural products trade and conflicts with humans. Trophy hunting of Andean bear

2162-452: Is meat. The most common foods for these bears include cactus , bromeliads (especially Puya ssp. , Tillandsia ssp. and Guzmania ssp.) palm nuts , bamboo hearts, frailejon ( Espeletia spp.), orchid bulbs, fallen fruit on the forest floor, unopened palm leaves, and moss . They will also peel back tree bark to eat the nutritious second layer. Much of this vegetation is very tough to open or digest for most animals, and

2256-429: Is one of only a couple Ecuadorian paramos characterized by frailejónes – squat, almost human-like bushes of the daisy family whose appearance is said to be reminiscent of a monk (and thus its Spanish namesake), but whose proliferation on these lofty slopes creates an almost otherworldly landscape. Spectacled bear Ursus ornatus Cuvier , 1825 The spectacled bear ( Tremarctos ornatus ), also known as

2350-584: Is only 200 to 650 km (120 to 400 mi) wide but with a length of more than 4,600 km (2,900 mi). The species is found almost entirely in the Andes Mountains . Before spectacled bear populations became fragmented during the last 500 years, the species had a reputation for being adaptable, as it is found in a wide variety of habitats and altitudes throughout its range, including cloud forests , high-altitude grasslands , dry forests and scrub deserts . A single spectacled bear population on

2444-462: Is only a single reported human death due to a spectacled bear, which occurred while it was being hunted and was already shot. The only predators of cubs include cougars ( Puma concolor ) and possibly male spectacled bears. The bears "appear to avoid" jaguars , but the jaguar has considerably different habitat preferences, does not overlap with the spectacled bear in altitude on any specific mountain slope, and only overlaps slightly (900m) in altitude if

2538-512: Is part of the National System of Protected Areas and the remaining 67% is located on unprotected, undeveloped areas that have suffered a substantial reduction of approximately 40% from its original distribution. Due to this land-use conversion to agricultural uses, important amounts of the spectacled bear habitat have been lost. This has fragmented their territory and isolated populations to small areas that might result in extirpations in

2632-428: Is related to the time mothers breastfeed (1 year), but keep providing maternal care for an additional year. Breeding maturity is estimated to be reached at between four and seven years of age for both sexes, based solely on captive bears. Females usually give birth for the first time when they are 5 years old and their fecundity is shorter than that of the males, who keep fertility almost all their lives. Something that

2726-601: Is subject to debate and needs to be further evaluated. Legislation against bear hunting exists, but is rarely enforced. This leads to persistence of the poaching problem, even inside protected areas. In 2006, the Spectacled Bear Conservation Society was established in Peru to study and protect the spectacled bear. To evaluate the protected status of the Andean bears researchers evaluated

2820-471: Is the largest land carnivore in that part of the world, although as little as 5% of its diet is composed of meat. Among South America's extant, native land animals, only the Baird's tapir , South American tapir and mountain tapir are heavier than the bear. The spectacled bear is a mid-sized species of bear. Overall, its fur is blackish in colour, though bears may vary from jet black to dark brown and to even

2914-663: Is used to produce barkcloth in Uganda. Pou ( F. religiosa ) leaves' shape inspired one of the standard kbach rachana , decorative elements in Cambodian architecture. Indian banyan ( F. benghalensis ) and the Indian rubber plant, as well as other species, have use in herbalism . The inner bark of an unknown type of wild fig, locally known as urú , was once used by the Moré people  [ es ] of Bolivia to produce

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3008-525: The American black bear ( Ursus americanus ) and Asian black bear ( U. thibetanus ), and the sun bear ( Helarctos malayanus ). In Andean cloud forests, spectacled bears may be active both during the day and night, but specimens in the Peruvian desert are reported to bed down under vegetative cover during the day. Their continued survival alongside humans has depended mostly on their ability to climb even

3102-555: The South American bear , Andean bear , Andean short-faced bear or mountain bear and locally as jukumari ( Aymara and Quechua ), ukumari ( Quechua ) or ukuku , is a species of bear native to the Andes Mountains in northern and western South America . It is the only living species of bear native to South America, and the last remaining short-faced bear (subfamily Tremarctinae ). Its closest relatives are

3196-579: The common fig , whose fingered fig leaf is well known in art and iconography : the weeping fig ( F. benjamina ), a hemiepiphyte with thin, tough leaves on pendulous stalks adapted to its rain forest habitat; the rough-leaved sandpaper figs from Australia; and the creeping fig ( F. pumila ), a vine whose small, hard leaves form a dense carpet of foliage over rocks or garden walls. Moreover, figs with different plant habits have undergone adaptive radiation in different biogeographic regions, leading to very high levels of alpha diversity . In

3290-441: The plain tiger ( Danaus chrysippus ), the giant swallowtail ( Papilio cresphontes ), the brown awl ( Badamia exclamationis ), and Chrysodeixis eriosoma , Choreutidae and Copromorphidae moths . The citrus long-horned beetle ( Anoplophora chinensis ), for example, has larvae that feed on wood , including that of fig trees; it can become a pest in fig plantations. Similarly, the sweet potato whitefly ( Bemisia tabaci )

3384-580: The tropics with a few species extending into the semi-warm temperate zone. The common fig ( F. carica ) is a temperate species native to southwest Asia and the Mediterranean region (from Afghanistan to Portugal), which has been widely cultivated from ancient times for its fruit , also referred to as figs. The fruit of most other species are also edible though they are usually of only local economic importance or eaten as bushfood . However, they are extremely important food resources for wildlife. Figs are also of considerable cultural importance throughout

3478-494: The Andean Bears. One is ex-situ, people that live far from where the bears inhabit; for them, the spectacled bears are usually charismatic symbols of the wilderness, animals that are not aggressive and that are mainly vegetarians.  The other view is in-situ, people that live in areas where the bears inhabit; for them, bears are cattle predators, pests that should be killed as a preventative measure and where any cattle loss

3572-609: The Andes are divided into two parallel Cordilleras – ranges of lofty mountains hyphenated only by occasional passes and massive, glacier-domed strato-volcanoes. Between these two great ranges lies the Central Valley, whose rich soils and temperate climes support much of the country’s modern population. In fact, this has been the case for millennia. Pre-Columbian civilizations have long toiled the rich volcanic soils found here for crops such as corn, legumes, potatoes and other indigenous tubers as well as to produce textiles derived from

3666-690: The Environment, which manages the El Angel National Park, protecting an expansive páramo grassland on the Western Cordillera, opposite the Guandera Biological Station. Guandera was founded in 1994, after Dr. Michael McColm, Executive Director of Ecuador’s Jatun Sacha Foundation was tipped off to the presence of this forest by national field botanists. Shortly after his initial visit, Dr. McColm made

3760-773: The Tremarctinae subfamily, this facial structure has been thought to be an adaptation to a largely carnivorous diet, despite the modern spectacled bears' herbivorous dietary preferences. The spectacled bear's sense of smell is extremely sensitive. They can perceive from the ground when a tree is loaded with ripe fruit. On the other hand, their hearing is moderate and their vision is short. Despite some rare spilling-over into eastern Panama , spectacled bears are mostly restricted to certain areas of northern and western South America. They can range in western Venezuela , Colombia , Ecuador , Peru , western Bolivia , and northwestern Argentina . Its elongated geographical distribution

3854-481: The abundance of epiphytes (plants living on the branches and trunks of trees) is somewhat lower than most cloud forests, giving the trees an appearance more similar to lowland rainforest. Guandera’s namesake, the Guandera trees ( Clusia spp) are another highly unusual characteristic of this forest. Often dominating large groves, the Guandera tree extends aerial roots from its branches into the ground, eventually forming

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3948-421: The bear is one of the few species in its range to exploit these food sources. The spectacled bear has the largest zygomatic mandibular muscles relative to its body size and the shortest muzzle of any living bear, slightly surpassing the relative size of the giant panda 's ( Ailuropoda melanoleuca ) morphology here. Not coincidentally, both species are known for extensively consuming tough, fibrous plants. Unlike

4042-505: The bear its common English name. A 2007 investigation into the mitochondrial DNA of bear species indicates that the subfamily Tremarctinae, which includes the extant spectacled bear, diverged from the Ursinae subfamily approximately 5.7 million years ago. Tremarctinae includes the extinct American giant short-faced and Florida short-faced bears. Spectacled bears are one of four extant bear species that are habitually arboreal , alongside

4136-409: The border of Peru and Ecuador inhabited as great a range of habitat types as the world's brown bears ( Ursus arctos ) now occupy. The best habitats for spectacled bears are humid to very humid montane forests. These cloud forests typically occupy a 500 to 1,000 m (1,600 to 3,300 ft) elevational band between 1,000 and 2,700 m (3,300 and 8,900 ft) depending on latitude. Generally,

4230-481: The breba crop is often destroyed by spring frosts. Some parthenocarpic cultivars of common figs do not require pollination at all, and will produce a crop of figs (albeit sterile ) in the absence of caprifigs and fig wasps. Depending on the species, each fruit can contain hundreds or even thousand of seeds. Figs can be propagated by seeds, cuttings, air-layering or grafting. However, as with any plant, figs grown from seed are not necessarily genetically identical to

4324-461: The central and southern highlands, indigenous communities live directly within or adjacent to paramos, maintaining high altitude crops and domesticated livestock in those regions. This is not the case in Guandera, where the paramo is surrounded by dense forest and human intervention is generally highly transitory. Guandera’s paramo is notable not only for its remoteness – resulting in its being minimally altered by human populations - but also in that it

4418-439: The correspondence between fig and wasp larvae maturation rates, have been cited as support for this hypothesis for many years. Additionally, recent genetic and molecular dating analyses have shown a very close correspondence in the character evolution and speciation phylogenies of these two clades. According to meta-analysis of molecular data for 119 fig species 35% (41) have multiple pollinator wasp species. The real proportion

4512-451: The cubs can see and walk before she leaves with them, this occurs in between three and four months after birth. Females grow more slowly than males. The size of the litter has been positively correlated with both the weight of the female and the abundance and variety of food sources, particularly the degree to which fruiting is temporally predictable. The cubs often stay with the female for one year before striking out on their own. This

4606-544: The demand for industrialized crops continue to expand, the cultivated zone of the valley continues to encroach on the remnant forest surrounding the privately protected Guandera Biological Station. Due to its high altitude and relative remoteness from former seats of power of the Incan Empire as well as modern day Ecuadorian and Colombian population centers, a small strip of native forest within Ecuador’s inter-Andean valley

4700-547: The early Neolithic village Gilgal I (in the Jordan Valley , 13 km, or 8.1 mi, north of Jericho ). These were a parthenogenetic type and thus apparently an early cultivar. This find predates the first known cultivation of grain in the Middle East by many hundreds of years. Numerous species of fig are found in cultivation in domestic and office environments, including: Fig trees have profoundly influenced culture through several religious traditions. Among

4794-483: The education of the public regarding spectacled bears, especially the benefits of conserving the species due to its effect on natural resources. National governments, NGOs and rural communities have made different commitments to conservation of this species along its distribution. Conservation actions in Venezuela date back to the early 1990s, and have been based mostly on environmental education at several levels and

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4888-669: The entire Cordillera Oriental is considered based upon unpublished data. Generally, the only threat against adult bears is humans. The longest-lived captive bear, at the National Zoo in Washington, DC , in the US, attained a lifespan of 36 years and 8 months. Lifespan in the wild has not been studied, but bears are believed to commonly live to 20 years or more unless they run foul of humans. Spectacled bears are more herbivorous than most other bears; normally about 5 to 7% of their diets

4982-497: The establishment of protected areas. The effort of several organisations has led to a widespread recognition of the Andean bear in Venezuelan society, raising it as an emblematic species of conservation efforts in the country, and to the establishment of a 10-year action plan. Evidence regarding the objective effectiveness of these programs (like reducing poaching risk, maintaining population viability, and reducing extinction risk)

5076-533: The extinct Tremarctos floridanus , and the giant short-faced bears ( Arctodus and Arctotherium ), which became extinct at the end of the Pleistocene around 12,000 years ago. Unlike other omnivorous bears, the diet of the spectacled bear is mostly herbivorous. The species is classified as Vulnerable by the IUCN because of habitat loss. The spectacled bear is the only bear native to South America and

5170-411: The family Agaonidae for pollination. Adult plants vary in size from Ficus benghalensis which may cover a hectare (2.5 acres) or more of ground to Ficus nana of New Guinea which never exceeds one meter (forty inches) in height and width. Specific identification of many of the species can be difficult, but members of the genus Ficus are relatively easy to recognize. Many have aerial roots and

5264-420: The female fig trees, the male flower parts fail to develop; they produce the "'edible figs". Fig wasps grow in common fig caprifigs but not in the female syconiums because the female flower is too long for the wasp to successfully lay her eggs in them. Nonetheless, the wasp pollinates the flower with pollen from the caprifig it grew up in. In many situations, the wasp pollinator is unable to escape and dies within

5358-457: The fruit. When the wasp dies, it is broken down by enzymes ( Ficain ) inside the fig. Fig wasps are not known to transmit any diseases harmful to humans. When a caprifig ripens, another caprifig must be ready to be pollinated. In temperate climes, wasps hibernate in figs, and there are distinct crops. Caprifigs have three crops per year; common figs have two. The first crop ( breba ) is larger and juicier, and usually eaten fresh. In cold climates

5452-421: The genus on the basis of breeding system, uniting these four dioecious subgenera into a single dioecious subgenus Ficus . Monoecious figs were classified within the subgenera Urostigma , Pharmacosycea and Sycomorus . This traditional classification has been called into question by recent phylogenetic studies employing genetic methods to investigate the relationships between representative members of

5546-444: The giant panda, the spectacled bear is perhaps the most herbivorous living bear species. These bears also eat agricultural products, such as sugarcane ( Saccharum ssp.), honey (made by Apis ssp.), and maize ( Zea mays ), and have been known to travel above the tree line for berries and more ground-based bromeliads . When food is abundant, such as large corn fields, up to nine individual bears have fed close by each other in

5640-459: The information available about the reproduction of this species has been through observation of captive animals. In captivity, mating is concentrated in between February and September, according to the latitude, and, in the wild, it has been seen how mating may occur at almost any time of the year, but activity normally peaks in April and June, at the beginning of the wet season and corresponding with

5734-461: The light colouring on its chest, neck and face, which may resemble spectacles in some individuals, or the "Andean bear" for its distribution along the Andes. The root trem - comes from a Greek word meaning "hole"; arctos is the Greek word for "bear". Tremarctos is a reference to an unusual hole on the animal's humerus . Ornatus , Latin for "decorated", is a reference to the markings that give

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5828-459: The long term. Therefore, the distribution of the species in the country is set in numerous habitat patches, from which many are small. Ficus About 800, see text Ficus ( / ˈ f aɪ k ə s / or / ˈ f iː k ə s / ) is a genus of about 850 species of woody trees , shrubs , vines , epiphytes and hemiepiphytes in the family Moraceae . Collectively known as fig trees or figs , they are native throughout

5922-513: The more famous species are the sacred fig tree (Pipal, bodhi, bo, or po, Ficus religiosa ) and other banyan figs such as Ficus benghalensis . The oldest living plant of known planting date is a Ficus religiosa tree known as the Sri Maha Bodhi planted in the temple at Anuradhapura , Sri Lanka by King Tissa in 288 BCE. The common fig is one of two significant trees in Islam , and there

6016-429: The most epidemic problem for the species is extensive logging and farming, which has led to habitat loss for the largely tree-dependent bears. Shortage of natural food sources might push bears to feed on crops or livestock, increasing the conflict that usually results in poaching of individuals. Impacts of climate changes on bear habitat and food sources are not fully understood, but might have potential negative impact in

6110-470: The move to protect the portion of the forest now within the Biological Station and with subsequent purchases of private lands the entire protected area now occupies 10 km of primary inter-Andean valley moist, montane forest and paramo. Although similar in many ways to Andean cloud forest, expanses of which still straddle the outer flanks of the Andes in many areas spanning from Venezuela to

6204-571: The near future. As stated, one of the major limitations to the viability of bear populations is human-caused mortality, mainly poaching and habitat loss; but the other big limitation is population size. Therefore, the most effective actions for their viability will be to increase population size and decrease poaching. For these actions to be effective, it is needed to understand where they are carried out, identifying areas where habitat protection and landscape management are realistically capable of maintaining large bear populations. There are two views of

6298-490: The nest (especially ground-nesting birds like tinamous or lapwings ( Vanellus ssp.), arthropods , and carrion . They are occasionally accused of killing livestock, especially cattle , and raiding corn fields. Allegedly, some bears become habituated to eating cattle, but the bears are actually more likely to eat cattle as carrion and some farmers may accidentally assume the spectacled bear killed them. Due to fear of loss of stock, bears may be killed on sight. Most of

6392-449: The north and northernmost Chile and Argentina to south, Guandera’s relative isolation from similar habitat and its geography in the upper altitudes of Ecuador’s inter-Andean valley create distinct and readily observable differences from any other forest type. Although regularly inundated with rain, the presence of clouds actually within the forest is not as usual of an occurrence as with typical cloud forests. Thus, with lower general humidity,

6486-400: The number of symbionts nor their evolutionary relationships are necessarily fixed ecologically. While the morphological characteristics that facilitate the fig-wasp mutualisms are likely to be shared more fully in closer relatives, the absence of unique pairings would make it impossible to do a one-to-one tree comparison and difficult to determine cospeciation. With over 800 species, Ficus

6580-464: The other section of Pharmacosycea , the rest of the monoecious species, and all of the dioecious species. These remaining species are divided into two main monophyletic lineages (though the statistical support for these lineages is not as strong as for the monophyly of the more derived clades within them). One consists of all sections of Urostigma except for section Urostigma s. s. . The other includes section Urostigma s. s. , subgenus Sycomorus , and

6674-528: The ovules, while the short-styled flowers are accessible for egg laying. All the native fig trees of the American continent are hermaphrodites, as well as species like Indian banyan ( F. benghalensis ), weeping fig ( F. benjamina ), Indian rubber plant ( F. elastica ), fiddle-leaved fig ( F. lyrata ), Moreton Bay fig ( F. macrophylla ), Chinese banyan ( F. microcarpa ), sacred fig ( F. religiosa ) and sycamore fig ( F. sycomorus ). The common fig ( Ficus carica )

6768-526: The parent and are only propagated this way for breeding purposes. Each species of fig is pollinated by one or a few specialised wasp species, and therefore plantings of fig species outside of their native range results in effectively sterile individuals. For example, in Hawaii , some 60 species of figs have been introduced, but only four of the wasps that fertilize them, so only those species of figs produce viable seeds there and can become invasive species . This

6862-412: The peak of fruit-ripening. The mating pair are together for one to two weeks, during which they will copulate multiple times for 12–45 minutes at a time. The courtship is based on games and non-aggressive fights while intercourse can be accompanied by loud sounds from both animals. In the wild, births usually occur in the dry season, between December and February but in captivity it occurs all year within

6956-403: The percentage of their habitats included in national and protected areas in 1998.  This evaluation showed that only 18.5% of the bear range was located in 58 protected areas, highlighting that many of them were small, especially those in the northern Andes. The largest park had an area of 2,050 km (790 sq mi) while the median size of 43 parks from Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador

7050-409: The polar bear for the most sexually dimorphic modern bear. A male in captivity that was considered obese weighed 222.5 kg (491 lb). The tail is a mere 7 cm (2.8 in) in length, and the shoulder height is from 60 to 90 cm (23.5 to 35.5 in). Compared to other living bears, this species has a more rounded face with a relatively short and broad snout. In some extinct species of

7144-533: The seasonal patterns of these movements are still unknown. Nowadays, the distribution area of the Tremarctos ornatus is influenced by the human presence, mainly due to habitat destruction and degradation, hunting and fragmentation of populations. This fragmentation is mainly found in Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador and Argentina. It represents several problems to this population because, first, their persistence

7238-858: The species of subgenus Ficus , though the relationships of the sections of these groups to one another are not well resolved. As of April 2024, there are 880 accepted Ficus species according to Plants of the World Online . The following species are typically spreading or climbing lianas : The wood of fig trees is often soft and the latex precludes its use for many purposes. It was used to make mummy caskets in Ancient Egypt . Certain fig species (mainly F. cotinifolia , F. insipida and F. padifolia ) are traditionally used in Mesoamerica to produce papel amate ( Nahuatl : āmatl ). Mutuba ( F. natalensis )

7332-421: The species' distribution. The gestation period is 5.5 to 8.5 months. From one to three cubs may be born, with four being rare and two being the average. The cubs are born with their eyes closed and weigh about 300 to 330 g (11 to 12 oz) each. Although this species does not give birth during the hibernation cycle as do northern bear species, births usually occur in a small den and the female waits until

7426-587: The tallest trees of the Andes . They usually retreat from the presence of humans, often by climbing trees. Once up a tree, they may often build a platform, perhaps to aid in concealment, as well as to rest and store food on. Although spectacled bears are solitary and tend to isolate themselves from one another to avoid competition, they are not territorial. They have even been recorded to feed in small groups at abundant food sources. Males are reported to have an average home range of 23 km (8.9 sq mi) during

7520-919: The trade of bear parts might have commercial value. Their gall bladders appear to be valued in traditional Chinese medicine and can fetch a high price on the international market. Conflicts with humans, however, appear to be the most common cause of poaching in large portions of its distribution. Andean Bears are often suspected of attacking cattle and raiding crops, and are killed for retaliation or in order to avoid further damages. It has been argued that attacks to cattle attributed to Andean bear are partly due to other predators. Raiding of crops can be frequent in areas with diminishing natural resources and extensive crops in former bear habitat, or when problematic individuals get used to human environments. The intensity of poaching can create ecological traps for Andean bears. That is, if bears are attracted to areas of high habitat quality that are also high in poaching risk. Perhaps

7614-413: The tree line, Guandera’s protected area includes an expansive and unique páramo – a type of moist, alpine grassland whose bizarre plant forms create an almost otherworldly landscape. A last haven for the Andean spectacled bear , Andean fox, mountain lion, and the grey-breasted mountain toucan , as well as species found only here – such as an endemic cotinga, it is the last place of its kind. In Ecuador,

7708-502: The tropics, Ficus commonly is the most species-rich plant genus in a particular forest. In Asia, as many as 70 or more species can co-exist. Ficus species richness declines with an increase in latitude in both hemispheres. A description of fig tree cultivation is set out in Ibn al-'Awwam 's 12th-century agricultural work titled, Book on Agriculture . Figs are keystone species in many tropical forest ecosystems . Their fruit are

7802-443: The tropics, both as objects of worship and for their many practical uses. Ficus is a pantropical genus of trees, shrubs, and vines occupying a wide variety of ecological niches ; most are evergreen , but some deciduous species are found in areas outside of the tropics and to higher elevations. Fig species are characterized by their unique inflorescence and distinctive pollination syndrome , which uses wasp species belonging to

7896-415: The two. In Guandera, the transition is dramatically abrupt – one walks from the protective canopy of montane forest directly into grassland, as if someone drew a magic line. In fact, the only semblance of transition is the presence of paramo “islands” within the upper forest and vice versa, the presence of forest “islands” in the lower paramo. At one point it was speculated that such unusual vegetative zonation

7990-406: The ursid bears whose fourth premolar has a more well-developed protoconid, an adaptation for shearing flesh, the fourth premolar of spectacled bears has blunt lophs with three pulp cavities instead of two, and can have three roots instead of the two that characterize ursid bears. The musculature and tooth characteristics are designed to support the stresses of grinding and crushing vegetation. Besides

8084-407: The various sections of each subgenus. Of Corner's original subgeneric divisions of the genus, only Sycomorus is supported as monophyletic in the majority of phylogenetic studies. Notably, there is no clear split between dioecious and monoecious lineages. One of the two sections of Pharmacosycea , a monoecious group, form a monophyletic clade basal to the rest of the genus, which includes

8178-511: The wet season and 27 km (10 sq mi) during the dry season. Females are reported to have an average home range of 10 km (3.9 sq mi) in the wet season and 7 km (2.7 sq mi) in the dry season . When encountered by humans or other spectacled bears, they will react in a docile but cautious manner, unless the intruder is seen as a threat or a mother's cubs are endangered. Like other bears, mothers are protective of their young and have attacked poachers. There

8272-453: The wetter these forests are the more food species there are that can support bears. Occasionally, they may reach altitudes as low as 250 m (820 ft), but are not typically found below 1,900 m (6,200 ft) in the foothills . They can even range up to the mountain snow line at over 5,000 m (16,000 ft) in elevation. Therefore, it is well known that bears use all these types of habitats in regional movements; however,

8366-536: The wool of alpacas and llamas , native camelids domesticated by these peoples. Just prior to European contact, Guandera lay in the northernmost reaches of the Incan Empire and to this day is perched above one of Ecuador’s richest agricultural zones. The valley below is intensively cultivated by mestizo farmers – descendants of the Incas whose blood is mixed with that of their European conquerors. As populations and

8460-595: Was 1,250 km (480 sq mi), which may result too small to maintain a sustainable bear population.  Therefore, these researchers stated the importance of the creation of habitat blocks outside protected areas since they might provide opportunities for the protection of these animals. Researchers suggest the following spectacled bear conservation strategies: Spectacled bears in Ecuador live in approximately 50,000 km (19,000 sq mi) of paramo and cloud forest habitats. About one-third of this area

8554-538: Was able to persist through modern times. This remnant forest is situated on the valley-side flanks of the Andean Eastern Cordillera within Ecuador’s northern Carchi Province. The entirety of remaining forest, largely still unprotected and under a steady state of conversion into agricultural lands, spans from just south of the border with Colombia southward to the town of Bolivar, where the Central Valley dips into considerably low altitudes, resulting in

8648-952: Was apparently popular during the 19th century in some rural areas of Latin-America. In the costumbrist novel María by Colombian writer Jorge Isaacs , it was portrayed as an activity for privileged young men in Colombia. Tales regarding pet bears are also known from documents about the Ecuadorian aristocracy of that time. These threats might have diminished in recent years, but there are still isolated reports of captive bears confiscated in rural areas, which usually are unable to adapt again to their natural habitat and must be kept in zoological facilities. Religious or magical beliefs might be motivations for killing Andean bears, especially in places where bears are related to myths of disappearing women or children, or where bear parts are related to traditional medicine or superstitions. In this context,

8742-686: Was said to be a fig tree between the roots of which the Sarasvati River sprang forth; it is usually held to be a sacred fig but more probably is Ficus virens . According to the Kikuyu people , sacrifices to Ngai were performed under a sycomore tree (Mũkũyũ) and if one was not available, a fig tree (Mũgumo) would be used. The common fig tree is cited in the Bible , where in Genesis 3:7, Adam and Eve cover their nakedness with fig leaves. The fig fruit

8836-465: Was the result of human activities such as the grazing of domestic animals or burning of the grasslands. However, French soil scientists have determined that the soils of the forest and the paramos are dramatically different and that the two have persisted side by side like this for millennia, inclusive of the enigmatic “islands”. Guandera’s paramo is certainly one of Ecuador’s most isolated paramos, and thus buffered from human influence. In fact, in most of

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