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129-447: Otto von Guericke ( UK : / ˈ ɡ ɛər ɪ k ə / GAIR -ik-ə , US : / ˈ ɡ ( w ) ɛər ɪ k ə , - k i / G(W)AIR -ik-ə, -⁠ee , German: [ˈɔtoː fɔn ˈɡeːʁɪkə] ; spelled Gericke until 1666; 30 November [ O.S. 20 November] 1602 – 21 May [ O.S. 11 May] 1686) was a German scientist, inventor, mathematician and physicist. His pioneering scientific work,

258-692: A better understanding of the brewing process. Today, almost all brewery equipment is made of stainless steel . During the Industrial Revolution, the production of beer moved from artisanal manufacture to industrial manufacture , and domestic manufacture ceased to be significant by the end of the 19th century. In addition to changes in manufacturing capacity, the number of breweries grew throughout industrialization. For example in America, number of breweries rose from 431 to 4,131 between 1850 and 1873. A handful of major breakthroughs have led to

387-559: A century as Received Pronunciation (RP). However, due to language evolution and changing social trends, some linguists argue that RP is losing prestige or has been replaced by another accent, one that the linguist Geoff Lindsey for instance calls Standard Southern British English. Others suggest that more regionally-oriented standard accents are emerging in England. Even in Scotland and Northern Ireland, RP exerts little influence in

516-470: A characteristic that was of great use for the promotion of a great leader. Curious and inspired by the Copernican cosmology and hardly understanding new ideas of vast, endless, empty space where light would propagate, bodies of matter could move about unhindered, and sound cannot be detected, von Guericke set about replicating this nothing phenomenon on Earth. Von Guericke first started investigating

645-440: A conical bottom and a cylindrical top. The cone's aperture is typically around 70°, an angle that will allow the yeast to flow smoothly out through the cone's apex at the end of fermentation, but is not so steep as to take up too much vertical space. CCVs can handle both fermenting and conditioning in the same tank. At the end of fermentation, the yeast and other solids have fallen to the cone's apex can be simply flushed out through

774-631: A distance", except the former notion remained purely qualitative and there is no inkling of the fundamental "action and reaction" principle. Von Guericke describes his work on electrostatics in Chapter 15 of Book IV of the Experimenta Nova . In a letter of November 1661 to Fr. Schott, reproduced in the Technica Curiosa , he notes that the then projected Book IV would be concerned with "cosmic potencies" ( virtutes mundanae ). Accepting

903-562: A formal education in the subject from institutions such as the Siebel Institute of Technology , VLB Berlin , Heriot-Watt University , American Brewers Guild, University of California at Davis , University of Wisconsin , Olds College or Niagara College . They may hold membership in professional organisations such as the Brewers Association , Master Brewers Association , American Society of Brewing Chemists ,

1032-607: A goal to which von Guericke had devoted some twenty years of diplomatic effort. On behalf of Magdeburg, he was the first signatory to the Treaty of Klosterberg in 1666 whereby Magdeburg accepted a garrison of Brandenburg troops (upon the withdrawal of the imperial garrison) and the obligation to pay dues to the Great Elector, Friedrich Wilhelm I of Brandenburg . Despite the Elector's crushing of Magdeburg's political aspirations,

1161-508: A greater movement, normally [əʊ], [əʉ] or [əɨ]. Dropping a morphological grammatical number , in collective nouns , is stronger in British English than North American English. This is to treat them as plural when once grammatically singular, a perceived natural number prevails, especially when applying to institutional nouns and groups of people. The noun 'police', for example, undergoes this treatment: Police are investigating

1290-406: A lesser class or social status and often discounted or considered of a low intelligence. Another contribution to the standardisation of British English was the introduction of the printing press to England in the mid-15th century. In doing so, William Caxton enabled a common language and spelling to be dispersed among the entirety of England at a much faster rate. Samuel Johnson's A Dictionary of

1419-433: A linen cord up to a range of a cubit and more and can attract at that distance." Unknown to them at the time, this "mysterious" attraction and repulsion they had been witnessing was actually electrical conduction . The key Chapter 15 is titled "On an experiment, in which these potencies, listed above, can be evoked by the rubbing of a sulphur ball." In Section 3 of this chapter, he describes how light bodies are repelled from

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1548-509: A more carbonated beer. When the sugars in the fermenting beer have been almost completely digested, the fermentation process slows and the yeast cells begin to die and settle at the bottom of the tank. At this stage, especially if the beer is cooled to around freezing, most of the remaining live yeast cells will quickly become dormant and settle, along with the heavier protein chains, due simply to gravity and molecular dehydration. Conditioning can occur in fermentation tanks with cooling jackets. If

1677-714: A notable exception). Heating in the brewhouse usually is achieved through pressurized steam, although direct-fire systems are not unusual in small breweries. Likewise, cooling in other areas of the brewery is typically done by cooling jackets on tanks, which allow the brewer to control precisely the temperature on each tank individually, although whole-room cooling is also common. Today, modern brewing plants perform myriad analyses on their beers for quality control purposes. Shipments of ingredients are analyzed to correct for variations. Samples are pulled at almost every step and tested for [oxygen] content, unwanted microbial infections, and other beer-aging compounds. A representative sample of

1806-639: A port at the apex. Open fermentation vessels are also used, often for show in brewpubs, and in Europe in wheat beer fermentation. These vessels have no tops, making it easy to harvest top-fermenting yeasts. The open tops of the vessels increase the risk of contamination, but proper cleaning procedures help to control the risk. Fermentation tanks are typically made of stainless steel . Simple cylindrical tanks with beveled ends are arranged vertically, and conditioning tanks are usually laid out horizontally. A very few breweries still use wooden vats for fermentation but wood

1935-496: A precaution against an outbreak of the plague then threatening Magdeburg, he and his second wife Dorothea moved to Hamburg , where their son Hans Otto lived. There von Guericke died peacefully on May 11 (Julian) 1686, to the day 55 years after he had fled the siege in 1631. His body was returned to Magdeburg for interment in the Ulrichskirche  [ de ] on May 23 (Julian). The Otto von Guericke University Magdeburg

2064-659: A process called T-glottalisation . National media, being based in London, have seen the glottal stop spreading more widely than it once was in word endings, not being heard as "no [ʔ] " and bottle of water being heard as "bo [ʔ] le of wa [ʔ] er". It is still stigmatised when used at the beginning and central positions, such as later , while often has all but regained /t/ . Other consonants subject to this usage in Cockney English are p , as in pa [ʔ] er and k as in ba [ʔ] er. In most areas of England and Wales, outside

2193-484: A range of blurring and ambiguity". Variations exist in formal (both written and spoken) English in the United Kingdom. For example, the adjective wee is almost exclusively used in parts of Scotland, north-east England, Northern Ireland, Ireland, and occasionally Yorkshire , whereas the adjective little is predominant elsewhere. Nevertheless, there is a meaningful degree of uniformity in written English within

2322-520: A regional accent or dialect. However, about 2% of Britons speak with an accent called Received Pronunciation (also called "the King's English", "Oxford English" and " BBC English" ), that is essentially region-less. It derives from a mixture of the Midlands and Southern dialects spoken in London in the early modern period. It is frequently used as a model for teaching English to foreign learners. In

2451-616: A sulphur sphere which has been rubbed with a dry hand, and are not again attracted until they have touched another body. Oldenburg's review of the Experimenta Nova (November 1672) in the Proceedings of the Royal Society sceptically observes: "How far this globe may be confided in, the Tryals and Consideration of some ingenious person here may perhaps inform us hereafter." In fact, Robert Boyle repeated von Guericke's experiments for

2580-474: A vacuum in the interval between them – that is to say that nature abhors a void." Pascal goes on to claim that this abhorrence of a void is, however, a limited force and thus that the creation of a vacuum is possible. There were three broad currents of opinion from which von Guericke dissented. Firstly, there was the Aristotelian view that there simply was no void and that everything that exists objectively

2709-429: A vacuum seal. The air pressure outside held the halves together so tightly that sixteen horses, eight harnessed to each side of the globe, could not pull the halves apart. It would have required more than 4,000 pounds of force to separate them. It is estimated that by pumping the air out of these spheres, he was able to reduce the internal pressure to roughly 1/25 of an atmosphere . With his experiments Guericke disproved

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2838-466: A view of the nature of space similar to that later espoused by Newton . He is explicitly critical of the plenist views of Aristotle and of their adoption by his younger contemporary Descartes . A particular and repeated target of his criticism is the manner in which the "nature abhors a vacuum" principle had migrated from simply a matter of experiment to a high principle of physics which could be invoked to explain phenomena such as suction but which itself

2967-483: Is a great difference. In particular, Gilbert in his book De Magnete claims that electrical attraction is caused by the effluence of a humour, that the humid seeks the humid and this is the cause of the attraction. Moreover in Philosophia Magnetica , Book 2, Chapter 21, Cabeo criticises Gilbert but does admit that this attraction is created by the agency of an effluent. Humidity does not play any role but

3096-725: Is also due to London-centric influences. Examples of R-dropping are car and sugar , where the R is not pronounced. British dialects differ on the extent of diphthongisation of long vowels, with southern varieties extensively turning them into diphthongs, and with northern dialects normally preserving many of them. As a comparison, North American varieties could be said to be in-between. Long vowels /iː/ and /uː/ are usually preserved, and in several areas also /oː/ and /eː/, as in go and say (unlike other varieties of English, that change them to [oʊ] and [eɪ] respectively). Some areas go as far as not diphthongising medieval /iː/ and /uː/, that give rise to modern /aɪ/ and /aʊ/; that is, for example, in

3225-425: Is an optional process. Many craft brewers simply remove the coagulated and settled solids and forgo active filtration. In localities where a tax assessment is collected by government pursuant to local laws, any additional filtration may be done using an active filtering system, the filtered product finally passing into a calibrated vessel for measurement just after any cold conditioning and prior to final packaging where

3354-473: Is based on British English, but has more influence from American English , often grouped together due to their close proximity. British English, for example, is the closest English to Indian English, but Indian English has extra vocabulary and some English words are assigned different meanings. Brewery The diversity of size in breweries is matched by the diversity of processes, degrees of automation , and kinds of beer produced in breweries. A brewery

3483-505: Is difficult to keep clean and infection-free and must be repitched often, perhaps yearly. After high kräusen, the point at which fermentation is most active and copious foam is produced, a valve known in German as the spundapparat may be put on the tanks to allow the carbon dioxide produced by the yeast to naturally carbonate the beer. This bung device can regulate the pressure to produce different types of beer; greater pressure produces

3612-444: Is in a letter to Fr. Schott of November 1661 ( Technica Curiosa , p. 37) where he writes: "I have observed the variation in the weight of the air by using a little man (i.e. a statue in the form of one) who hangs from a wall in my hypocaust where it floats on air in a glass tube and uses a finger to show the weight or lightness of the air. At the same time it indicates whether or not it is raining in nearby localities or whether there

3741-511: Is in the category of substance. The general plenist position lost credibility in the 17th century, owing primarily to the success of Newtonian mechanics. It was revived again in the 19th century as a theory of an all-pervading aether and again lost plausibility with the success of Special Relativity . Secondly, there was the Augustinian position of an intimate relation between space, time, and matter; all three, according to St. Augustine in

3870-795: Is included in style guides issued by various publishers including The Times newspaper, the Oxford University Press and the Cambridge University Press . The Oxford University Press guidelines were originally drafted as a single broadsheet page by Horace Henry Hart, and were at the time (1893) the first guide of their type in English; they were gradually expanded and eventually published, first as Hart's Rules , and in 2002 as part of The Oxford Manual of Style . Comparable in authority and stature to The Chicago Manual of Style for published American English ,

3999-417: Is no reason to doubt von Guericke's assertion that the work was essentially finished by March 1663. Throughout Books II and III he returns again and again to the theme of there being no abhorrence of a vacuum and that all the phenomena explained by this supposed principle are in fact attributable to the pressure of the atmosphere in conjunction with various incorporeal potencies which he held to be acting. Thus

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4128-520: Is now northwest Germany and the northern Netherlands. The resident population at this time was generally speaking Common Brittonic —the insular variety of Continental Celtic , which was influenced by the Roman occupation. This group of languages ( Welsh , Cornish , Cumbric ) cohabited alongside English into the modern period, but due to their remoteness from the Germanic languages , influence on English

4257-541: Is on page 39 of the Technica Curiosa , where Schott notes that von Guericke had mentioned them in a letter of July 22, 1656. Schott goes on to quote a subsequent letter of von Guericke of August 4, 1657, in which he states that he now had carried out the experiment, at considerable cost, with 12 horses. The 1660s marked the ultimate end for the Magdeburg citizen's hope of achieving Free Imperial City status,

4386-695: Is stroked or rubbed not only does it attract all light objects, but it sometimes arbitrarily also repels them before attracting them again. Sometimes indeed it doesn't even attract them again." Von Guericke was aware of both Gilbert 's book On the Magnet and Magnetic bodies and on the great magnet the Earth ( De Magnete ) published in 1600 and of the Jesuit Niccolo Cabeo 's Philosophia Magnetica (1629). He does not explicitly acknowledge any anticipation of his demonstration of electrostatic repulsion by

4515-438: Is taken as a misprint for "motum", then the translation is simply "such motion") is an attraction by the gravity of the attracting body." In Book IV, Chapter 8 of the Experimenta Nova von Guericke is at pains to point out the difference between his own "incorporeal potency" views and Cabeo's more Aristotelian conclusions. He writes: "Writers who have written on magnetism, always confuse it with electrical attraction, although there

4644-436: Is that space is a creation of the human imagination. Thus, it is not truly objective in the sense in which matter is objective. The later theories of Leibniz and Kant seem inspired by this general outlook, but the denial of the objectivity of space has not been scientifically fruitful. Von Guericke sidestepped the vexing question of the meaning of "nothing" by asserting that all objective reality fell into one of two categories –

4773-463: Is the case for English used by European Union institutions. In China, both British English and American English are taught. The UK government actively teaches and promotes English around the world and operates in over 200 countries . English is a West Germanic language that originated from the Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Britain by Germanic settlers from various parts of what

4902-493: Is typically divided into distinct sections, with each section reserved for one part of the brewing process. Beer may have been known in Neolithic Europe and was mainly brewed on a domestic scale. In some form, it can be traced back almost 5000 years to Mesopotamian writings describing daily rations of beer and bread to workers. Before the rise of production breweries, the production of beer took place at home and

5031-420: Is unusually stormy weather at sea." In a subsequent letter of December 30, 1661 ( Technica Curiosa p. 52) he gives a somewhat amplified account. His barometer thus prepared the way for meteorology . His later works focused on electricity. He invented the "Elektrisiermaschine", a version of which is illustrated in the engraving by Hubert-François Gravelot , c. 1750. This device, which is usually identified as

5160-547: The Chambers Dictionary , and the Collins Dictionary record actual usage rather than attempting to prescribe it. In addition, vocabulary and usage change with time; words are freely borrowed from other languages and other varieties of English, and neologisms are frequent. For historical reasons dating back to the rise of London in the ninth century, the form of language spoken in London and

5289-521: The Technica Curiosa . The demonstration in the Elector's Library at Cölln an der Spree took place in November 1663 and was recorded by a tutor to the Elector's sons. (Schneider p. 113.) A number of experiments, such as the rather cruel testing of the effect of a vacuum on birds and fish ( Experimenta Nova , Book III, Chapter XVI), are not described in the Technica Curiosa . Although the Experimenta Nova does contain correspondence from 1665, there

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5418-534: The British Isles taken as a single umbrella variety, for instance additionally incorporating Scottish English , Welsh English , and Northern Irish English . Tom McArthur in the Oxford Guide to World English acknowledges that British English shares "all the ambiguities and tensions [with] the word 'British' and as a result can be used and interpreted in two ways, more broadly or more narrowly, within

5547-573: The Confessions (Ch. XI) and the City of God (Book XI, Ch. VI), came into being as a unity and ways of speaking that purport to separate them – such as "outside the universe" or "before the beginning of the universe" are, in fact, meaningless. Augustine's way of thinking is also attractive to many and seems to have a strong resonance with General Relativity . The third view, which von Guericke discusses at length, but does not attribute to any individual,

5676-658: The East Midlands became standard English within the Court, and ultimately became the basis for generally accepted use in the law, government, literature and education in Britain. The standardisation of British English is thought to be from both dialect levelling and a thought of social superiority. Speaking in the Standard dialect created class distinctions; those who did not speak the standard English would be considered of

5805-975: The Leipzig University . However, in 1620 his studies were disrupted by his father's death. He briefly returned home before continuing his studies at the Academia Julia in Helmstedt and the universities of Jena and Leiden . It was at Leiden that he first attended courses on mathematics, physics and military engineering . He concluded his academic education with a nine-month Grand Tour to France and England. Upon his return to Magdeburg in 1626 he married Margarethe Alemann, with whom he had three children (Anna Catherine, Hans Otto, and Jacob Christopher) before her untimely death in 1645. Anna Catherine and Jacob Christopher both died in infancy and in 1652 von Guericke married Dorothea Lentke. Von Guericke

5934-591: The Reichstag in Ratisbon in 1654, he was invited to demonstrate his experiments on the vacuum before the highest dignitaries of the Holy Roman Empire. He built a vacuum pump, pumped air out of two joined Magdeburg hemispheres , attached a team of horses to each side, and had them pull. He demonstrated this again to the King of Prussia in 1663 and was awarded a lifetime pension. One of these dignitaries,

6063-493: The Royal Spanish Academy with Spanish. Standard British English differs notably in certain vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation features from standard American English and certain other standard English varieties around the world. British and American spelling also differ in minor ways. The accent, or pronunciation system, of standard British English, based in southeastern England, has been known for over

6192-490: The Scots language or Scottish Gaelic ). Each group includes a range of dialects, some markedly different from others. The various British dialects also differ in the words that they have borrowed from other languages. Around the middle of the 15th century, there were points where within the 5 major dialects there were almost 500 ways to spell the word though . Following its last major survey of English Dialects (1949–1950),

6321-763: The UEFA Champions League with its namesake lager; Carlsberg sponsors the English Premier League as well as the 2012 and 2016 UEFA European Championships . Meanwhile, the AB InBev Group supports the FA Cup and the FIFA World Cup . The head brewer (UK) or brewmaster (US) is in charge of the production of beer. The major breweries employ engineers with a chemistry / biotechnology background. Brewmasters may have had

6450-573: The University of Leeds has started work on a new project. In May 2007 the Arts and Humanities Research Council awarded a grant to Leeds to study British regional dialects. The team are sifting through a large collection of examples of regional slang words and phrases turned up by the "Voices project" run by the BBC , in which they invited the public to send in examples of English still spoken throughout

6579-610: The West Country and other near-by counties of the UK, the consonant R is not pronounced if not followed by a vowel, lengthening the preceding vowel instead. This phenomenon is known as non-rhoticity . In these same areas, a tendency exists to insert an R between a word ending in a vowel and a next word beginning with a vowel. This is called the intrusive R . It could be understood as a merger, in that words that once ended in an R and words that did not are no longer treated differently. This

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6708-611: The brewer expects to evaporate . Fermentation begins as soon as yeast is added to the cooled wort. This is also the point at which the product is first called beer. It is during this stage that fermentable sugars won from the malt (maltose, maltotriose, glucose, fructose and sucrose) are metabolized into alcohol and carbon dioxide . Fermentation tanks come in many shapes and sizes, from enormous cylindroconical vessels that can look like storage silos , to 20- litre (5  US gal ) glass carboys used by homebrewers. Most breweries today use cylindroconical vessels (CCVs), which have

6837-438: The starches in the grain into sugars , especially maltose . Lautering is the separation of the extracts won during mashing from the spent grain to create wort . It is achieved in either a lauter tun , a wide vessel with a false bottom, or a mash filter, a plate-and-frame filter designed for this kind of separation. Lautering has two stages: first wort run-off, during which the extract is separated in an undiluted state from

6966-434: The vacuum pump . His model consisting of a piston and an air gun cylinder with two-way flaps designed to pull air out of whatever vessel it was connected to, and used it to investigate the properties of the vacuum in many experiments. Guericke demonstrated the force of air pressure with dramatic experiments. In 1657, he machined two 20-inch diameter hemispheres and pumped all the air out of them, locking them together with

7095-629: The 21st century. RP, while long established as the standard English accent around the globe due to the spread of the British Empire , is distinct from the standard English pronunciation in some parts of the world; most prominently, RP notably contrasts with standard North American accents. In the 21st century, dictionaries like the Oxford English Dictionary , the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English ,

7224-602: The Archbishop Elector Johann Philipp von Schönborn , bought von Guericke's apparatus from him and had it sent to his Jesuit College at Würzburg . One of the professors at the College, Fr. Gaspar Schott , entered into friendly correspondence with von Guericke and thus it was that, at the age of 55, von Guericke's work was first published as an Appendix to a book by Fr. Schott – Mechanica Hydraulico-pneumatica – published in 1657. This book came to

7353-494: The Earth's "conservative potency" ( virtus conservativa ) provided the explanation for the fact that the Earth retains its atmosphere though travelling through space. In countering the objection of a Dr. Deusing that the weight of the atmosphere would simply crush the bodies of all living things, he shows explicit awareness of the key property of a fluid – that it exerts pressure equally across all planes. In Chapter XXX of Book III he writes: "Dr. Deusing ought to have borne in mind that

7482-836: The English Language (1755) was a large step in the English-language spelling reform , where the purification of language focused on standardising both speech and spelling. By the early 20th century, British authors had produced numerous books intended as guides to English grammar and usage, a few of which achieved sufficient acclaim to have remained in print for long periods and to have been reissued in new editions after some decades. These include, most notably of all, Fowler's Modern English Usage and The Complete Plain Words by Sir Ernest Gowers . Detailed guidance on many aspects of writing British English for publication

7611-666: The Germanic schwein ) is the animal in the field bred by the occupied Anglo-Saxons and pork (like the French porc ) is the animal at the table eaten by the occupying Normans. Another example is the Anglo-Saxon cu meaning cow, and the French bœuf meaning beef. Cohabitation with the Scandinavians resulted in a significant grammatical simplification and lexical enrichment of the Anglo-Frisian core of English;

7740-922: The Oxford Manual is a fairly exhaustive standard for published British English that writers can turn to in the absence of specific guidance from their publishing house. British English is the basis of, and very similar to, Commonwealth English . Commonwealth English is English as spoken and written in the Commonwealth countries , though often with some local variation. This includes English spoken in Australia , Malta , New Zealand , Nigeria , and South Africa . It also includes South Asian English used in South Asia, in English varieties in Southeast Asia , and in parts of Africa. Canadian English

7869-547: The Preface to the Reader he claims to have finished the book on March 14, 1663, though publication was delayed for another nine years until 1672. In 1664, his work again appeared in print, again through the good offices of Gaspar Schott, the first section of whose book Technica Curiosa , titled Mirabilia Magdeburgica , was dedicated to von Guericke's work. The earliest reference to the celebrated Magdeburg hemispheres experiment

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7998-528: The Royal Society in November 1672 and February 1673. British English British English (abbreviations: BrE , en-GB , and BE ) is the set of varieties of the English language native to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland . More narrowly, it can refer specifically to the English language in England , or, more broadly, to the collective dialects of English throughout

8127-712: The South East, there are significantly different accents; the Cockney accent spoken by some East Londoners is strikingly different from Received Pronunciation (RP). Cockney rhyming slang can be (and was initially intended to be) difficult for outsiders to understand, although the extent of its use is often somewhat exaggerated. Londoners speak with a mixture of accents, depending on ethnicity, neighbourhood, class, age, upbringing, and sundry other factors. Estuary English has been gaining prominence in recent decades: it has some features of RP and some of Cockney. Immigrants to

8256-550: The UK in recent decades have brought many more languages to the country and particularly to London. Surveys started in 1979 by the Inner London Education Authority discovered over 125 languages being spoken domestically by the families of the inner city's schoolchildren. Notably Multicultural London English , a sociolect that emerged in the late 20th century spoken mainly by young, working-class people in multicultural parts of London . Since

8385-576: The United Kingdom , as well as within the countries themselves. The major divisions are normally classified as English English (or English as spoken in England (which is itself broadly grouped into Southern English , West Country , East and West Midlands English and Northern English ), Northern Irish English (in Northern Ireland), Welsh English (not to be confused with the Welsh language ), and Scottish English (not to be confused with

8514-426: The United Kingdom, and this could be described by the term British English . The forms of spoken English, however, vary considerably more than in most other areas of the world where English is spoken and so a uniform concept of British English is more difficult to apply to the spoken language. Globally, countries that are former British colonies or members of the Commonwealth tend to follow British English, as

8643-465: The West Scottish accent. Phonological features characteristic of British English revolve around the pronunciation of the letter R, as well as the dental plosive T and some diphthongs specific to this dialect. Once regarded as a Cockney feature, in a number of forms of spoken British English, /t/ has become commonly realised as a glottal stop [ʔ] when it is in the intervocalic position, in

8772-407: The above two, these included the extraction of air using a vacuum pump, the extinction of a flame in a sealed vessel, the raising of water by suction, a demonstration that air has weight, and a demonstration of how fog and mist can be produced in a sealed vessel. The Mechanica Hydraulico-pneumatica also provides the earliest drawing of von Guericke's vacuum pump. This corresponds to the description in

8901-622: The adverts printed on football team's kit. For example, Liverpool F.C. had the logo of the Denmark-based Carlsberg brewery group on the front of its shirts for nearly twenty years, from 1992 to 2010. Nowadays major brewing corporations are involved in sponsorship on a number of different levels. The prevailing trend is for the leading brand not to be linked to individual teams; rather, they achieve visibility as sponsor of tournaments and leagues, so all fans can engage with them regardless of which team they support. Heineken sponsors

9030-456: The agitated and attenuated air returns to the amber body sweeping along with it whatever dust or small bodies are in its way'. We however, who in the previous chapter, take the attraction of the sulphur ball as electrical in nature and operating through a conservative potency, cannot admit that the air plays a role in producing the attraction. Experiment visibly shows that this sulphur globe (once it has been rubbed) also exercises its potency through

9159-422: The air does not just press on our heads but flows all around us. Just as it presses from above on the head, it likewise presses on the soles of the feet from below and simultaneously on all parts of the body from all directions." In the Experimenta Nova , Book III, Chapter 20, von Guericke reports on a barometer he had constructed and its application to weather forecasting. The earliest reference to his barometer

9288-551: The attention of Robert Boyle who, stimulated by it, embarked on his own experiments on air pressure and the vacuum, and in 1660 published New Experiments Physico-Mechanical touching the Spring of Air and its Effects . The following year this was translated into Latin and, made aware of it in correspondence with Fr. Schott, von Guericke acquired a copy. In the decade following the first publication of his own work von Guericke, in addition to his diplomatic and administrative commitments,

9417-405: The attraction is brought about purely by the agency of an effluent, by which the air is disturbed. After the initial impulse, the air returns to the amber again taking with it little particles. He (Cabeo) concludes by saying: 'I say therefore that from amber or any other electrically attracting body, a very rarefied effluent is emitted which dispels and attenuates the air, extremely agitating it. Then

9546-488: The award of the grant in 2007, Leeds University stated: that they were "very pleased"—and indeed, "well chuffed"—at receiving their generous grant. He could, of course, have been "bostin" if he had come from the Black Country , or if he was a Scouser he would have been well "made up" over so many spondoolicks, because as a Geordie might say, £460,000 is a "canny load of chink". Most people in Britain speak with

9675-627: The beer is put into the containers for shipment or sale. The container may be a bottle , can , of keg , cask or bulk tank. Filters come in many types. Many use pre-made filtration media such as sheets or candles. Kieselguhr, a fine powder of diatomaceous earth , can be introduced into the beer and circulated through screens to form a filtration bed. Filtration ratings are divided into rough, fine, and sterile. Rough filters remove yeasts and other solids, leaving some cloudiness, while finer filters can remove body and color. Sterile filters remove almost all microorganisms. Brewing companies range widely in

9804-491: The beer's marketing, sales, and distribution, while leaving the brewing and packaging to the producer-brewery (which confusingly may also be referred to as a contract brewer). Often the contract brewing is performed when a small brewery can not supply enough beer to meet demands and contracts with a larger brewery to help alleviate their supply issues. Some breweries do not own a brewing facility, these contract brewers have been criticized by traditional brewing companies for avoiding

9933-815: The beer. Most brewers would produce enough beer during winter to last through the summer, and store it in underground cellars, or even caves, to protect it from summer's heat. The discovery of microbes by Louis Pasteur was instrumental in the control of fermentation. The idea that yeast was a microorganism that worked on wort to produce beer led to the isolation of a single yeast cell by Emil Christian Hansen . Pure yeast cultures allow brewers to pick out yeasts for their fermentation characteristics, including flavor profiles and fermentation ability. Some breweries in Belgium, however, still rely on "spontaneous" fermentation for their beers (see lambic ). The development of hydrometers and thermometers changed brewing by allowing

10062-404: The biographical section above, carried out between July 1656 and August 1657. In Chapter IV of Book III he describes a new and much-improved design of vacuum pump and attributes its invention to the need for a more easily transportable machine with which he could demonstrate his experiments to Frederick William, who had expressed the desire to see them. The new pump is also described on p. 67 of

10191-499: The brewer more control of the process, and greater knowledge of the results. Breweries today are made predominantly of stainless steel , although vessels often have a decorative copper cladding for a nostalgic look. Stainless steel has many favourable characteristics that make it a well-suited material for brewing equipment. It imparts no flavour in beer, it reacts with very few chemicals, which means almost any cleaning solution can be used on it (concentrated chlorine [bleach] being

10320-445: The brewer to make greater quantities of beer, as human power was no longer a limiting factor in moving and stirring. Carl von Linde , along with others, is credited with developing the refrigeration machine in 1871. Refrigeration allowed beer to be produced year-round, and always at the same temperature. Yeast is very sensitive to temperature, and, if a beer were produced during summer, the yeast would impart unpleasant flavours onto

10449-532: The city council. However, in 1618, the Thirty Years' War had broken out. This exceptionally long, tragic and destructive conflict would soon also descend upon Magdeburg. Only a few years later, he had luckily fled from the city before an army of the imperial Catholic League , led by the Count of Tilly had completely surrounded and cut off Magdeburg. The attack culminated in the single most devastating event of

10578-417: The claim of the preface to the Experimenta Nova that the entire work had been essentially completed before March 1663, von Guericke can be fairly credited with inventing a primitive form of frictional electrical machine before 1663. His electrostatic generator was created using a sulphur globe attached to an iron rod. By rubbing the sphere with a dry hand, von Guericke was able to impart a charge imbalance on

10707-510: The concept of a vacuum through the use of fire pumps by pumping water out of wooden barrels. However, he soon realised that the porosity of wood was allowing unwanted water, filled with dissolved air, to enter. The pressure fluctuations experienced inside the barrel were allowing this encapsulated air to escape: spoiling the vacuum inside. In 1647 he turned his focus to pumping out enclosed air instead of water to solve this problem. His scientific and diplomatic pursuits finally intersected when, at

10836-825: The costs associated with a physical brewery. Gypsy, or nomad, brewing usually falls under the category of contract brewing. Gypsy breweries generally do not have their own equipment or premises. They operate on a temporary or itinerant basis out of the facilities of another brewery, generally making "one-off" special occasion beers. The trend of gypsy brewing spread early in Scandinavia . Their beers and collaborations later spread to America and Australia. Gypsy brewers typically use facilities of larger makers with excess capacity . Prominent examples include Pretty Things, Stillwater Artisanal Ales, Gunbarrel Brewing Company, Mikkeller , and Evil Twin . For example, one of Mikkeller's founders, Mikkel Borg Bjergsø, has traveled around

10965-622: The country. The BBC Voices project also collected hundreds of news articles about how the British speak English from swearing through to items on language schools. This information will also be collated and analysed by Johnson's team both for content and for where it was reported. "Perhaps the most remarkable finding in the Voices study is that the English language is as diverse as ever, despite our increased mobility and constant exposure to other accents and dialects through TV and radio". When discussing

11094-711: The created and the uncreated. Space and time were objectively real but were uncreated, whereas matter was created. In this way he created a new fundamental category alongside Aristotle's category of substance, that of the uncreated. His understanding of space is theological and similar to that expressed by Newton in the General Scholium to the Principia . For instance, von Guericke writes (Book II, Chapter VII): "For God cannot be contained in any location, nor in any vacuum, nor in any space, for He Himself is, of His nature, location and vacuum." In 1650 von Guericke invented

11223-444: The creations and designs of an infinite divinity . Von Guericke described this duality "as something that 'contains all things' and is 'more precious than gold, without beginning and end, more joyous than the perception of bountiful light' and 'comparable to the heavens'." Otto von Guericke was born to a patrician family of Magdeburg . He was privately tutored until the age of fifteen. In 1617 he began studying law and philosophy at

11352-550: The development of experimental methods and repeatable demonstrations on the physics of the vacuum , atmospheric pressure , electrostatic repulsion, his advocacy for the reality of " action at a distance " and of "absolute space " were noteworthy contributions for the advancement of the Scientific Revolution . Von Guericke was a very pious man in the Dionysian tradition and attributed the vacuum of space to

11481-534: The entire war, namely the Sack of Magdeburg . In May 1631, the imperial troops had crushed the city walls and indiscriminately plundered the riches. Around eighty percent of its more than 25,000 inhabitants perished. The material loss was also unusually high as widespread fires destroyed about 1,700 of a total of 1,900 buildings, including all of von Guericke's personal property. He returned to Magdeburg in 1631 and his academic engineer education designated him an appointee of

11610-413: The finished product often is stored for months for comparison, when complaints are received. Brewing is typically divided into 9 steps: milling, malting, mashing, lautering, boiling, fermenting, conditioning, filtering, and filling. Mashing is the process of mixing milled , usually malted , grain with water, and heating it with rests at certain temperatures to allow enzymes in the malt to break down

11739-519: The first electrostatic generator , was developed as part of von Guericke's interest in the worldly powers ( mundane virtues ) that operated in the universe. Von Guericke also showed that electrical (magnetic) attraction does not require a medium to operate in by an experiment using electrical transmission through linen thread. Von Guericke thought of the capacity of body to exert an influence beyond its immediate boundaries in terms of "corporeal and incorporeal potencies". Examples of corporeal potencies were

11868-642: The four largest brewing companies ( Anheuser-Busch InBev , SABMiller , Heineken International , and Carlsberg Group ) controlled 50% of the market The biggest brewery in the world is the Belgian company Anheuser-Busch InBev . In the United States, there were 69,359 people employed in breweries in 2017. This is up from 27,805 in 2001. Some commonly used descriptions of breweries are: Contract brewing –When one brewery hires another brewery to produce its beer. The contracting brewer generally handles all of

11997-429: The giving off of fumes, smells, gases etc. by bodies. An example of an incorporeal potency was the Earth's "conservative potency" whereby it retained its atmosphere and caused the return of objects thrown upwards to the Earth's surface. The Earth also possessed an "expulsive potency" which was deemed to explain why objects that fall bounce back up again. The notion of an "incorporeal potency" is similar to that of "action at

12126-462: The hypothesis of " horror vacui ", that nature abhors a vacuum. Aristotle (e.g. in Physics IV 6–9) had argued against the existence of the void and his views commanded near-universal endorsement by philosophers and scientists up to the 17th century. Guericke showed that substances were not pulled by a vacuum, but were pushed by the pressure of the surrounding fluids. All of von Guericke's work on

12255-458: The idea of two different morphemes, one that causes the double negation, and one that is used for the point or the verb. Standard English in the United Kingdom, as in other English-speaking nations, is widely enforced in schools and by social norms for formal contexts but not by any singular authority; for instance, there is no institution equivalent to the Académie française with French or

12384-570: The illustrious elite of dukes, kings and emperors. In 1666, Otto von Guericke was ennobled by emperor Leopold I , which, apart from entitling him to add the "von" prefix to his name, was of little consequence. He also altered the spelling of his last name from "Gericke" to "Guericke". Otto von Guericke's first diplomatic mission on behalf of the city led him in September 1642 to the court of the Elector of Saxony at Dresden . Von Guericke's mandate

12513-523: The last southern Midlands accent to use the broad "a" in words like bath or grass (i.e. barth or grarss ). Conversely crass or plastic use a slender "a". A few miles northwest in Leicestershire the slender "a" becomes more widespread generally. In the town of Corby , five miles (8 km) north, one can find Corbyite which, unlike the Kettering accent, is largely influenced by

12642-518: The later Norman occupation led to the grafting onto that Germanic core of a more elaborate layer of words from the Romance branch of the European languages. This Norman influence entered English largely through the courts and government. Thus, English developed into a "borrowing" language of great flexibility and with a huge vocabulary . Dialects and accents vary amongst the four countries of

12771-426: The latter but, as he quotes a passage from the same page, could not have been unaware that, in a discussion of the nature of electrical attraction, Cabeo had written ( Philosophia Magnetica , p. 192): "When we see that small bodies ( corpuscula ) are lifted ( sublevari et attolli ) above the amber and also fall back to the motionless amber, it cannot be said that such erratic behaviour ( talem matum – but if "matum"

12900-457: The mass internal migration to Northamptonshire in the 1940s and given its position between several major accent regions, it has become a source of various accent developments. In Northampton the older accent has been influenced by overspill Londoners. There is an accent known locally as the Kettering accent, which is a transitional accent between the East Midlands and East Anglian . It is

13029-554: The mercury tube experiment which had reached Paris via Marin Mersenne in 1644. An indication of the unresolved status of the "nature abhors a vacuum" principle at that time may be taken from Pascal's opinion, expressed in the conclusion of the Nouvelles Experiences , when he writes: "I hold for true the maxims set out below: (a) that all bodies possess a repugnance to being separated one from another and from admitting

13158-492: The modern brewery and its ability to produce the same beer consistently. The steam engine , vastly improved in 1775 by James Watt , brought automatic stirring mechanisms and pumps into the brewery. It gave brewers the ability to mix liquids more reliably while heating, particularly the mash , to prevent scorching, and a quick way to transfer liquid from one container to another. Almost all breweries now use electric-powered stirring mechanisms and pumps. The steam engine also allowed

13287-555: The next twenty years. His private life, of which much remains unclear, was developing in parallel. Otto von Guericke utilised both his official status and his scientific knowledge in each other's support to serve his city's political agenda. Demonstrations of his inventions, such as the air-pump and the electrostatic generator were meant to impress his audiences and improve and extend political communication. He would, if necessary forgo scientific and technical elaborations on how his showpieces worked, leaving people to believe in his wizardry,

13416-525: The opening chapters of Book III of the Experimenta Nova of the first version of his pump. Stimulated by the interest taken in his work, von Guericke was scientifically very active in the decade after 1654. In June 1656 we find him writing to Fr. Schott ( Mechanica Hydraulico-pneumatica , p. 444) "Since the time when I produced the exhibition for the said eminent Elector, I have a better and clearer grasp of all these matters and many other topics as well." The celebrated hemispheres experiment was, as noted in

13545-633: The personal relationship of von Guericke and Friedrich Wilhelm remained warm. The Great Elector was a patron of scientific scholarship. He had employed von Guericke's son, Hans Otto, as his resident in Hamburg and in 1666 had called Otto himself to the Brandenburg Rat . When the Experimenta Nova finally appeared it was prefaced with a dedication to Friedrich Wilhelm. In 1677 von Guericke was reluctantly permitted to step down from his civic responsibilities, after repeated requests. In January 1681, as

13674-569: The production process, so that gravity could assist with the transfer of product from one stage to the next. This layout often is preserved in breweries today, but mechanical pumps allow more flexibility in brewery design. Early breweries typically used large copper vats in the brewhouse, and fermentation and packaging took place in lined wooden containers. Such breweries were common until the Industrial Revolution , when better materials became available, and scientific advances led to

13803-581: The reconstruction committee. He became a master brewer in an attempt to speedily acquire a new personal fortune and accumulate wealth for the city. In 1646, he was elected as Magdeburg's Burgomeister , the city's chief magistrate or executive, an office that arguably bestowed more power (in a practical sense) than that of a mayor . He held this position until his retirement in 1678. During four decades in office he undertook numerous diplomatic missions, which took him to many European courts and councils, where he met powerful executives and secretaries and addressed

13932-529: The space below the piston and succeeded in drawing the piston back down again against the force of the men pulling it up. In a letter to Friar Schott of June 1656, reproduced in Mechanica Hydraulico-pneumatica (pp. 454–55), von Guericke gives a short account of his experiences at Regensburg. Based on this, Schimank [1936] gives a list of ten experiments that he considers likely to have been carried out at Regensburg. In addition to

14061-404: The spent grains, and sparging , in which extract that remains with the grains is rinsed off with hot water. Boiling the wort ensures its sterility, helping to prevent contamination with undesirable microbes. During the boil, hops are added, which contribute aroma and flavour compounds to the beer, especially their characteristic bitterness. Along with the heat of the boil, they cause proteins in

14190-412: The surface, which would allow him to attract and repel other objects. In Chapter 6 of Book IV von Guericke writes: "It seems reasonable to suppose that if the Earth has a fitting and appropriate attractive potency it will also have a potency of repelling things that might be dangerous or disagreeable to it. This is to be seen in the case of the sulphur sphere described below in Chapter 15. When that sphere

14319-548: The theft of work tools worth £500 from a van at the Sprucefield park and ride car park in Lisburn. A football team can be treated likewise: Arsenal have lost just one of 20 home Premier League matches against Manchester City. This tendency can be observed in texts produced already in the 19th century. For example, Jane Austen , a British author, writes in Chapter 4 of Pride and Prejudice , published in 1813: All

14448-403: The traditional accent of Newcastle upon Tyne , 'out' will sound as 'oot', and in parts of Scotland and North-West England, 'my' will be pronounced as 'me'. Long vowels /iː/ and /uː/ are diphthongised to [ɪi] and [ʊu] respectively (or, more technically, [ʏʉ], with a raised tongue), so that ee and oo in feed and food are pronounced with a movement. The diphthong [oʊ] is also pronounced with

14577-505: The vacuum and air pressure is described in Book III of the Experimenta Nova (1672). As regards the more detailed chronology of his work we have, in addition to the Experimenta Nova ' s description of his demonstrations at Regensburg in 1654, the two accounts published by Fr. Schott in 1657 and 1663. In Chapter 27 he alludes to what transpired at Regensburg in 1654. The first experiment he explicitly records as having been demonstrated

14706-464: The volume and variety of beer produced, ranging from small breweries to massive multinational conglomerates, like Molson Coors or Anheuser-Busch InBev , that produce hundreds of millions of barrels annually. There are organizations that assist the development of brewing, such as the Siebel Institute of Technology in the United States and the Institute of Brewing and Distilling in the UK. In 2012

14835-412: The whole fermentation cellar is cooled, conditioning must be done in separate tanks in a separate cellar. Some beers are conditioned only lightly, or not at all. An active yeast culture from an ongoing batch may be added to the next boil after a slight chilling in order to produce fresh and highly palatable beer in mass quantity. Filtering the beer stabilizes flavour and gives it a polished, shiny look. It

14964-568: The world are good and agreeable in your eyes. However, in Chapter 16, the grammatical number is used. The world is blinded by his fortune and consequence. Some dialects of British English use negative concords, also known as double negatives . Rather than changing a word or using a positive, words like nobody, not, nothing, and never would be used in the same sentence. While this does not occur in Standard English, it does occur in non-standard dialects. The double negation follows

15093-512: The world between 2006 and 2010, brewing more than 200 different beers at other breweries. Breweries and football have had a symbiotic relationship since the very beginnings of the game. The English Football League was founded in 1888, and by the next decade several teams already had their own brewery sponsor. In return for their financial support, the breweries were given concessions to sell beer to spectators and advertise their products in stadiums. The most outwardly visible sign of sponsorship are

15222-585: The world is believed to be the German state-owned Weihenstephan brewery in the city of Freising , Bavaria . It can trace its history back to 1040 AD. The nearby Weltenburg Abbey brewery, can trace back its beer-brewing tradition to at least 1050 AD. The Žatec brewery in the Czech Republic claims it can prove that it paid a beer tax in 1004 AD. Early breweries were almost always built on multiple stories, with equipment on higher floors used earlier in

15351-400: The wort to coagulate and the pH of the wort to fall, and they inhibit the later growth of certain bacteria. Finally, the vapours produced during the boil volatilize off-flavours , including dimethyl sulfide precursors. The boil must be conducted so that it is even and intense. The boil lasts between 60 and 120 minutes, depending on its intensity, the hop addition schedule, and volume of wort

15480-526: Was notably limited . However, the degree of influence remains debated, and it has recently been argued that its grammatical influence accounts for the substantial innovations noted between English and the other West Germanic languages. Initially, Old English was a diverse group of dialects, reflecting the varied origins of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England. One of these dialects, Late West Saxon , eventually came to dominate. The original Old English

15609-586: Was above question. In setting out his own view, von Guericke, while acknowledging the influence of previous philosophers such as Lessius (but not Gassendi ), makes it clear that he considers his thinking on this topic to be original and new. There is no evidence that von Guericke was aware of the Nouvelles Experiences touchant le vide of Blaise Pascal published in 1647. In the Experimenta Nova , Book III, Ch. 34, he relates how he first became aware of Torricelli 's mercury tube experiment from Valerianus Magnus at Regensburg in 1654. Pascal's work built upon reports of

15738-420: Was named in his honour. There are three bodies of text, that contain systematic treatises on von Guericke's scientific work. The scientific studies and related experiments contained in the above works may be grouped under three topics, to each of which the following books of Experimenta Nova are dedicated: Book II of the Experimenta Nova is an extended philosophical essay in which von Guericke puts forward

15867-422: Was never a truly mixed language in the strictest sense of the word; mixed languages arise from the cohabitation of speakers of different languages, who develop a hybrid tongue for basic communication). The more idiomatic, concrete and descriptive English is, the more it is from Anglo-Saxon origins. The more intellectual and abstract English is, the more it contains Latin and French influences, e.g. swine (like

15996-521: Was scientifically very active. He embarked upon his Magnum Opus — Ottonis de Guericke Experimenta Nova (ut vocantur) Magdeburgica de Vacuo Spatio —which as well as a detailed account of his experiments on the vacuum, contains his pioneering electrostatic experiments in which electrostatic repulsion was demonstrated for the first time and he sets out his theologically based view of the nature of space, but there are also contemporary arguments that he did not conceptualise these demonstrations as electrical. In

16125-402: Was the crushing of a non-spherical vessel as the air was withdrawn from it. He did not use a vacuum pump directly on the vessel, but allowed the air in it to expand into a previously evacuated receiver. The second was an experiment in which a number of men proved able to pull an airtight piston only about halfway up a cylindrical copper vessel. Von Guericke then attached his evacuated receiver to

16254-422: Was the domain of women, as baking and brewing were seen as "women's work". Breweries, as production facilities reserved for making beer, did not emerge until monasteries and other Christian institutions started producing beer not only for their own consumption but also to use as payment. This industrialization of brewing shifted the responsibility of making beer to men. The oldest, still functional, brewery in

16383-411: Was the offspring of one of Magdeburg's leading patrician families, that were well educated and well connected. His father and grandfather had been life-long members of the city council and at various occasions during their careers been appointed to serve as mayor of the city. In 1626, Otto von Guericke started his career as political representative of Magdeburg and accepted an official appointment to join

16512-532: Was then influenced by two waves of invasion: the first was by speakers of the Scandinavian branch of the Germanic family, who settled in parts of Britain in the eighth and ninth centuries; the second was the Normans in the 11th century, who spoke Old Norman and ultimately developed an English variety of this called Anglo-Norman . These two invasions caused English to become "mixed" to some degree (though it

16641-625: Was to bring about a more lenient treatment from the Saxon military commander for Magdeburg. In 1648, he represented the city at the peace treaty delegation, that ended the Thirty Year's War. During a 1654 diplomatic mission to Regensburg , Guericke presented his invention of the air-pump to impress those he was going to meet and help sway the talks in his favour, as well as promote his own scientific achievements. Diplomacy assignments, often dangerous as well as tedious, would occupy much of his time for

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