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88-619: The poem was composed before the year 1000 and Bellows considered it to be in a "rather bad shape", but it was in that shape that it provided material for the Völsunga saga , where it was faithfully paraphrased. He states, however, that it is the only Old Norse poem from an earlier period than the year 1000 in the Sigurd tradition that has come down to modern times in a roughly complete form. The other older poems, Reginsmál , Fáfnismál and Sigrdrifumál , are collections of fragments and only

176-480: A dowry of gold. Then her brothers murdered her hero Sigurd: 4. Grani rann at þingi, - gnýr var at heyra, - en þá Sigurðr sjalfr eigi kom; öll váru söðuldýr sveita stokkin ok of vanið vási und vegöndum. 4. From the Thing ran Grani with thundering feet, But thence did Sigurth himself come never; Covered with sweat was the saddle-bearer, Wont the warrior's weight to bear. Guðrún held

264-484: A magical or enchanted drink. The practice of administering potions has had a long history of being illegalised. Despite these laws, there have been several different administrators of potions across history. Quacks or charlatans are people who sell "medical methods that do not work and are only intended to make money". In Europe in the 15th century it was also common to see long-distance peddlers , who sold supposedly magical healing potions and elixirs . During

352-458: A "particular salt."  He uses the potion successfully to go back and forth between his normal self, Dr. Jekyll, and his evil self, Mr. Hyde. In the Harry Potter series, potions also play a main role. The students are required to attend potion classes, taught by Severus Snape and Horace Slughorn and knowledge of potions often becomes a factor for many of the characters. Throughout

440-494: A common ingredient in these potions, as it was fabled to cause sterility. Several key theological and legal literature of the time condemned this practice, including Visigothic law and the Church. Many herbal potions containing emmenagogues did not contain abortifacients (substances that induce abortion) and were instead used to cure  amenorrhoea (a lack of period). There are several different types of literature in

528-573: A critical role in many pieces of literature.  Shakespeare wrote potions into many of his plays including a love potion in A Midsummer Night's Dream , poison in Hamlet , and Juliet takes a potion to fake her death in Romeo and Juliet . In the fairytale " The Little Mermaid " by Hans Christian Andersen , the Little Mermaid wishes to become human and have an immortal soul.  She visits

616-467: A day. Cannabis and opium has been used in potions throughout human history. Potions containing cannabis and/or opium were particularly popular in Arabia, Persia, and Muslim India after the arrival of the drugs around the 9th century. Cannabis and opium were a common ingredient used in potions and tinctures sold by apothecaries in 19th-century Europe, as the ingredients made patients feel better, and

704-513: A drink of immortality made out of nectar. Ayahuasca , is a hallucinogenic plant-based potion used in many parts of the world. It was first created by indigenous South Americans from the Amazon basin as a spiritual medicine. The potion was often administered by a shaman during a ceremony. The potion contains the boiled stems of the ayahuasca vine and leaves from the chacruna plant. Chacruna contains dimethyltryptamine (also known as DMT),

792-644: A few of the poems found in it also survive in independent recensions in the AM 748 I 4to manuscript. Many verses from these Eddic poems are also quoted as evidence in the Prose Edda . Some poems not found in the early Eddic manuscripts are still considered to be "Eddic" due to their style. Examples include the " Lay of Ríg " from the Codex Wormianus ; the " Lay of Hyndla " from the Flatey-jarbók ; and,

880-435: A knack for reading people very accurately coupled with chiromancy and utilized her skills in order to make money. La Voisin would read people's horoscopes and perform abortions, but she also sold potions and poisons to her clients. Her work quickly became well known throughout France and people would quickly become her clients. Around the year 1665, her fortune telling was questioned by Saint Vincent de Paul's Order, but she

968-581: A knowledge of potions as an additional way to gain a financial income. Jobs that often involved the selling of love potions included prostitutes, courtesans, enchanters and midwives. These practices varied by region. In Rome, up until the period of the civil wars , the only physicians were drug-sellers, enchanters and midwives. In Greece, retired courtesans often both created potions and worked as midwives. Prostitutes in Europe were often expected to be an expert in magic and administer love potions. In

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1056-482: A lesser performance (in fornyrðislag ); Harald judged that verse bad and then offered this one in the more demanding form. While the exchange may be fictionalized, the scene illustrates the regard in which the form was held. Most dróttkvætt poems that survive appear in one or another of the Norse sagas ; several of the sagas are biographies of skaldic poets. Hrynhenda or hrynjandi háttr ('the flowing verse-form')

1144-452: A psychedelic drug. The potion caused users to vomit or 'purge' and induced hallucinations. Potions or mixtures are common within many of local mythologies. In particular, references to love potions are common in many cultures. Yusufzai witches, for example, would bathe a recently deceased leatherworker and sell the water to those seeking a male partner; this practice is said to exist in a modified form in modern times. Potions have played

1232-430: A remedy for infertility. Larger doses act as an entheogen of the deliriant class, having the potential to cause profound confusion and dysphoria characterised by realistic hallucinations of an unpleasant character. Classical and Renaissance authors have left certain accounts of the use of the plant by witches in the preparation of potions intended variously to excite love, cause insanity or even kill. Scopolamine ,

1320-402: A stressed word at line-end, such as in some docked forms). In addition, specific requirements obtained for odd-numbered and even-numbered lines. In the odd-numbered lines (equivalent to the a-verse of the traditional alliterative line): In the even lines (equivalent to the b-verse of the traditional alliterative line): The requirements of the verse form were so demanding that occasionally

1408-476: A string of incidents involving her and her potions. She confessed her crimes of murder and told authorities a majority of everything they needed to know about the people she knowingly murdered. On February 22, 1680, La Voisin was sentenced to a public death wherein she was to be burned as the stake for witchcraft. Jacqueline Felice de Almania was tried in Italy in 1322 for the unlicensed practice of medicine. She

1496-541: A toxic, deliriant alkaloid present in (and named after) Scopolia carniolica and also present in Mandragora , Hyoscyamus and other Solanaceae, was used by the infamous Dr. Crippen to kill his wife. In ancient Greece, the Spanish fly (also known as cantharides) was crushed with herbs and used in love potions. It was believed to be effective due to the bodily warmth that resulted from ingesting it. However, this

1584-631: A wide range of other possibilities. Many of the Eddic lays can be characterized as focused on ethical topics. Eddic poetry is to indebted narratives describing heroes, which was part of a long oral tradition, as well as textual. The skaldic forms were so called because of the existence of a socially-defined group of which the individual members were generally known by the term skald , or scold , or by similarly linguistically related terms, in Old Norse and particularly closely related languages. Basically,

1672-454: Is a later development of dróttkvætt with eight syllables per line instead of six, with the similar rules of rhyme and alliteration, although each hrynhent -variant shows particular subtleties. It is first attested around 985 in the so-called Hafgerðingadrápa of which four lines survive (alliterants and rhymes bolded): The author was said to be a Christian from the Hebrides , who composed

1760-435: Is almost like a "combination" of the previous — alliteration always on the first metrical-position, and the rhymes in the odd-lines juxtaposed (all features in bold in this example): There is one more form which is a bit different though seemed to be counted among the previous group by Snorri, called draughent . The syllable-count changes to seven (and, whether relevant to us or not, the second-syllable seems to be counted as

1848-425: Is characterized by relative simplicity in terms of style and meter and, "like the later folk songs and ballads, they are anonymous and objective, never betraying the feelings or attitudes of their authors." In contrast, the skaldic poetry tends to concern itself with contemporary events and personalities, although also sometimes dealing with or alluding to myth and legend; skaldic poetry avoids direct narration; and, it

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1936-541: Is conventionally, and somewhat arbitrarily, split into two types: Eddaic poetry (also known as Eddic poetry) and Skaldic poetry . Eddaic poetry refers to poems on themes of mythology or ancient heroes, composed in simpler meters (see below) and with anonymous authors. Most of the Eddaic poems are preserved in the Codex Regius manuscript, but a few others survive in manuscripts like the fragmentary AM 748 I 4to . On

2024-506: Is often known who the authors of the skaldic verses are along with their dates, unlike the Eddic poetry. Old Norse poetry has many metrical forms ( Old Norse : hættir ). They range from the ancient and relatively simple fornyrðislag ('air of ancient utterings'), closely related to the Old English meter , to the innovative and complex dróttkvætt ( Old Norse : dróttkvæðr háttr 'court-spoken meter'). In Eddic, or Eddaic, poetry,

2112-421: Is one night, long is the next; how can I bear three? A month has often seemed less to me than this half night of longing. Because of its structure, which comprises clearly defined rhythmic stanzas , ljóðaháttr lends itself to dialogue and discourse. There were a number of variant stanza forms based on ljóðaháttr , including galdralag ("incantation meter"), which adds a fifth short (three-lift) line at

2200-463: Is still used in some parts of the world to treat dysentery." Creating a potion for immortality, was a common pursuit of alchemists throughout history.  The Elixir of Life is a famous potion that aimed to create eternal youth . During the Chinese dynasties , this elixir of life was often recreated and drunk by emperors, nobles and officials. In India, there is a myth of the potion amrita ,

2288-684: Is supposed to have magic powers." It derives from the Latin word potio which refers to a drink or the act of drinking. The term philtre is also used, often specifically for a love potion , a potion that is supposed to create feelings of love or attraction in the one who drinks it. Throughout history there have been several types of potions for a range of purposes. Reasons for taking potions ranged from curing an illness, to securing immortality to trying to induce love. These potions, while often ineffective or poisonous, occasionally had some degree of medicinal success depending on what they sought to fix and

2376-486: The Great Plague of London in the 17th century, quacks sold many fake potions promising either cures or immunity. Because pills looked less trustworthy to the public, potions were often the top sellers of quacks. These potions often included bizarre ingredients such as floral pomanders and the smoke of fragrant woods. The well known Wessex quack Vilbert was known to sell love potions made of pigeon hearts.   By

2464-655: The Old World tribes Hyoscyameae and Mandragoreae . These potions were known as pharmaka diabolika ("devilish drugs"). The root of Mandragora officinarum , the celebrated mandrake, fabled in legend to shriek when uprooted, was often used to prepare sleeping potions, although it could prove poisonous in excess, due to its tropane alkaloid content. M. officinarum is native to the Mediterranean region . Administered in small doses mandrake root has been used in folk medicine as an analgesic , an aphrodisiac and

2552-492: The Pharmacy Act 1868 anybody could become a pharmacist or chemist. Since the practice was unregulated, potions were often made from scratch. Potions were additionally used to cure illness in livestock. One potion found in a 19th-century pharmacist's recipe book was to be used for "lambs of about 7 years old" and contains chalk, pomegranate and opium. There was a strict hierarchy in the medical community of Europe during

2640-659: The humoral tradition that propose the use of herbal potions or suppositories to provoke menstruation. Giulia Tofana (1581-1651) was an Italian poisoner, known as the inventor of the famous poison Aqua Tofana . Born in Sicily, she invented and started to sell the poison in Palermo in Sicily. She later established herself in Rome , where she continued the business, specialising in selling to women in abusive marriages who wanted to become widows. She died peacefully in 1651 and left

2728-466: The " Lay of Svipdag ", which is only found in later, paper manuscripts (rather than vellum). Together, all of these poems are grouped under the somewhat fluid term the Poetic Edda . Compared to the main skaldic style, the Eddic lays tend to be differentiated by three characteristics: the material deals with the mythology, ancient heroes, and ethics of the ancient Norse. Furthermore, the Eddic style

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2816-475: The "head-stave" (or, hǫfuðstafr ). The word "line" and "couplet" need some clarification. Essentially, in fornyrðislag and many other forms, Norse poets treated each "half-line" of Germanic alliterative verse as a separate line. The Norse "couplet" is basically a single Germanic line, a pair of half-lines joined by alliteration. Thus, a Norse fornyrðislag stanza of eight lines corresponds to four lines of Old-English alliterative verse. Another difference between

2904-407: The "main" form never has alliteration or rhyme in the first 2 syllables of the odd-lines (i.e., rhymes always coming at the fourth-syllable), and the even-lines never have rhyme on the fifth/sixth syllables (i.e.: they cannot harbor rhyme in these places because they extra-metrical), the following couplet shows the paradigm: [Note the juxtaposition of alliteration and rhyme of the even-line] Then,

2992-438: The 12th to 15th centuries. Male doctors were the most respected and paid followed by female apothecaries, barber-surgeons and surgeons. Women were often the main way that individuals who could not afford doctors or apothecaries could gain medical treatment Potions, in addition to calming teas or soup, were a common homemade treatment made by women. When unable to go to a female house member, early modern people would often go to

3080-532: The 13th century, this word became pocioun , referring to either a medicinal drink, or a dose of liquid medicine (or poison). The word "potion" is also cognate with the Spanish words pocion with the same meaning, and ponzoña , meaning "poison"; The word pozione was originally the same word for both "poison" and "potion" in Italian, but by the early 15th century in Italy, potion began to be known specifically as

3168-527: The 18th century in England, it was common for middle class households to stock potions that claimed to solve a variety of ailments. Quackery grew to its height in the 19th century. In 18th- and 19th-century Britain, pharmacies or apothecaries were often a cheaper, more accessible option for medical treatment than doctors. Potions distributed by chemists for illnesses were often derived from herbs and plants, and based on old beliefs and remedies. Prior to

3256-555: The German tradition are her mother and her brother insisting that she marry Atli, the slaying of the Gjukungs and her future revenge on Atli. King Þjóðrekr was staying at the court of Atli , and Þjóðrekr had just lost most of his warriors in battle. Þjóðrekr and Atli's queen Guðrún were alone together and discussed their sorrows. Guðrún told Þjóðrekr that she was a young maiden when her father Gjúki gave her away to Sigurd with

3344-466: The Latin word potus , an irregular past participle of potare , meaning "to drink". This evolved to the word potionem (nominative potio ) meaning either "a potion, a drinking" or a "poisonous draught, magic potion".  In Ancient Greek, the word for both drugs and potions was "pharmaka" or "pharmakon". In the 12th century, the French had the word pocion , meaning "potion", "draught", or "medicine". By

3432-459: The Middle Ages and the early modern period, using potions to induce sterility and abortion was widely practiced in Europe. The majority of abortive potions were made using emmenagogue herbs (herbs used to stimulate menstruation) which were intended to cause a period and end a pregnancy. Additionally abortive potions could also be prepared by infusion of a herb or tree. The willow tree was

3520-842: The Norse system and the general Germanic pattern is that the Norse poets, unlike the Old English poets, tended to treat each "couplet", or Germanic line, as a complete syntactic unit, avoiding enjambment where a thought begun on one line continues through the following lines; only seldom do they begin a new sentence in the second half-line. This example is from the Waking of Angantyr : V aki, Angantýr!   v ekr þik Hervǫr, ei ngadóttir   y kkr Sváfu! Selðu ór h augi   h vassan mæki þann's S vafrlama   s lógu dvergar. Awaken, Angantyr ! Hervor awakens you; your only daughter by Sváfa! Yield up from

3608-587: The Prince's love.  The Little Mermaid decides to take the potion which successfully turns her into a human so that she can try to win the love of the Prince and an immortal soul. In the novella The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde by Robert Louis Stevenson, Dr. Henry Jekyll creates a potion that transforms him into an evil version of himself called Edward Hyde.  Dr. Jekyll does not explain how he created this potion because he felt his "discoveries were incomplete," he only indicates that it requires

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3696-500: The Sea Witch who sells her a potion, in exchange for which she cuts out the Little Mermaid's tongue.  The Sea Witch makes the potion using her own blood that she cuts from her breast.  She warns the Little Mermaid that it will feel as if she had been cut with a sword when her fin becomes legs, that she will never be able to become a mermaid again, and risks turning into seafoam and not having an immortal soul if she fails to win

3784-403: The area now referred to as Scandinavia . Much Old Norse poetry was originally preserved in oral culture, but the Old Norse language ceased to be spoken and later writing tended to be confined to history rather than for new poetic creation, which is normal for an extinct language . Modern knowledge of Old Norse poetry is preserved by what was written down. Most of the Old Norse poetry that survives

3872-513: The brain. Willow contains salicylic acid, which is a component of aspirin. Fennel , cinnamon and ginger are all carminatives, which help relieve gas in the intestines. The cormorant blood adds iron to treat anemia. If used in small doses, Mandrake is a good sleeping draught (though in large doses Mandrake can be poisonous.) Dragon's blood refers to the bright red resin of the tree Dracaena draco . According to Toni Mount "it has antiseptic, antibiotic, anti-viral and wound-healing properties, and it

3960-495: The business to her stepdaughter Gironima Spana , who expanded it to a substantial business in the 1650s. The organization was exposed in 1659 and resulted in the famous Spana Prosecution , which became a subject of sensationalistic mythologization for centuries. Paula de Eguiluz was born into slavery in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic in the 17th century. Within the area in which she lived, sickness and disease ravaged

4048-668: The church. Emotions such as anger, fear, and sadness are universal and as such potions have been created across history and cultures in response to these human emotions. Love potions have been used throughout history and cultures. Scandinavians often used love-philtres, which is documented in the Norse poem The Lay of Gudrun . In 17th-century Cartagena , Afro-Mexican curer ( curanderos/as ) and other Indigenous healers could gain an income and status from selling spells and love potions to women trying to secure men and financial stability. These love potions were sold to women of all social classes, who often wished to gain sexual agency. In

4136-561: The course of the story, several characters take Polyjuice Potion to impersonate other characters, while the use of Felix Felicus potion in Book 6 helps Harry Potter gain vital information about horcruxes. In the 11th century, plants belonging to the nightshade family Solanaceae were often used as an ingredients in the potions - aphrodisiac or otherwise - and flying ointments of witches. The specific nightshades used in such concoctions were usually tropane alkaloid -containing species belonging to

4224-465: The early 9th century, Arab physician Yuhanna ̄ Ibn Masawaih used the dye kermes to create a potion called Confectio Alchermes . The potion was "intended for the caliph and his court and not for commoners." The potion was intended to cure heart palpitations, restore strength and cure madness and depression. During the Renaissance in Europe, Confectio Alchermes was used widely. Recipes for

4312-543: The end of the stanza; in this form, the fifth line usually echoes the fourth. Eddic poems have other common characteristics besides verse form. The Eddic poetry lays are diverse; however, three important common characteristics can be described: mythology, ethics, and heroic lore. One major topic of Eddic poetry is mythology. The mythological topics of Eddic poetry most importantly include Norse mythology , however other types of mythology are also involved, including various other Germanic traditions, probable Christian ideas, and

4400-643: The even ones). Ljóðaháttr ("chant" or " ballad " metre) is a stanzaic verse form, organized into four-line stanzas. The first and third lines were standard lines of Germanic alliterative verse with four lifts and two or three alliterations, separated into two half-lines with cæsura; the second and fourth lines had three lifts and two alliterations, and no cæsura. This example is from Freyr 's lament in Skírnismál : L ǫng es nótt,   l ǫng es ǫnnur, hvé mega ek þ reyja þ rjár? Opt mér m ánaðr   m inni þótti en sjá h alfa h ýnótt. Long

4488-422: The extra-metrical): As one can see, there is very often clashing stress in the middle of the line ( Vápna hríd velt a....//..Vægdar laus feig um.... , etc.), and oddhending seems preferred (as well as keeping alliterative and rhyming syllables separated, which likely has to do with the syllabic-makeup of the line). Potion A potion is a liquid "that contains medicine , poison , or something that

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4576-639: The king of Denmark, and three men named Jarizleif, Eymoth and Jarizskar. They wanted to give her gifts to console her but she did not trust them. Then, her mother gave her a something to drink, a potion of forgetfulness: Færði mér Grímhildr full at drekka svalt ok sárligt, né ek sakar munðak; þat var of aukit jarðar magni, svalköldum sæ ok sónum dreyra. Váru í horni hvers kyns stafir ristnir ok roðnir, - ráða ek né máttak, - lyngfiskr langr, lands Haddingja ax óskorit, innleið dyra. 22. A draught did Grimhild give me to drink, Bitter and cold; I forgot my cares; For mingled therein

4664-645: The lament appears to have been replaced another poem, because it deals with how Atli told Guðrún that he had had foreboding dreams of being killed by her. The description of the dream begins with this stanza: Svá mik nýliga nornir vekja", - vílsinnis spá vildi, at ek réða, - "hugða ek þik, Guðrún Gjúka dóttir, læblöndnum hjör leggja mik í gögnum. 39. Now from sleep the Norns have waked me With visions of terror,-- To thee will I tell them; Methought thou, Guthrun, Gjuki's daughter, With poisoned blade didst pierce my body. Without understanding

4752-425: The land was sailing, Golden the figure-head, gay the beaks; On board we wove the warriors faring, Sigar and Siggeir , south to Fjon . Her mother Grimhild asked her sons Gunnarr and Högni what kind of wergild they would like to give their sister for the killing of her husband Sigurd and her son Sigmund, and they were both ready to compensate their sister. Guðrún met her mother, brothers and Valdar ,

4840-518: The last part of Brot af Sigurðarkviðu remains. The remaining poems in the cycle are generally dated to the 11th century and the 12th century. Bellows states that another reason for assuming that the poem derives from a lament originating in Germany is the fact that Sigurd's death takes place in the forest, as in the Nibelungenlied , and not in his bed. Other elements relating closely to

4928-748: The meaning of the dream, Atli describes his future eating of his own sons, served to him by their own mother Guðrún, in revenge for Atli's killing her brothers. Hugða ek mér af hendi hauka fljúga bráðalausa bölranna til; hjörtu hugða ek þeira við hunang tuggin, sorgmóðs sefa, sollin blóði. Hugða ek mér af hendi hvelpa losna, glaums andvana, gylli báðir; hold hugða ek þeira at hræum orðit, nauðigr nái nýta ek skyldak. 42. I dreamed my hawks from my hand had flown, Eager for food, to an evil house; I dreamed their hearts with honey I ate, Soaked in blood, and heavy my sorrow. 43. Hounds I dreamed from my hand I loosed, Loud in hunger and pain they howled; Their flesh methought

5016-422: The metric structures are for the most part either in the form of fornyrðislag ("old story"/"epic meter") or ljóðaháttr ("song"/"chant meter"). Both fornyrðislag and ljóðaháttr verse form share similarities; such as, partial alliteration of stressed and grammatically important syllables, division of the verse into half lines or full lines and couplets, with fixed numbers of lines, line lengths determined by

5104-518: The mound the sharp sword that which dwarves forged for Svafrlami . Fornyrðislag had a variant form called málaháttr ("meter of speeches"), which adds an unstressed syllable to each half-line, making six to eight (sometimes up to ten) unstressed syllables per line. This meter is similar to that used in the Old Saxon Heliand . Conversely, another variant, kviðuháttr , has only three syllables in its odd half-lines (but four in

5192-532: The number of stressed syllables (called "lifts"), and the linking of full lines or couplets by means of alliteration. A verse form close to that of Beowulf was used on runestones and in the Old Norse Poetic Edda ; in Norse, it was called fornyrðislag , which means "old story metre". Fornyrðislag is the more commonly used Eddic meter, and is often used for narrative poems. Fornyrðislag formally consists of eight line stanzas. Each line of

5280-571: The other hand, Skaldic poetry was usually written as praise for living kings and nobles, in more intricate meters and by known authors, known as skalds . There are various types of Old Norse poetry which have been preserved. Of particular interest to scholars are the Skaldic and Eddic lays, or poems. However, also of interest are occasional verse from other sources. Skaldic and Eddic works have many commonalities besides being written in Old Norse, such as alliteration; however, scholars usually distinguish

5368-406: The poem ("so said the goddess of hawk-land, true of words") are syntactically separate but interspersed within the text of the rest of the verse. The elaborate kennings manifested here are also practically necessary in this complex and demanding form, as much to solve metrical difficulties as for the sake of vivid imagery. Intriguingly, the saga claims that Harald improvised these lines after he gave

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5456-547: The poem asking God to keep him safe at sea. ( Note : The third line is, in fact, over-alliterated. There should be exactly two alliterants in the odd-numbered lines.) The metre gained some popularity in courtly poetry, as the rhythm may sound more majestic than dróttkvætt. We learn much about these in the Hattatal : Snorri gives for certain at least three different variant-forms of hrynhenda. These long-syllabled lines are explained by Snorri as being extra-metrical in most cases:

5544-523: The potion appeared in the work of the popular English apothecary Nicholas Culpeper and the official pharmacopoeia handbooks of London and Amsterdam. Queen Elizabeth 's French ambassador was even treated with the remedy; however, the recipe was altered to include a "unicorn's horn" (possibly a ground-up narwhal tusk ) in addition to the traditional ingredients. The ingredients for the potion mainly included ambergris, cinnamon, aloes, gold leaf, musk, pulverized lapis lazuli, and white pearls. St Paul's potion

5632-410: The rein of the horse and began to cry, as she understood what had happened: 5. Gekk ek grátandi við Grana ræða, úrughlýra jó frá ek spjalla; hnipnaði Grani þá, drap í gras höfði, jór þat vissi, eigendr né lifðu-t. 5. Weeping I sought with Grani to speak, With tear-wet cheeks for the tale I asked; The head of Grani was bowed to the grass, The steed knew well his master

5720-399: The requirements of Germanic alliterative verse and strongly resembles Celtic (Irish and Welsh) verse forms. The dróttkvætt stanza had eight lines, each having usually three lifts and almost invariably six syllables. Although other stress patterns appear, the verse is predominantly trochaic. The last two syllables in each line had to form a trochee (there are a few specific forms which utilize

5808-450: The rest of her life. Guðrún responded that her mother should not be so eager to giver her away to the Huns, and she prophesied that Atli would kill Gunnarr and tear out the heart of Högni. Grímhildr began to weep when she heard the prophecy and told Guðrún that she was forced to give her away to Atli. Guðrún then continued her lament by telling that she married Atli for her kinsmen's sake. She

5896-488: The rhyme remains the same (Snorri seems to imply that frumhending , which is placing a rhyme on the first syllable of any line, is preferably avoided in all these forms: the rhymes are always preferred as oddhending , "middle-of-the-line rhymes") — in the even-lines the rhyme and alliteration are not juxtaposed, and this is a key feature of its distinction (the significant features only are marked in bold below): The next form, which Snorri calls "ordinary/standard hrynhenda",

5984-710: The skald was a type of poet. In Skaldic poetry, the structures used tend to be complex, evolved from the common Germanic poetic tradition. Around a hundred meters are known, many only from Snorri Sturluson's Háttatal . One of the simpler skaldic meters was kviðuháttr , a variant of fornyrðislag with alternating lines of 3 and 4 syllables, used in genealogical poems such as Þjóðólfr ór Hvíni's Ynglingatal and Eyvindr Skáldaspillir 's Háleygjatal . Other Skaldic meters, sch as dróttkvætt and Hrynhenda were more complex.. Dróttkvætt , meaning " courtly metre", added internal rhymes and other forms of assonance to its stanza structures. The resulting verse form goes well beyond

6072-743: The social and religious world of the Vikings . In Skáldskaparmál , Snorri Sturluson , recounts the myth of how Odin brought the mead of poetry to Asgard . Poetry is referred to in such terms as 'the drink of the raven-god (= Odin)' even in the oldest preserved poetry, which is an indicator of its significance within the ancient Scandinavian culture. Old Norse poetry developed from the common Germanic alliterative verse , and as such has many commonalities with Old English , Old Saxon , and Old High German poetry, including alliteration , poetic circumlocutions termed kennings , and an expansive vocabulary of poetic synonyms, termed heiti . Old Norse poetry

6160-399: The stanza has two vocally stressed syllables, also known as "lifts", with a somewhat arbitrary number of other syllables. Through the use of alliteration, lines join into couplets. Generally, in the first line of fornyrðislag , both "lifts", or stressed syllables alliterate. In the second line of any given couplet, only one of the two stressed syllables is alliterated, usually the first—this is

6248-509: The text of the poems had to run parallel, with one thread of syntax running through the on-side of the half-lines, and another running through the off-side. According to the Fagrskinna collection of sagas , King Harald III of Norway uttered these lines of dróttkvætt at the Battle of Stamford Bridge ; the internal assonances and the alliteration are emboldened: The bracketed words in

6336-427: The towns and major cities. Paula de Eguiluz decided to research and find her own cures to these maladies. Because of this, she is widely known for being involved in health care and healing. Once her healing and health care practice took off, she started to sell potions and serums to clients. de Eguiluz's business attracted a following and slowly got her into a bit of trouble. Due to Paula's healing accomplishments, she

6424-467: The two based on certain characteristics. Scholarly distinction between Eddic and Skaldic works largely derives both from differing manuscript traditions and their typical matter and style. One major distinction between Skaldic and Eddic poetry derives from the manuscript sources of the surviving known works. The large majority of works described as "Eddic" are found only in the Codex Regius , while

6512-488: The type and amount of ingredients used. Some popular ingredients used in potions across history include Spanish fly , nightshade plants , cannabis , and opium . During the 17th to 19th century, it was common in Europe to see peddlers offering potions for ailments ranging from heartbreak to the plague. These were eventually dismissed as quackery . Prostitutes, courtesans, enchanters and midwives were also known to distribute potions. The word potion has its origins in

6600-434: The variant-forms show unsurprising dróttkvætt patterns overall; the main difference being that the first trochee of the odd-lines are technically not reckoned as extrametrical since they harbor alliteration , but the even-lines' extra-metrical feature is more or less as the same. The 2nd form is the "troll-hrynjandi" : in the odd-lines the alliteration is moved to the first metrical position (no longer "extra-metrical") while

6688-400: The wise women of their village. Wise women (who were often supposed witches ) were knowledgeable in health care and could administer potions, lotions or salves in addition to performing prayers or chants. This was often free of charge or significantly less expensive than the potions of apothecaries. The limited jobs available to women during the 17th to 18th century in Europe often involved

6776-558: Was actually a result of inflammation from toxins in the tissues of the beetle. Ferdinand II of Aragon drank many potions and elixir contains the Spanish fly. Cochineal , another type of dye, replaced kermes as an ingredient in Confectio Alchermes in the 17th and 18th centuries. Cochineal was also heavily used as an ingredient in potions for jaundice . Jaundice potions were a mix of Cochineal, cream of tartar and Venetian soap and patients were directed to take it three times

6864-599: Was arrested approximately 3 times. During these inquisitions, she was forced to tell the jury that she performed witchcraft. In response to these false confessions, she was imprisoned and whipped several times. Catherine Monvoisin , better known to some as La Voisin, was born within the year 1640 in France. Catherine Monvoisin married Antoine Monvoisin who was a jeweler in Paris. His business plummeted and Catherine had to find work in order for her and her family to survive. She had

6952-726: Was composed or committed to writing in Iceland , after refined techniques for writing (such as the use of vellum, parchment paper, pens, and ink) were introduced—seemingly contemporaneously with the introduction of Christianity: thus, the general topic area of Old Norse poetry may be referred to as Old Icelandic poetry in literature. There are also around 122 verses preserved in Swedish rune inscriptions , 54 in Norwegian and 12 in Danish. (See Eggjum stone .) Poetry played an important role in

7040-462: Was eagles' food, And their bodies now I needs must eat. There the poem ends in a few cryptic lines where Guðrún says that people will talk of a sacrifice . Old Norse poem Old Norse poetry encompasses a range of verse forms written in the Old Norse language, during the period from the 8th century to as late as the far end of the 13th century. Old Norse poetry is associated with

7128-499: Was intended to cure epilepsy, catalepsy and stomach problems. Many ingredients used in the potion had medicinal value. According to Toni Mount the list of ingredients included "liquorice, sage, willow, roses, fennel, cinnamon, ginger, cloves, cormorant blood, mandrake, dragon's blood and three kinds of pepper". Many of these ingredients still have medicinal value in the 21st century. Liquorice can be used to treat coughs and bronchitis. Sage can help memory and improve blood flow to

7216-531: Was magic earth, Ice-cold sea, and the blood of swine. 23. In the cup were runes of every kind, Written and reddened, I could not read them; A heather-fish from the Haddings ' land, An ear uncut, and the entrails of beasts. The poem relates that Guðrún forgot and the three kings kneeled before her and Grimhildr began to speak. Her mother told her that she gave her all her father's wealth, and that she would also have Buðli 's wealth because she

7304-427: Was mainly accused of doing a learned male physicians job and accepting a fee. This job involved "examining urine by its physical appearance; touching the body; and prescribing potions, digestives, and laxatives." Eight witnesses testified to her medical experience and wisdom. However, as she had not attended university, her knowledge was dismissed. Jacqueline Felice was then found guilty and fined and excommunicated from

7392-400: Was never happy with Atli and she lost her sons when her brothers died, and she would kill Atli. She travelled to Atli first a week through cold lands, then a week on water and lastly a week through land that lacked water. They arrived to high walls and guardians opened the gates. Bellows comments that there appears to be a large lacuna following her arrival to Atli. He adds that the ending of

7480-414: Was quick to dismiss the allegations of witchcraft. Catherine would then begin making potions whether it be for love, murder, or everyday life. Her love potion consisted of bones, the teeth of moles, human blood, Spanish fly beetles, and even small amounts of human remains. Her predecessor and major influence was Giulia Tofana . On March 12, 1679, Catherine was arrested Notre- Dame Bonne- Nouvelle due to

7568-483: Was slain. When she met her brothers, Gunnarr was bowing his head, but Högni told her the news that Sigurd had been slain, but that he had taken their brother Guthormr with him. He further told her that she could find Sigurd on the southern road where she would hear the cry of ravens and howling wolves. Guðrún went into the forest to search for what was left by the wolves and found Sigurd. When she found Sigurd, Guðrún did not cry, wail or wring her hands, although she

7656-581: Was so sad that she did not want to live anymore. She left the mountains and travelled for five days, until she saw the hall of Halfr, in Denmark, where she stayed for three and a half years with Thora, the daughter of Hakon. Thora and Guðrún enjoyed themselves by weaving tapestries of southern halls, Danish swans and warriors: 16. Skip Sigmundar skriðu frá landi, gylltar grímur, grafnir stafnar; byrðu vit á borða, þat er þeir börðusk Sigarr ok Siggeirr suðr á Fjóni. 16. Sigmund 's ship by

7744-652: Was to become Atli's wife. Húnskar meyjar, þær er hlaða spjöldum ok gera gull fagrt, svá at þér gaman þykki; ein skaltu ráða auði Buðla, gulli göfguð ok gefin Atla. 27. Hunnish women, skilled in weaving, Who gold make fair to give thee joy, And the wealth of Buthli thine shall be, Gold-decked one, as Atli's wife. Guðrún answered that she did not wish to marry Atli, but her mother responded that with Atli she would be as happy as if both Sigurd and her son Sigmund were still alive. Furthermore, if she did not marry Atli, she would live without husband for

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