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116-443: King Gontrand had something of that fraternal love which his brothers lacked; the preeminent chronicler of the period, St. Gregory of Tours , often called him "good king Gontrand", as noted in the quotation below from the former's Decem Libri Historiarum , in which St. Gregory discussed the fate of Gontrand's three marriages: The good king Gontrand first took a concubine Veneranda, a slave belonging to one of his people, by whom he had

232-486: A campaign to expand his territories at the expense of his relatives and neighbouring realms in all directions. His brothers avoided outright war by cooperating with Chlothar's attacks on neighbouring lands in concert or by invading lands when their rulers died. The spoils were shared between the participating brothers. By the end of his life, Chlothar had managed to reunite Francia by surviving his brothers and seizing their territories after they died. But upon his own death,

348-463: A conflict by giving one of his daughters, Suavegotha , in marriage to Chlothar's older half-brother, Theuderic I . In 523, at the instigation of their mother, Clotilde, Chlothar, Childebert, and Chlodomer joined forces in an expedition against the Burgundians. The Burgundian army was defeated, and Sigismund was captured and executed. Sigismund's brother Godomar replaced him on the throne, with

464-549: A convent and went on to found the abbey in Poitiers St. Croix, the first nunnery in Europe. She was canonized Saint Radegund. Upon his father's death on 27 November 511, he received as his share of the kingdom: the town of Soissons, which he made his capital; the cities of Laon , Noyon , Cambrai , and Maastricht ; and the lower course of the river Meuse . He was very ambitious and sought to extend his domain. Because of

580-480: A daughter named Chlothsind; of Aregund , sister of Ingund he had Chilperic; and of Chunsine he had Chram." Chlothar's first marriage was to Guntheuc , widow of his brother Chlodomer, sometime around 524. They had no children. His second marriage, which occurred around 532, was to Radegund , daughter of Bertachar , King of Thuringia , whom he and his brother Theuderic defeated. She was later canonized . They also had no children. His third and most successful marriage

696-612: A final advance on Septimania , to no avail. He fought against the barbarians who menaced the kingdom and quelled a rebellion of his niece Basina at the Holy Cross abbey of Poitiers with the aid of many of his bishops in 590. He died at Chalon-sur-Saône in 592, and his nephew Childebert II succeeded him. He was buried in the Church of Saint Marcellus , which he had founded in Chalon . Almost immediately, his subjects proclaimed Gontrand

812-555: A forest for protection against the alliance. While Chlothar was besieged, a storm ravaged equipment, roads, and horses and disorganized the allied army. Childebert and Theudebert were forced to abandon the siege and make peace with Chlothar. In 537, a conflict broke out between the Eastern Roman Empire and the Ostrogothic kingdom. To ensure Frankish neutrality in the conflict, King Vitiges offered Provence, which

928-560: A husband worthy of her sister, Aregund . Finding no one suitable, Chlothar took Aregund as one of his own wives. The year was c. 533–538. She remained his wife until the death of her sister, Ingund, in 546, after which she fell out of favor with Chlothar. In 538, Radegund was brought to Soissons to marry Chlothar, as "not illegitimate but legitimate queen," who could help consolidate his dominance over Thuringia. While her title and status were necessary for Chlothar to attain authority over Thuringia, Radegund remained in simple clothing and

1044-646: A lost illegitimate son of dead Chlothar I. Many of the Frankish nobles and the Byzantine emperor Maurice gave some support to this rebellion; however, it is swiftly crushed by Guntram. "Many evil things were done at this time", as Gregory writes in Book Eight. It begins with the travels of Guntram to Paris and Orleans and describes numerous confrontations between the king and some bishops. Meanwhile, Guntram becomes ill and fears for his life. Gregory comments that

1160-496: A marriage with Gontrand, the eldest remaining brother, though a council convened at Paris as late as 557 had forbidden such tradition as incestuous. Gontrand decided to house her more safely, though unwillingly, in a monastery in Arles . In 573, Gontrand was caught in a civil war with his brother Sigebert I of Austrasia , and in 575 summoned the aid of their brother Chilperic I of Soissons . He reversed his allegiance later, due to

1276-565: A miller's son named Ballomer. Gundowald fled to Comminges and Gontrand's army proceeded to besiege the citadel. He could not capture it, but did not need to. Gundowald's followers gave him over and he was executed. In 587, Fredegund attempted to assassinate him but failed. On 28 November he went to Trier to conclude a treaty with Childebert; Brunhilda , his sister-in-law, Sigebert's wife, whose ally he had always been; Chlodosind, Childebert's sister; Faileuba , Childebert's queen; Magneric , Bishop of Trier ; and Ageric, Bishop of Verdun . This

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1392-557: A monastic life. Childebert and Chlothar could then freely share their acquired territory. Meanwhile, Theuderic captured a parcel consisting of Auxerrois , Berry and Sens . In 532, Childebert and Chlothar seized Autun . They hunted for Godomar III, brother of Sigismund, with the help of his father and ally, the king of the Ostrogoths Theoderic the Great . The death of Athalaric , the grandson and successor of Theodoric

1508-518: A nostris fari plerumque miratus sum, quia: "Philosophantem rethorem intellegunt pauci, loquentem rusticum multi". Hearing continually these complaints and others like them I have undertaken to commemorate the past, in order that it may come to the knowledge of the future; and although my speech is rude, I have been unable to be silent as to the struggles between the wicked and the upright; and I have been especially encouraged because, to my surprise, it has often been said by men of our day: "few understand

1624-550: A payment. The agreement that averted the war was for the Tuscan king to offer gold and land. However, Childebert and Theudebert cheated Chlothar, Childebert taking the money and Theudebert the land that Theodahad's successor, Vitiges turned over. Chlothar's treasury was still much larger than either Childebert's or Theudebert's. Theudebald , Chlothar's great-nephew and the grandson of the late Theuderic, died childless in 555. So Chlothar immediately went to Metz to take possession of

1740-566: A previous rejection. But his men, aggressive, eager for battle, contested the decision. Talks were cut short when the soldiers forced him, with insults and death threats, to take on the Saxons. After an incredibly bloody battle, the Saxons and Franks made peace. Auvergne , a once prosperous Roman province, which had resisted the Visigoths and Franks, had hoped they could avoid destruction by offering their loyalty. Theuderic had devastated much of

1856-485: A saint and the Catholic Church celebrates his feast day on 28 March. The Huguenots , who scattered his ashes in the 16th century, left only his skull untouched in their fury. It is now kept there in a silver case. St. Gregory of Tours Gregory of Tours (born Georgius Florentius ; 30 November c.  538 – 17 November 594 AD) was a Gallo-Roman historian and Bishop of Tours during

1972-480: A son Gundobad. Later he married Marcatrude, daughter of Magnar, and sent his son Gundobad to Orléans . But after she had a son Marcatrude was jealous, and proceeded to bring about Gundobad's death. She sent poison, they say, and poisoned his drink. And upon his death, by God's judgment she lost the son she had and incurred the hate of the king, was dismissed by him, and died not long after. After her he took Austregilde , also named Bobilla. He had by her two sons, of whom

2088-454: A son; and there could be no son without a father. But as for those who say: "There was a time when he was not", [note: a leading belief of Arian Christology] I reject them with curses, and call men to witness that they are separated from the church. I believe that the word of the Father by which all things were made was Christ. I believe that this word was made flesh and by its suffering the world

2204-513: A specific Christian heresy. Thus, Gregory's creed presents, in the negative, a virtual litany of heresies: I believe, then, in God the Father omnipotent. I believe in Jesus Christ his only Son, our Lord God, born of the Father, not created. [I believe] that he has always been with the Father, not only since time began but before all time. For the Father could not have been so named unless he had

2320-514: A storm prevented the battle. Chram sent a messenger to his half-brothers, falsely informing them of the death of Chlothar at the hand of the Saxons. Charibert and Guntram immediately marched to Burgundy. The rumor that Chlothar had died in Saxony spread throughout Gaul, even reaching the ears of Childebert. It is possible that Childebert was behind the rumor as well. Chram then took the opportunity to extend his influence to Chalon-sur-Saône . He besieged

2436-525: Is Christ; next he will place his statue in the temple at Jerusalem to be worshiped, just as we read that the Lord said: "You shall see the abomination of desolation standing in the holy place." But the Lord himself declared that that day is hidden from all men, saying; "But of that day and that hour knoweth no one not even the angels in heaven, neither the Son, but the Father alone." Moreover we shall here make answer to

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2552-405: Is God, equal and always coeternal with the Father and the Son, consubstantial in its nature, equal in omnipotence, equally eternal in its essence, and that it has never existed apart from the Father and the Son and is not inferior to the Father and the Son. I believe that this holy Trinity exists with separation of persons, and one person is that of the Father, another that of the Son, another that of

2668-439: Is maintained until after the death of Charibert I in 567. Clothar's remaining sons fight for the supremacy, with Sigibert showing the strongest military force. Book Four ends with the killing of Sigbert in 575, leaving Chilperic as the dominant king. Gregory of Tours blames Fredegund , the wife of Chilperic, for the assassination. Fredegund, he says, had long held a grudge against Sigibert and his wife Brunhilda . Book Five begins

2784-444: Is murdered under mysterious circumstances. In Book Seven, Fredegund assumes regency for her young son Clothar II . In the future, he will be king of all Franks until his death in 629 – beyond Gregory's narrative, which ends in roughly 593. Fredegund and her son are under the protection of Gunthram. She remains in power until her death in 597. Also in this book is the rebellion of Gundovald and its failure. Gundovald claimed to be

2900-518: Is paid to the local as opposed to universal Christian experience. Within these grandiloquent lives are tales and anecdotes which tie miracles, saints, and their relics to a great diversity of local areas, furnishing his audience with greater knowledge of their local shrine, and providing them with evidence of the work of God in their immediate vicinity, thus greatly expanding their connection with and understanding of their faith. Attacks on heresy also appear throughout his hagiographies; Arianism he took to be

3016-649: Is particular has many liturgical references relating to music. The following represent key modern texts on Gregory of Tours, including the most recent translations of his work. While Lewis Thorpe 's translation of The History of the Franks is more accessible than Brehaut's, his introduction and commentary are not well regarded by contemporary historians (see "Secondary sources", below). Chlothar I Chlothar I , sometime called "the Old" ( French : le Vieux), (died c. December 561) also anglicised as Clotaire ,

3132-604: Is praying in his church. Guntram orders his army to march against Arian-controlled Septimania and Spain without success and blames his army commanders for having allowed atrocities and random destruction. In Book Nine, the Treaty of Andelot is signed in 587 between Guntram, Brunhilda, and Childebert II. It is a close pact of alliance, wherein Childebert is formally adopted as Guntram's heir. Brunhilda also formally allies with Guntram and comes under his protection. The last book

3248-488: Is set around 589. Basina, the daughter of Chilperic I and Clotilda (daughter of Charibert) leads a brief revolt from a nunnery. The 18 bishops of Tours are named and described. The book ends with a summary of Gregory's previous written works. The Historia Francorum is made up of ten books. Books I to IV initially recount the world's history from the Creation (as was traditional for such works); but move quickly on to

3364-404: Is the life of St. Nicetius of Trier , though, which dominates this book; his great authority and sense of episcopal responsibility which is the focus of Gregory's account as his figure, predestined to be great, bestrode the lives of the others. It is told that he felt a weight on his head, but was unable to see what it was when turning around, though upon smelling its sweet scent he realised that it

3480-482: The Historia is the closing chapter of Book VI, in which Chilperic's character is summed up unsympathetically through the use of an invective: Herod and Nero are among the comparisons employed. The third part, comprising Books VII to X, takes his increasingly personal account to the year 591, and concludes with a plea for further chroniclers to preserve his work in entirety (as indeed would be done). An epilogue

3596-681: The Brabant trophies , made in the ninth century during the reign of Charles the Bald , invents a daughter of Chlothar's named Blithilde who supposedly married the saint and bishop Ansbert of Rouen . The Duke Arnoald , father of Arnulf of Metz , was said to have been born of this marriage, thus connecting the Merovingian and Carolingian dynasties and creating the appearance that the Carolingian ruled by right of inheritance. It also linked them to

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3712-570: The Christianization of Gaul , the life and times of Saint Martin of Tours , the conversion of the Franks and the conquest of Gaul under Clovis I , and the more detailed history of the Frankish kings down to the death of Sigebert I in 575. At this date, Gregory had been bishop of Tours for two years. With his fifth book, Gregory embarks (with some relief) on contemporary history, opening: "Here, I am glad to say, begins Book V". This,

3828-517: The Kingdom of the Franks was once again divided between his own four surviving sons. A fifth son had rebelled and was killed, along with his family. Chlothar's father, Clovis I, had converted to Nicene Christianity , but Chlothar, like other Merovingians, did not consider that the Christian doctrine of monogamy should be expected of royalty: he had five wives, more from political expediency, for

3944-637: The Merovingian period and is known as the "father of French history". He was a prelate in the Merovingian kingdom, encompassing Gaul 's historic region. Gregory's most notable work is the Decem Libri Historiarum ('Ten Books of Histories'), also known as the Historia Francorum ('History of the Franks'). Decem Libri Historiarum is considered a primary source for the study of Merovingian history and chronicles

4060-623: The Nicene Creed and abhors heresy like those of the "wicked" Arian sect among other heresies. The narrative history begins with a brief epitome of the biblical Old Testament and New Testament , and the subsequent spread of the Christian religion into Gaul. Next, Gregory covers the history of Christianity in Gaul and some of the major events in Roman-Gallo relations. It ends with the death of Saint Martin of Tours in 397. Book Two covers

4176-628: The baptism of Chlothar II , his other nephew, who now ruled in Neustria. Supposed to take place on 4 July, the feast of St. Martin of Tours , in Orléans , it did not and Gontrand turned to invade Septimania . Peace was soon made. In 584 or 585, one Gundowald claimed to be an illegitimate son of Chlothar I and proclaimed himself king, taking some major cities in southern Gaul , including Poitiers and Toulouse , which belonged to Gontrand. Gontrand marched against him, calling him nothing more than

4292-659: The Bavarian Duke Garibald . To compensate for the breakdown of the marriage with Vuldetrade (Waldrada), Chlothar gave Chlothsind , his daughter, to the Lombard prince and future king, Alboin . Condat the Domesticus, great administrator of the palace of King Theudebald, retained his position after the annexation of the kingdom of Metz. In 555, Chlothar attacked and conquered the Saxons , who had revolted, in

4408-604: The Bishoprics of Tours, Lyon, and Langres at the time of his birth and he claimed that he was related to 13 of the 18 bishops of Tours who preceded him. Gregory's paternal grandmother, Leocadia III, descended from Vettius Epagathus, the illustrious martyr of Lyon. His father died while Gregory was young and his widowed mother moved to Burgundy , where she had property. Gregory went to live with his paternal uncle St. Gallus, bishop of Clermont , under whom, and his successor St. Avitus, Gregory had his education. Gregory also received

4524-538: The Bretons to allow him refuge. He had made such an agreement with his father-in-law Willacharius, Count of Orléans, although he was currently taking refuge himself in the Basilica of St. Martin of Tours. Chram was caught and subsequently burned "for the sins of the people and the scandals that were perpetrated by Wiliachaire and his wife." Chlothar then restored the Basilica. Between 1 September and 31 August 559, with

4640-675: The Frankish Kings shared between them, along with the northern Alps with sovereignty over the Alemanni , by grabbing the upper Rhine valley, Main , and high Danube . When the Ostrogoths ceded Provence to the Franks, he received the cities of Orange , Carpentras , and Gap . In spring 542, Childebert and Chlothar, accompanied by three of his sons, led an army into Visigoth Hispania. They seized Pamplona and Zaragoza but were finally forced to abandon after conquering most of

4756-441: The Frankish domain. During the division of the spoils, Chlothar and Theuderic argued fiercely over the hand of Princess Radegund , but eventually Chlothar won the dispute on the grounds that it had been his men who had captured her. Chlothar was the chief instigator in the murder of his brother Chlodomer 's children in 524, and his share of the spoils consisted of the cities of Tours and Poitiers . Chlothar's brother, Chlodomer

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4872-555: The Frankish influences of the north and the Gallo-Roman influences of the south had their chief contact (see map) . As the center for the popular cult of St Martin, Tours was a pilgrimage site, hospital, and a political sanctuary to which important leaders fled during periods of violence and turmoil in Merovingian politics. Gregory struggled through personal relations with four Frankish kings, Sigebert I , Chilperic I , Guntram , and Childebert II , and he personally knew most of

4988-514: The Frankish realm. Despite their disputes, they occasionally work together against an outside threat, such as their attack of the Burgundians in 523. Eventually, Chlothar becomes the most powerful king in the Frankish realm. After the death of Theuderic I in 534, Book Three ends with the death of his son and successor Theudebert I in 548. Theudebert's kingdom is inherited by Theudebald until his own death in 555. Book Four continues from when

5104-490: The Franks in one kingdom. Gregory has often been compared to Herodotus , and (with his detailed interest in, and accounts of, ecclesiastical history and maneuverings) to a bloodier Anthony Trollope . According to Robert Win's analysis: There can be no argument that Gregory deliberately structured his narrative to protect himself from any political attacks and that it was the political circumstances around him that governed what he could and could not write. Gregory's Latin

5220-465: The Great, in 534, generated a succession crisis in the Ostrogothic kingdom, the Burgundian ally. Chlothar, Theudebert , and Childebert took the opportunity to invade the Burgundian kingdom, now devoid of Ostrogothic protection. The Burgundian kingdom was overtaken and divided between the three Frankish rulers. Chlothar received Grenoble , Die and many of the neighbouring cities. Over the years,

5336-617: The Holy Spirit. And in this Trinity confess that there is one Deity, one power, one essence. I believe that the blessed Mary was a virgin after the birth as she was a virgin before. I believe that the soul is immortal but that nevertheless it has no part in deity. And I faithfully believe all things that were established at Nicæa by the three hundred and eighteen bishops. But as to the end of the world I hold beliefs which I learned from our forefathers, that Antichrist will come first. An Antichrist will first propose circumcision, asserting that he

5452-455: The Kingdom of Thuringia if he would help to depose Baderic , Hermanafrid's rival and brother. Theuderic accepted. However, having been injured after a victory, he appealed to Chlothar to continue the war. Hermanafrid died around this time, and the goal became simply to conquer Thuringia. The alliance, along with the aid of his nephew Theudebert I , conquered Thuringia, and it became a part of

5568-452: The Romans by their affiliation with the senatorial family Ferreoli. Chlothar married Guntheuc , Queen of Orléans and widow of Chlodomer, his brother. This union gave Chlothar access to Chlodomer's treasury and ensured Guntheuc's position as sole heiress to King Godegisel lands; Frankish law allowed a woman to inherit land if she had no sons. Chlothar's wife Ingund requested that he find

5684-477: The Spanish Visigoths had made many incursions into Frankish territories and had taken lands. Clovis had reconquered them and even made further conquests of Gothic territories. Chlothar sent his eldest sons to reclaim lost territories. Although there was some success, for some unknown reason Gunthar, his second eldest, ended his campaign and returned home. Theudebert, the eldest, continued the war and took

5800-676: The accounts of the Franks during the period. Gregory is also known for documenting accounts of religious figures, notably that of Martin of Tours . Gregory was born in Clermont , in the Auvergne region of central Gaul. He was born into the upper stratum of Gallo-Roman society as the son of Florentius, Senator of Clermont, by his wife Armentaria II, niece of Bishop Nicetius of Lyon and granddaughter of both Florentinus, Senator of Geneva, and Saint Gregory of Langres . Relatives of Gregory held

5916-410: The angels in heaven nor the Son," showing that he spoke these words not of the only-begotten but of the people of adoption. But our end is Christ himself, who will graciously bestow eternal life on us if we turn to him. Gregory's writings make ample references to wine and vineyards . He argued in his writings that wine drinking was defensible when consumed with proper gratitude towards God, but that it

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6032-519: The authority of the bishopric with the congregation and in the context of the Frankish church. Gregory's hagiography was an essential component of this. However, this should not be seen as a selfish grab for power on behalf of the bishops who emerge so triumphantly from the Life of the Fathers , but rather as a bid for hegemony of doctrine and control over the practice of worship, which they believed to be in

6148-436: The beginnings of the Merovingian dynasty, including King Clovis I 's conversion to Christianity by his wife Clotilde , and ending with his death in 511, after his conquest of large tracts of land in modern-day France. Book Three follows the four sons of Clovis who equally divide his realms after his death in 511. These four kings, Theuderic I , Chlothar I , Childebert I , and Chlodomer , quarrel and fight for supremacy over

6264-407: The best interests of their congregation and the wider church. As an example of Gregory's zeal in his fight against heresy, the Historia Francorum includes a declaration of faith with which Gregory aimed to prove his orthodoxy with respect to the heresies of his time ("so that my reader may have no doubt that I am Catholic for they are"). The confession is in many phrases, each of which refutes

6380-573: The border between the Frankish culture of the Merovingians to the north and the Gallo-Roman culture of the south of Gaul . At Tours, Gregory was well placed to hear and meet people of influence in Merovingian culture. Tours was situated on the Loire , five Roman roads radiated from it, and it was on the main route between the Frankish north and Aquitania , with Spain beyond. At Tours,

6496-456: The boy, his mother took him to the court of Childebert, who recognized him as his nephew and agreed to keep him in court. His next marriage was to a sister of Ingund, Aregund , with whom Chlothar had a son, Chilperic , King of Soissons. His last wife was Chunsina (or Chunsine), with whom he had one son, Chram , who became his father's enemy and predeceased him. Chlothar may have married and repudiated Waldrada . A false genealogy found in

6612-478: The character of Chilperic, if we may give him the benefit of the doubt in light of St. Gregory 's commendation, and Chilperic retreated. He thereafter remained an ally of Sigebert, his wife, and his sons until his death. When Sigebert was assassinated later in 575, Chilperic invaded the kingdom, but Gontrand sent his general Mummolus , who was always Gontrand's greatest weapon, for he was the greatest general in Gaul at

6728-534: The children. Chlothar stabbed Theodebald in the armpit. Gunthar threw himself at the feet of Childebert, who began to cry and almost gave in to the pleas of his nephew. Chlothar, however, demanded that Childebert carry through with the murder, stating that it was the only way to consolidate power. Childebert gave Gunthar up to Chlothar, who stabbed him. Theodebald and Gunthar were ten and seven years old respectively. Clodoald remained alive by managing to escape, hidden by loyal supporters. He renounced all claims and chose

6844-588: The city and won. Chram married Chalda, daughter of Wiliachaire (Willacharius), Count of Orléans, which was under Childebert's authority. On 23 December 558, Childebert died childless after a long illness. This allowed Chlothar to reunite the Greater Frankish Kingdom, as his father Clovis had done, and seize the treasure of his brother. The news of Childebert's death had caused many kingdoms to unify under Chlothar. Paris, which had fought against him, submitted to his rule. Chram therefore called on

6960-410: The clerical tonsure from Gallus. Having contracted a serious illness, Gregory made a visit of devotion to the tomb of St. Martin at Tours. Upon his recovery, he began to pursue a clerical career and was ordained deacon by Avitus. Upon the death of St. Euphronius , he was chosen as bishop by the clergy and people, who had been charmed with his piety, learning, and humility. Their deputies overtook him at

7076-546: The common face of heresy across Europe, exposed to great ridicule. Often, the scenes which expose the weaknesses of heresy focused on images of fire and burning, whilst the Catholics were proved right by the protection lavished on them by God, in Gregory's view. This was of great relevance to Gregory himself as he presided over the important see of Tours, where extensive use was made of the cult of St. Martin in establishing

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7192-479: The country. Since most of the king's army was still with Theudis and there was still enough power to be shown, they were ceded some major lands beyond the Pyrénées, although not as much as they had occupied. The murder of Amalasuntha , the daughter of Theodoric the Great, and of Audofleda , sister of Clovis I, at the hands of King Theodahad of Tuscany caused Chlothar to threaten invasion if he did not receive

7308-515: The court of King Sigebert of Austrasia , and being compelled to acquiesce, though much against his will, Gregory was consecrated by Giles, bishop of Rheims, on 22 August 573, at the age of 34. He spent most of his career at Tours, although he assisted at the council of Paris in 577. The world in which he lived in was on the cusp between the Western culture of late antiquity and the sweeping changes of early-medieval Europe. Gregory lived also on

7424-492: The custom of sons being the primary heirs in all respects. However, it was not a system of primogeniture , with the eldest son receiving the vast majority of an inheritance, rather the inheritance was split evenly between all the sons. Therefore, the greater Frankish Kingdom was often splintered into smaller sub-kingdoms. According to Gregory of Tours, "The King Chlothar had seven sons of various women, namely: with Ingund he had Gunthar, Childeric, Charibert, Guntram, Sigebert, and

7540-500: The dioceses of Agen, Bazas, and Périgueux. In 516, Gundobad , king of Burgundy, died, and the throne passed to his son Sigismund , who converted to Catholicism. Sigismund adopted an extreme anti-Arian policy, going so far as to execute his Arian son Sigeric, who was the grandson of the Ostrogoth King Theoderic the Great . Sigismund also nearly prompted the Franks to launch an offensive against him, but he avoided

7656-545: The events up to 642. Likewise, the fourth Book of Fredegar and its continuations is [ sic ] the only source of any significance for much of the period it covers. Gregory's hagiographies are also a valuable source of anecdotes and stories which enrich modern understanding of life and belief in Merovingian Gaul. The motivation behind his works was to show readers the importance and strength of Christianity, and this bias should always be remembered. Alongside

7772-427: The exemption granted by Roman law which had been routinely confirmed by past kings. Indeed, Childeric I had granted immunities to ecclesiastics. The Bishop of Tours, Injuriosus refused, left his diocese, and abandoned Chlothar. At the death of the bishop, the king replaced him with a member of his household named Baudin. Similarly, Chlothar exiled the bishop of Trier, Nizier, because of its inflexibility on canon law. Thus

7888-620: The help of the Bretons, Chram plundered and destroyed a large number of places belonging to his father. Chlothar, accompanied by his son Chilperic, advanced to Domnonée and arrived there in November or December of 560. During the battle, located near the coast, Conomor was defeated and killed when he attempted to flee. Conomor owned land on both sides of the Channel, and Chram perhaps intended to flee from Chlothar to take refuge in England with

8004-486: The heretics [note: the Arians] who attack us, asserting that the Son is inferior to the Father since he is ignorant of this day. Let them learn then that Son here is the name applied to the Christian people, of whom God says: "I shall be to them a father and they shall be to me for sons." For if he had spoken these words of the only begotten Son he would never have given the angels first place. For he uses these words: "Not even

8120-410: The king performed many miracles both before and after his death, some of which St. Gregory claimed to have witnessed himself. In 567, his elder brother Charibert I died and his lands of the Kingdom of Paris were divided between the surviving brothers: Gontrand, Sigebert I , and Chilperic I . They shared his realm, agreeing at first to hold Paris in common. Charibert's widow, Theudechild, proposed

8236-404: The king's illness is a just punishment since he is planning to send a great number of bishops into exile. Fredegund gives two poisoned daggers to two clerics and sends them away with the order to assassinate Childebert and Brunehild. However, the two clerics are arrested by Childebert, tortured, and executed. Meanwhile, Fredegund is also behind the assassination of bishop Praetextus of Rouen while he

8352-499: The kingdom from his late nephew, but under Salic Law he had to share it with his brother. So he married Waldrada , Theudebald's widow and the daughter of the Lombard king Wacho . This ensured the smooth succession to the kingdom of Metz , as well as an alliance with the Lombards, established since the reign of Theudebert. But the bishops condemned this incestuous marriage and forced Chlothar to divorce her. They gave her in marriage to

8468-405: The land, and Theudebert pacified the land by marrying a Gallo-Roman woman of Senatorial descent. In anticipation of the death of Theodebald, Chlothar sent his son Chram to take possession of the area. In time, Chram came to control a larger area and desired to break away from his father entirely. To achieve this, he joined politically with Childebert who encouraged his dissent. In time his influence

8584-487: The leading Franks. Gregory wrote in Late Latin , which frequently departed from Classical usage in both syntax and spelling, although with relatively few changes in inflection. Gregory of Tours' history is densely written, with numerous narratives and characters. It contains Christian tales of miracles, descriptions of omens and natural events, stories of Christian martyrs, dialogues of church debates, discussions of

8700-472: The lengthy and complex Vulgate Bible, as well as numerous religious works and historical treatises, which he frequently quoted, particularly in the earlier books of the Historia . The main impression that historians once retained from the Historia focused on Gregory's anecdotes about violence; until recently, historians tended to conclude that Merovingian Gaul was a chaotic, brutal place. Recent scholarship have concluded that Gregory's underlying purpose

8816-468: The lives of holy men, nobility, and eccentric peasants, frequent Bible verses and references, and explorations of the complex international relations between numerous tribes and nations including the Lombards , Visigoths , Ostrogoths and Huns , also Gregory's biography and interpretation of events. Book One begins with a pronouncement by the author that he is a Frankish Catholic clergyman who follows

8932-486: The most outstanding poet Venantius Fortunatus in his lifetime, Gregory of Tours is the unique historian from the 6th-century Merovingian world; and his extensive literary output is itself a testimony to the preservation of learning and to the lingering continuity of Gallo-Roman civic culture through the early Middle Ages . Gregory's writings have also provided valuable evidence for music scholars studying Gallican liturgy and Gallican chant . His Decem Libri Historiarum

9048-480: The nature of Christ. In addition, his ridiculing of pagans and Jews reflected how his works were used to spread the Christian faith . For example, in book 2, chapters 28–31, he described the pagans as incestuous and weak and then described the process by which newly converted King Clovis led a much better life than that of a pagan and was healed of all the conundrums he experienced as a pagan. Gregory's education

9164-553: The next generation. Due to tribal politics, shearing of the boys' hair could lead to a civil war; long hair was a symbol of Frankish royalty, and to remove it was considered a grave insult. But Theodebald, Gunthar, and Clodoald could someday lay claim to the throne, and it was Chlothar and Childebert's duty to pass authority on to them. Clotilde was disgusted and shocked at the demands relayed by Arcadius and stated that she would rather see her grandsons dead than see their hair shorn. The two uncles went through with their plan to murder

9280-585: The northern portion, Childebert the central kingdom of Paris, and Chlodomer the southern Kingdom of Orléans. The domain inherited by Chlothar consisted of two distinct parts: one in Gaulic Belgium, corresponding to the kingdom of the Salian Franks, where he established his capital at Soissons and included the dioceses of Amiens, Arras, Saint-Quentin and Tournai; and the other in Aquitane including

9396-454: The older was called Clothar and the younger Chlodomer. Gontrand had a period of intemperance. He was eventually overcome with remorse for the sins of his past life, and spent his remaining years repenting of them, both for himself and for his nation. In atonement, he fasted, prayed, wept, and offered himself to God. Throughout the balance of his prosperous reign he attempted to govern by Christian principles. According to St. Gregory of Tours , he

9512-629: The pagan classics, but rather progressed to mastery of the Vulgate Bible . It is said that he constantly complained about his use of grammar. He did not understand how to correctly write masculine and feminine phrases, reflecting either a lack of ability or changes in the Latin language. Though he had read Virgil , considered the greatest Latin stylist, he cautioned: "We ought not to relate their lying fables, lest we fall under sentence of eternal death." By contrast, he seems to have thoroughly studied

9628-467: The part where the author has much personal knowledge about the events in the Frankish kingdom. This book and the ones after are considerably longer and more detailed than the previous, while covering a shorter amount of time. This book also contains Gregory's impressions of ecclesiastical issues he witnessed and had some bearing on. It describes a possible debate that Gregory had with a rival Arian church leader. Moreover, Book 5 also introduces Childebert II ,

9744-655: The power of God flowing through them in the way that it did for the fathers. More immediate concerns were at the forefront of his mind as he sought to create a further layer of religious commitment, not only to the Church at Rome, but also to local churches and cathedrals throughout Gaul. Along with his other books (notably the Glory of the Confessors , the Glory of the Martyrs , and the Life of St. Martin ), meticulous attention

9860-416: The preceding generation, taking in a wide range the spiritual community of early medieval Gaul, including lives of bishops, clerics, monks, abbots, holy men, and hermits. He praised St. Illidius for purity of heart, St. Brachio the abbot for discipline and determination in study of the scriptures, St Patroclus for unwavering faith in the face of weakness, and St. Nicetius bishop of Lyon for justice. It

9976-464: The purpose of forming alliances, than for personal motives. Although at the instigation of his queens he gave money for several new ecclesiastical edifices, he was a less than enthusiastic Christian and succeeded in introducing taxes on ecclesiastical property. Frankish customs of the day allowed for the practice of polygamy , especially among royalty. So it was not uncommon for a king to have multiple wives and several competing heirs upon his death. This

10092-459: The rhetorician but many the rustic speaker". Win further observed: The Historia Francorum is the only source of that period covering the beginning of the Franks in the decaying Roman Empire from around 397 (the death of Martin of Tours) to 590 (the early reign of king Chlothar II). Gregory's chronology of the Franks is continued with the Fourth Book of Fredegar and its continuations for

10208-433: The rights of mothers, queens were granted a portion of their son's kingdom. Clovis I, who had two wives, divided his kingdom into two for each of his wives, then parceled out pieces to his respective sons. The eldest, Theuderic, son of the first wife, had the benefit of receiving one half of the kingdom of Francia, Reims. Chlothar shared the second half of the kingdom with his brothers Childebert and Chlodomer. Chlothar received

10324-418: The second part of his history, Books V and VI, closes with Chilperic I 's death in 584. During the years that Chilperic held Tours, relations between him and Gregory were tense. After hearing rumours that the bishop of Tours had slandered his wife, Fredegund , Chilperic had Gregory arrested and tried for treason – a charge which threatened both Gregory's bishopric and his life. The most eloquent passage in

10440-530: The son of recently slain Sigibert and of the still-living Brunhilda. Childebert is taken along with Brunhilda under the protection of Gunthram, brother and sometime rival of Chilperic. In Book Six, the young Childebert betrays his alliance with his adoptive uncle Gunthram, who had protected Childebert and his mother after his father Sigibert's death. Now Childebert forms an alliance with his uncle, Chilperic, who had often been an enemy of Sigibert. In 584, Chilperic

10556-597: The spiritual worlds, firmly placing the accounts of the lives in a world which was understandable and recognisable; or, seen from the other angle, confirming the presence of miracles in the temporal world. In 587, Gregory began writing the Book of the Glories of the Martyrs ( Liber in gloria martyrum ), which deals "almost exclusively with the miracles wrought in Gaul by the martyrs of the Roman persecutions". But it also tells

10672-521: The story of one Theodore who made a pilgrimage to India and reported the existence of a large monastery where the body of Thomas the Apostle was first interred and where miracles took place. Gregory's avowed aim in writing this book was to "fire others with that enthusiasm by which the saints deservedly climbed to heaven", though this was not his sole purpose, and he most surely did not expect his entire audience to show promise of such piety as to witness

10788-614: The strongholds of Dio-et-Valquières and Cabrières . Most of the lost Frankish lands were recovered. Chlothar attempted to take advantage of Theuderic's illness during this time, trying to attain his kingdom with the help of Childebert. However Theudebert, who was busy securing Arles , rushed back to his father Theuderic's aid. Theuderic died a few days later. And Theudebert, supported by his vassals, managed to keep his kingdom and restrained his uncles from taking over. Childebert and Theudebert joined forces and declared war on Chlothar. They initially defeated him, forcing him to take refuge in

10904-472: The support of Conomor. Chram fled for the sea, but first attempted to rescue his wife and daughters. He was then captured and immediately sentenced to death. He and his wife and daughters were locked in a shack and were strangled and burned. Overwhelmed with remorse, Clothar went to Tours to implore forgiveness at the tomb of St Martin and died shortly afterwards at the royal palace at Compiègne . In 561, Chlothar attempted to raise taxes on churches, despite

11020-628: The support of the aristocracy, and the Franks were forced to leave. In 524, Chlothar, his brothers and Theuderic, began a new campaign, advancing to the Isère Valley. But on 25 June 524, they suffered a serious defeat at the Battle of Vézeronce , and Chlodomer was killed. The Franks left Burgundy, and Godomar resumed his rule until 534. In 531, Hermanafrid , king of the Thuringians , promised to give Chlothar's half-brother, Theuderic, part of

11136-541: The tax on churches held. Ingund and Chlothar made many additions to churches, including the decorations of the tomb of Saint-Germain Auxerre; the basilica are preserved with a given royal chalice. Chlothar financed the construction of the monastery of Sainte-Croix in Poitiers, which folds Radegund. He transferred reliquaries that the queen had accumulated during her stay with the king to the monastery of St. Croix. At

11252-768: The time, to remove him. Mummolus defeated Chilperic's general Desiderius and the Neustrian's forces retreated from Austrasia. In 577, Chlothar and Clodomir, his two surviving children, died of dysentery and he adopted as his son and heir Childebert II , his nephew, Sigebert's son, whose kingdom he had saved two years prior. However, Childebert did not always prove faithful to his uncle. In 581, Chilperic took many of Gontrand's cities and in 583, he allied with Childebert and attacked Gontrand. This time Gontrand made peace with Chilperic and Childebert retreated. In 584, he returned Childebert's infidelity by invading his land and capturing Tours and Poitiers , but he had to leave to attend

11368-407: The two remaining sons of Clovis die: Childebert in 558 and Clothar in 561. The last years of Clothar's life see the entire realm of the Franks ruled by him. At the time of his demise in 561 (as under Clovis before him), the kingdom is divided equally between four sons of Clothar: Charibert I , Sigebert I , Guntram , and Chilperic I ; they quarrel for control of the entire realm. A truce between them

11484-655: The upper valley of the Weser , Elbe , and the coast of the North Sea . As a submission, Chlothar required them to pay a substantial annual tribute and for some time exacted from the Saxons an annual tribute of 500 cows. Between 555 and 556, the Saxons revolted again, perhaps instigated by Childebert. Faced with the Saxon revolt and threat of a massacre, Chlothar preferred peace talks. He offered to forego battle if they would accept his demand to continue to pay him tribute, despite

11600-436: The young heirs with death unless they agreed to join a monastery. They sent Arcadius, grandson of Sidonius Apollinaris , to their mother, Clotilde, with a pair of scissors and a sword. He gave the queen an ultimatum: the boys could either live as monks or die. Germanic traditions gave Queen Clotilde, as the mother, the right as head of her household. However, among kings the lineage passed to younger brothers before it passed to

11716-616: Was a king of the Franks of the Merovingian dynasty and one of the four sons of Clovis I . With his eldest brother Theuderic (c. 485 – 533/34) being the son of Clovis I and his first wife, Chlothar followed his two elder brothers Chlodomer (495–524) and Childebert I (496–558) as third surviving son of Clovis I and his second wife Queen Clotilde , lastly followed by their sister Clotilde (500–531). The name 'Chlothar' means "glory". In 511, Clothar I and his three brothers Theuderic, Chlodomer and Childebert inherited their shares of their father's kingdom. Chlothar spent most of his life in

11832-537: Was a major deviation from the monogamy of late Roman customs, influenced by the Church. Frankish rulers followed this practice mainly to increase their influence across larger areas of land in the wake of the Roman empire's collapse. The aim was to maintain peace and ensure the preservation of the kingdom by appeasing local leaders. In the Germanic tradition succession fell, not to sons, but to younger brothers, uncles, and cousins. But under Salic law , Clovis I instituted

11948-495: Was also enemy of Fredegund, who sent the Saxons of Bayeux to aid Waroch. Beppolem fought alone for three days before dying, at which point Waroch tried to flee to the Channel Islands , but Ebrachain destroyed his ships and forced him to accept a peace, the renewal of the oath, and the surrender of a nephew as a hostage. This was all to no effect. The Bretons maintained their independent mindedness. In 589, Gontrand made

12064-718: Was called the Treaty of Andelot and it endured until Gontrand died. Also in 587, Gontrand compelled obedience from Waroch II , the Breton ruler of the Vannetais . He forced the renewal of the oath of 578 in writing and demanded 1,000 solidi in compensation for raiding the Nantais . In 588, the compensation was not yet paid, as Waroch promised it to both Gontrand and Chlothar II , who probably had suzerainty over Vannes. In 589 or 590, Gontrand sent an expedition against Waroch under Beppolem and Ebrachain, mutual enemies. Ebrachain

12180-566: Was expanded over Poitiers , Tours , Limoges , Clermont , Bourges , Le Puy , Javols , Rodez , Cahors , Albi , and Toulouse . Chlothar again engaged in war with the Saxons. He sent his sons Charibert and Guntram to lead an army against Chram. They marched to Auvergne and Limoges and finally found Chram in Saint-Georges-Nigremont . Their armies met at the foot of a "black mountain" where they demanded that Chram relinquish land belonging to their father. He refused, but

12296-532: Was killed on 25 June 524 during an expedition against the Burgundians at the Battle of Vezeronce. Upon Chlodomer's death, his three sons, Theodebald, Gunther, and Clodoald, were entrusted to care of their grandmother, hence the young princes were raised in Paris by Chlodomer's mother, Chlotilde. To prevent the kingdom of Orleans from returning to his nephews, Chlothar joined with his brother Childebert in 532 to threaten

12412-454: Was not treated in the customary manner of a queen. This was largely due to her Christian faith; she did not want to appear luxurious. Radegund did not eat to excess. She insisted that much of her food be given to the poor. She spent most of her time praying and singing psalms but spent very little time with the king. Her allegiance was to God first and to Chlothar second. Chlothar became irritated and had many disputes with her. She retired to

12528-425: Was problematic when consumed solely for pleasure. The History of the Franks by Gregory of Tours is an historical record of great importance. It is a central source for early Frankish history, representing the period of transition from late Roman antiquity to early Medieval times in a nascent Europe. It is believed to be the only reliable source of information to describe the emerging military and political power of

12644-408: Was redeemed, and I believe that humanity, not deity, was subject to the suffering. I believe that he rose again on the third day, that he freed sinful man, that he ascended to heaven, that he sits on the right hand of the Father, that he will come to judge the living and the dead. I believe that the holy Spirit proceeded from the Father and the Son, that it is not inferior and is not of later origin, but

12760-482: Was relatively poor in comparison with earlier centuries when writers were educated at secular Roman grammar and rhetoric schools. He was self-aware of this and apologized for his poor Latin in his introduction: Ista etenim atque et his similia iugiter intuens dici, pro commemoratione praeteritorum, ut notitiam adtingerint venientum, etsi incultu effatu, nequivi tamen obtegere vel certamena flagitiosorum vel vitam recte viventium; et praesertim his inlicitus stimulis, quod

12876-431: Was the protector of the oppressed, caregiver to the sick, and the tender parent to his subjects. He was generous with his wealth, especially in times of plague and famine. He strictly and justly enforced the law without respect to person, yet was ever ready to forgive offences against himself, including two attempted assassinations. Gontrand munificently built and endowed many churches and monasteries. St. Gregory related that

12992-399: Was the standard Latin one of Late Antiquity , focusing on Virgil 's Aeneid and Martianus Capella 's Liber de Nuptiis Mercurii et Philologiae , but also other key texts such as Orosius 's Chronicles , which his Historia continues, and Sallust ; he referred to all these works in his own. His education, as was typical for the time, did not extend to a broad acquaintance with

13108-415: Was the weight of episcopal responsibility. He surmounted the others in the glory of his miracles and was chosen by God to have the entire succession of past and future Frankish kings revealed to him. A further aspect of this work is the appearance of Gregory himself in certain sections, notably in the life of St. Leobardus. This is for two reasons: Firstly, it created a distinct link between the temporal and

13224-430: Was to Ingund , by whom he had five sons and two daughters: Chlothar likely had an illegitimate son named Gondovald with an unnamed woman, born sometime in the late 540s or early 550s. Since Chlothar had sown children all throughout Gaul this was not unlikely. The boy was given a literary education and allowed to grow his hair long, a symbol of belonging to royalty. Although Chlothar would offer no more aid or privilege to

13340-416: Was to highlight the vanity of secular life and contrast it with the miracles of the saints. Though Gregory conveys political and other messages through the Historia , and these are studied very closely, historians now generally agree that this contrast itself is the central and ever-present narrative device. His Life of the Fathers comprises twenty hagiographies of the most prominent religious men of

13456-493: Was written in 594, the year of Gregory's death. Readers of the Historia Francorum may find that one royal Frankish house is more generously treated than others. Gregory was also a Catholic bishop, and his writing reveals views typical of someone in his position. His views on perceived dangers of Arianism , still strong among the Visigoths , led him to preface the Historia with a detailed expression of his orthodoxy on

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