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146-548: The stele is one of the major primary sources for the history of Goguryeo, and supplies invaluable historical detail on Gwanggaeto's reign as well as insights into Goguryeo mythology. It has also become a focal point of national rivalries in East Asia manifested in the interpretations of the stele's inscription and the place of Goguryeo in modern historical narratives . An exact replica of the Gwanggaeto Stele stands on

292-679: A Goguryeo museum within walking distance of the Yalu River . One of the major Goguryeo steles is displayed there. Professor Joon-Young Kang at Hankuk University of Foreign Studies noted that China's interpretation of Koguryo history completely reversed South Korea's positive view on China vis-à-vis the United States. From 1992 until 2015, South Korea and China experienced a surge in positive relations, as each abandoned their traditional Cold War ally (Taiwan and North Korea) and engaged in greater economic, cultural and technological ties. This

438-588: A Goguryeo relief force at the Battle of Mount Jupil . Goguryeo's defeat at Mount Jupil had significant consequences, as Tang forces killed over 20,000 Goguryeo soldiers and captured another 36,800, which crippled Goguryeo's manpower reserves for the rest of the conflict. However, the capable defense put up by Ansi's commanding general (whose name is controversial but traditionally is believed to be Yang Manchun ) stymied Tang forces and, in late fall, with winter fast approaching and his supplies running low, Tang forces under

584-695: A blend of people from Buyeo and Yemaek, as leadership from Buyeo may have fled their kingdom and integrated with existing Yemaek chiefdoms. The Records of the Three Kingdoms , in the section titled "Accounts of the Eastern Barbarians", implied that Buyeo and the Yemaek people were ethnically related and spoke a similar language. Chinese people were also in Gorguyeo. Book 28 of Samguk sagi stated that "many people of China fled [to] East of

730-591: A burgeoning metropolitan capital, which led Goguryeo to achieve a high level of cultural and economic prosperity. Jangsu, like his father, continued Goguryeo's territorial expansion into Manchuria and reached the Songhua River to the north. He invaded the Khitans, and then attacked the Didouyu , located in eastern Mongolia, with his Rouran allies. Like his father, Jangsu also achieved a loose unification of

876-643: A combination of Guryeo and the prefix Go ( Korean :  고 ; Hanja :  高 ; lit.  high, big). The name came from Goguryeo- hyeon , a subdivision that was established by the Xuantu Commandery . As Han influence over Korea declined, Goguryeo-hyeon became the center of the early Goguryeo union. From the mid-5th century, Goguryeo was shortened to the calque of Goryeo ( Korean :  고려 ; Hanja :  高麗 ; Korean pronunciation: [ko.ɾjʌ] ; Middle Korean : 고ᇢ롕〮, Kwòwlyéy ), which by itself had

1022-578: A common bloodline. Yonson argues both philosophies contradict the exclusivity claim that many scholars try to make for either Korea or China because Goguryeo possessed territories that now are within the borders of North Korea as well as China, and descendants of Goguryeo people live in both Korea and China. She also argues that the strong distinction between "self" and "other" drives many scholars to accept only exclusive possession of history and its artifacts. Disputes over such claims are often laden with terms like "stealing." The Chinese city of Ji'an has built

1168-584: A formal alliance with Wei to destroy the Liaodong commandery . When Liaodong was finally conquered by Wei, cooperation between Wei and Goguryeo fell apart and Goguryeo attacked the western edges of Liaodong, which incited a Wei counterattack in 244. Thus, Goguryeo initiated the Goguryeo–Wei War in 242, trying to cut off Chinese access to its territories in Korea by attempting to take a Chinese fort. However,

1314-568: A great crisis. Turning to domestic stability and the unification of various conquered tribes, Sosurim proclaimed new laws, embraced Buddhism as the state religion in 372, and established a national educational institute called the Taehak ( Korean :  태학 ; Hanja :  太學 ). Due to the defeats that Goguryeo had suffered at the hands of the Xianbei and Baekje , Sosurim instituted military reforms aimed at preventing such defeats in

1460-631: A group label associated with Yemaek tribes is a reference in the Han Shu that discusses a Goguryeo revolt in 12 AD, during which they broke away from the influence of the Xuantu Commandery. According to Book 37 of the Samguk sagi , Goguryeo originated north of ancient China , then gradually moved east to the side of Taedong River. At its founding, the Goguryeo people are believed to be

1606-442: A major campaign against Goguryeo. In 645, Emperor Taizong , who had a personal ambition to defeat Goguryeo and was determined to succeed where Emperor Yang had failed, personally led an attack on Goguryeo. The Tang army captured a number of Goguryeo fortresses, including the important Yodong/Liaodong Fortress (遼東城, in modern Liaoyang , Liaoning ). During his first campaign against Goguryeo, Taizong famously showed generously to

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1752-468: A member of the Tributary system of China . For example, in the 20th century, Koreans switched the central figure in their founding myth from Jizi , a Chinese human sage, to Dangun , a god. Li Yangfan, a researcher of international relations studies at Peking University , believes that South Korean historical sensationalism, caused by the turbulent modern history of Korea, was the driving force behind

1898-503: A part of Mongolian or Manchurian history. China, Japan, and other foreign states during medieval times acknowledged the legitimate succession by Korean dynasties such as Goryeo and Joseon of Goguryeo and viewed them as its rightful successors. Such is evidenced in records and scripts. Alexander Vovin believes Gorguyeo was Koreanic in origin. He pointed to Koreanic loanwords in Jurchen and Manchu , as well as Khitan and argued that

2044-457: A passage describing the king's military campaigns for the sinmyo 辛卯 year of 391 ( sinmyo being a year designator in the sexagenary cycle that characterizes the traditional Sino-oriented East Asian calendar). Some officers in the Japanese army and navy conducted research during the 1880s and the rubbed copy was later published in 1889. Most Japanese scholars, notably Masatomo Suga, interpreted

2190-528: A prince from the Buyeo kingdom named Jumong fled after a power struggle with other princes of the court and founded Goguryeo in 37 BC in a region called Jolbon Buyeo , usually thought to be located in the middle Amnok/Yalu and Hun River basin. In 75 BC, a group of Yemaek who may have originated from Goguryeo made an incursion into China's Xuantu Commandery west of the Yalu. The first mention of Goguryeo as

2336-717: A set of compatible historiographical views are necessary for China's relations with South Korea. Gari Ledyard observed that Goguryeo is also regarded as an important part of Northeast Chinese (Dongbei) identity by scholars from that region, just as it is prominent in modern Korean identity. Regarding the registration of the Koguryo UNESCO World Heritage Site , he suggested that there was likely considerable regional pressure on China's national government, and found it understandable that "Dongbei self-respect requires better maintenance for those Koguryo cultural properties". Chinese scholars are divided on

2482-579: A small group of his followers from his native country. A traditional account from the "Annals of Baekje" section in the Samguk sagi says that Soseono was the daughter of Yeon Tabal, a wealthy influential figure in Jolbon and married to Jumong. However, the same source officially states that the king of Jolbon gave his daughter to Jumong, who had escaped with his followers from Eastern Buyeo, in marriage. She gave her husband, Jumong, financial support in founding

2628-603: A young Japanese officer named Sakō Kageaki  [ ja ] (or "Sakao Kagenobu") traveling disguised as a civilian kanpo (Chinese medicine) herbalist while gathering intelligence in Manchuria. While in Liaoning he apparently heard of the stele's recent discovery, traveled to Ji'an sometime during April ~ July 1883, and procured a "tracing" of the stele's inscriptions to carry back to his homeland. The inscription drew significant attention from Japanese scholarship after

2774-620: Is a branch of ancient Korea. The former Chinese premier's remarks have been made public through a document entitled "Premier Zhou Enlai's Dialogue on Sino-Korean Relations. During this time, the Chinese position was in part motivated by its good relationship with one of its key allies, North Korea . Since the 1980s, government control over scholarship liberalized, and more than 500 books about Goguryeo-related topics were published since then, comprising 90% of China's research since 1949. During this time, some scholars such as Tan Qixiang questioned

2920-412: Is a country founded by Buyeo ( Yemaek ) people, one of the major ancestors of modern-day Koreans alongside the natives of Samhan . Both Goguryeo and Baekje were successors of Buyeo. The fact that a portion of Goguryeo people were assimilated into China does not necessarily make it Chinese, not to mention that the majority were assimilated into other Koreanic dynasties such as Silla and Balhae at

3066-416: Is difficult to tell when sentences begin or end because of the absence of punctuation and the necessity of reading into the text via context. Furthermore, the subjects Baekje and Silla are not recognizably mentioned in the passage; only the first character for "Baekje" ( 百 ) is noted, and even the supposed first character of Silla is not complete (only 斤 as opposed to 新). Furthermore, the character "jan" ( 殘 )

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3212-485: Is in the 4th-century Gwanggaeto Stele . Jumong is the modern Korean transcription of the hanja 朱蒙 Jumong , 鄒牟 Chumo , or 仲牟 Jungmo . The Stele states that Jumong was the first king and ancestor of Goguryeo and that he was the son of the prince of Buyeo and daughter of Habaek ( Korean :  하백 ; Hanja :  河伯 ), the god of the Amnok River or, according to an alternative interpretation,

3358-545: Is inconsistent with China's own "peaceful rise" rhetoric and with its record of peacefully settling 17 of 23 of its territorial disputes with substantial compromises. On the other hand, some Chinese scholars perceive the Korean nationalistic sentiments of some Koreans (both North and South) as threatening to its territorial integrity. In fact, there are proponents in both the Korean liberal and conservative camps advocating for

3504-481: Is no doubt that the present-day dispute represents a case of retro-projection of modern identities. The real-life Koguryoans would have been surprised or even offended to learn that, in the future, they would be perceived by Koreans as members of the same community as their bitter enemies from Silla. Describing Koguryo as Chinese or Korean is as misleading as, say, describing medieval Brittany as French or English or Irish." Some scholars analyze empirical evidence through

3650-474: Is not a country but a pirate group, and he also denied Japan dominated the southern part of Korea. Xu Jianxin of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences discovered the earliest rubbed copy which was made before 1881. He also concluded that there was no evidence the Japanese had damaged any of the stele characters. Today, most Chinese scholars deny the conspiracy theory proposed by Lee Jin-hui in light of

3796-463: Is not based on a "pure blood line" and instead stresses unity in diversity and a supraethnic "Chinese people" or Zhonghua minzu . China also has an interest in promoting stability and the territorial status quo in its border territories, to tackle the advanced cross-border problems of drug trafficking , fundamentalist religious proselytism, ethnic separatism, and illegal immigration . An interpretation which suspects aggressive Chinese motivations

3942-895: Is now northeastern Korea as well as the Dongye and other tribes in Southeastern Manchuria and Northern Korea. From the increase of resources and manpower that these subjugated tribes gave him, Taejodae led Goguryeo in attacking the Han Commanderies of Lelang and Xuantu on the Korean and Liaodong peninsulas, becoming fully independent from them. Generally, Taejodae allowed the conquered tribes to retain their chieftains, but required them to report to governors who were related to Goguryeo's royal line; tribes under Goguryeo's jurisdiction were expected to provide heavy tribute. Taejodae and his successors channeled these increased resources to continuing Goguryeo's expansion to

4088-598: Is reactivating its "Northeast Project" that was launched by the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences in 2002. Goguryeo Goguryeo (37 BC – 668 AD) ( Korean :  고구려 ; Hanja :  高句麗 ; RR :  Goguryeo ; lit.  high castle; Korean pronunciation: [ko̞.ɡu.ɾjʌ̹] ; Old Korean : Guryeo) also later known as Goryeo ( Korean :  고려 ; Hanja :  高麗 ; RR :  Goryeo ; lit.  high and beautiful; Korean pronunciation: [ko.ɾjʌ] ; Middle Korean : 고ᇢ롕〮, kwòwlyéy ),

4234-470: Is recorded to have conquered the tribal states of Biryu ( Korean :  비류국 ; Hanja :  沸流國 ) in 36 BC, Haeng-in ( Korean :  행인국 ; Hanja :  荇人國 ) in 33 BC, and Northern Okjeo in 28 BC. Goguryeo developed from a league of various Yemaek tribes to an early state and rapidly expanded its power from their original basin of control in the Hun River drainage. In

4380-411: Is the subjugators being referred to here. However, Korean scholarship generally disagrees, and renders this portion as Goguryeo's claims to the two kingdoms as "our subject peoples". Some scholars also posit that "Wa" here does not refer to the "Japanese" people in the conventional sense at all. ( For further information on the "sinmyo passage" controversy, see section below ) It soon became clear that

4526-493: Is unreasonable that a monument honoring the triumphs of a Goguryeo king singles out a Japanese ("Wa") victory as worthy of mention on the stele (if one follows the Japanese interpretation). Generally, Japanese scholars points out that the rhetoric of inscription describes Gwanggaeto's battle as "overcoming the trying situation". Yukio Takeda claims that "Wa's invasion" was used as such situation when describing battles against Baekje. Some Japanese scholars also propose that Wa's power

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4672-600: Is which part of history the kingdom belongs to. Korean scholars have the viewpoint that Goguryeo is part of Korean history alone. In 2002, the Northeast Project conducted by the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (CASS) claimed Goguryeo as a local ethnic minority state in Northeast China . This sparked a major academic and diplomatic controversy, as Korean experts on Goguryeo history accused

4818-556: The Daifang Commandery by separating the southern half from the Lelang commandery. Balgi, a brother of King Sansang of Goguryeo , defected to Kang and asked for Kang's aid to help him take the throne of Goguryeo. Although Goguryeo defeated the first invasion and killed Balgi, in 209, Kang invaded Goguryeo again, seized some of its territory and weakened Goguryeo. Pressure from Liaodong forced Goguryeo to move their capital in

4964-591: The Historical Records of the Three Kingdoms . Finally, the last part contains the list of custodians called Sumyoin , who were appointed to oversee the king's tomb. The inscription thus traces lineage from the legendary founder of the kingdom to the King who is memorialized by the stele. Note: Text written in italics in brackets has been reconstructed from glyphs chipped or eroded on the stone monument. Of old, when our first Ancestor King Ch'umo laid

5110-620: The Three Kingdoms of Korea . He defeated Baekje and Silla and gained large amounts of territory from both. In addition, Jangsu's long reign saw the perfecting of Goguryeo's political, economic and other institutional arrangements. Jangsu ruled Goguryeo for 79 years until the age of 98, the longest reign in East Asian history. During the reign of Munja , Goguryeo completely annexed Buyeo, signifying Goguryeo's furthest-ever expansion north, while continuing its strong influence over

5256-579: The Tributary system of China . However, Goguryeo continued insistence on an equal relationship with Sui, its reinstatement of the imperial title "Taewang" (Emperor in Korean) of the East and its continued raids into Sui territory greatly angered the Sui Court. Furthermore, Silla and Baekje, both under threat from Goguryeo, requested Sui assistance against Goguryeo as all three Korean kingdoms had desired to seize

5402-653: The United States with the Tang dynasty . North Korea narrates their national history to conform to Juche, by denying any indication of foreign occupation of the Korean peninsula, such as the existence of any Chinese commanderies there. North Korea 's state run media has denounced Chinese claims as "a pathetic attempt to manipulate history for its own interests" or "intentionally distorting historical facts through biased perspectives" in North Korean media. Much of

5548-519: The Yellow Sea , opening up direct trade and diplomatic access to the Chinese dynasties and accelerating Silla's adoption of Chinese culture . Thus, Silla could rely less on Goguryeo for elements of civilization and could get culture and technology directly from China . This increasing tilt of Silla to China would result in an alliance that would prove disastrous for Goguryeo in the late 7th century. The Sui dynasty 's reunification of China for

5694-659: The Yuan dynasty , which is important to the history of both Mongolia and China. Critics of Tan's view criticize that the division was not based in historical reality of the time. Zhang Bibo argues that Pyongyang, part of Han dynasty's Lelang Commandery, was within the territories of Han, Wei and Jin dynasties until its conquest by Goguryeo. Prior to the Han conquest , the region was part of Gija Joseon and Wiman Joseon , which successively submitted to Zhou, Qin and Han dynasties. Korean historians generally make these arguments: Goguryeo

5840-639: The "One History, Two Uses" view, who consider Goguryeo to be part of both Chinese and Korean history. Other Chinese historians see Goguryeo as a part of Korean history. In many contemporary Chinese publications on China's international relations, for example, the relations between Chinese dynasties and Goguryeo are treated as foreign relations or Sino-Korean relations. Many Chinese historians do not consider Goguryeo's positions in Chinese history and Korean history to be mutually exclusive. A highly influential view in China, later known as "One History, Two Uses" (一史两用),

5986-431: The "restoration of the lost former territories." Chinese scholars are afraid of border changes when the North Korean government collapses. Because there are more than 2 million ethnic Koreans living in China's Jilin province, China fears that they might secede from China and join a newly unified Korea. On the whole, the Goguryeo controversy is more significant to Koreans than Chinese. Reasons for this imbalance include

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6132-428: The "sinmyo passage" of year 391 is whether it states that the Goguryeo subjugated Baekje and Silla, as Korean scholars maintain, or whether it states that Wa had at one time subjugated Baekje and Silla, as Japanese scholars have traditionally interpreted. The Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office , which learned about the stele and obtained a rubbed copy from its member Kageaki Sakō in 1884, became intrigued over

6278-412: The 1910s and 20s, Torii Ryūzō and other Japanese scholars traveled to Ji'an and observed the stele close hand. They found that the inscription had been repaired by clay and lime, and therefore questioned the credibility of the rubbed copy. The first Korean scholarly study challenging the Japanese interpretation was published by Chŏng In-bo  [ ko ] in 1955. He supposed that the subjects of

6424-636: The 19th and 20th centuries, the Japanese Empire differentiated Goguryeo from the other Three Kingdoms of Korea to claim Japanese (Wa) influence in the non-Goguryeo kingdoms of Baekje and Silla to justify its colonization of Korea. To demonstrate their theories, they moved a stone monument (棕蟬縣神祠碑), which was originally located at Liaodong , into Pyongyang. Meanwhile, North Korea has glorified Goguryeo's independent qualities as part of their Juche ("self-reliance") ideology, identifying itself with Goguryeo, while equating South Korea with Silla , and

6570-516: The 19th century, when the region was opened up for resettlement. In 1876, the Qing government established the Huairen County (now Huanren Manchu Autonomous County ) to govern the area. New settlers into the region around Ji'an began making use of the many bricks and baked tiles that could be found in the region to build new dwellings. The curious inscriptions on some of these tiles soon reached

6716-735: The 2006 Asia–Europe Meeting . That year, his government renamed the Goguryeo Research Foundation to the Northeast Asian History Foundation , expanding its mandate. In 2007, the Northeast Project concluded, but neither China nor South Korea has changed their view of Goguryeo history after the dispute. In China, the diplomatic imbroglio meant that research on Goguryeo has become taboo, and former Chinese Goguryeo researchers have diverted their time and resources to other areas. During

6862-558: The 5th century, and is the origin of the English name "Korea". The kingdom was originally called Guryeo ( Old Korean : 句麗, Yale : Kwulye , /ɡuɾ.jʌ̹/ ) or something similar to kaukuri ( /ko̞ːkɯ̟ᵝɾʲi/ )), Both words were derived from "忽" ( *kuru or *kolo ) which meant castle or fortress. The word was possibly a Wanderwort like the Middle Mongolian qoto-n . Several possible cognates for 忽 exist as well, which

7008-573: The 7th century, territorial control of the peninsula would be contested primarily by the Three Kingdoms of Korea . Goguryeo met major setbacks and defeats during the reign of Gogukwon in the 4th century. In the early 4th century, the nomadic proto-Mongol Xianbei people occupied northern China; during the winter of 342, the Xianbei of Former Yan , ruled by the Murong clan, attacked and destroyed Goguryeo's capital, Hwando, capturing 50,000 Goguryeo men and women to use as slave labor in addition to taking

7154-572: The Chinese government of using history for political purposes. In response, South Korea established the Goguryeo Research Foundation in 2004 (renamed the Northeast Asian History Foundation in 2006) and summoned the Chinese ambassador . In 2007, the Northeast Project ended, causing the study of Goguryeo history in China to decline dramatically. Various analyses of the controversy have focused on external motivations for

7300-892: The Goguryeo issues increased the incidence of Sinophobia in South Korea, and has possibly influenced South Korea's security strategy to become more pro-American and anti-China. In March 2004, the South Korean government established the Goguryeo Research Foundation to publish research conducive to its view of Goguryeo as part of Korean history. In April, China's Ministry of Foreign Affairs deleted references to Korea's premodern history on its website, prompting South Korea to summon its Chinese ambassador. In August 2004, China sent its Vice Minister of Foreign Affairs Wu Dawei to Seoul to defuse tensions. China recognized Korea's concerns and pledged not to place

7446-553: The Goguryeo language was the ancestor of Koreanic people, and spread southwards to replace the Japonic languages of the Samhan. James Unger has proposed a similar model on historical grounds. According to John B. Duncan of UCLA: "For the last 1,000 years, Goguryeo was an important factor in helping modern Korea find its identity. Goguryeo is part of Korean history." According to Mark Byington of Harvard University, who has followed

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7592-697: The Goguryeo-Baekje alliance. Since the early 7th century, Silla had been forced on the defensive by both Baekje and Goguryeo, which had not yet formally allied but had both desired to erode Sillan power in the Han Valley. During the reign of King Jinpyeong of Silla , numerous fortresses were lost to both Goguryeo and the continuous attacks took a toll on Silla and its people. During Jinpyeong's reign, Silla made repeated requests beseeching Sui China to attack Goguryeo. Although these invasions were ultimately unsuccessful, in 643, once again under pressure from

7738-464: The Goguryeo–Baekje alliance, Jinpyeong's successor, Queen Seondeok of Silla , requested military aid from Tang. Although Taizong had initially dismissed Silla's offers to pay tribute and its requests for an alliance on account of Seondeok being a woman, he later accepted the offer due to Goguryeo's growing belligerence and hostile policy towards both Silla and Tang. In 644, Tang began preparations for

7884-502: The Great (r. 391–412) was a highly energetic emperor who is remembered for his rapid military expansion of the realm. He instituted the era name of Yeongnak or Eternal Rejoicing , affirming that Goguryeo was on equal standing with the dynasties in the Chinese mainland. Gwanggaeto conquered 64 walled cities and 1,400 villages during his campaigns. To the west, he destroyed neighboring Khitan tribes and invaded Later Yan , conquering

8030-505: The Han River valley, an important strategic area close to the center of the peninsula and a very rich agricultural region. After Baekje exhausted themselves with a series of costly assaults on Goguryeo fortifications, Silla troops, arriving on the pretense of offering assistance, attacked and took possession of the entire Han River valley in 553. Incensed by this betrayal, Seong launched a retaliatory strike against Silla's western border in

8176-499: The Hun River valley to the Yalu River valley near Hwando . In the chaos following the fall of the Han dynasty , the former Han commanderies had broken free of control and were ruled by various independent warlords. Surrounded by these commanderies, who were governed by aggressive warlords, Goguryeo moved to improve relations with the newly created dynasty of Cao Wei in China and sent tribute in 220. In 238, Goguryeo entered into

8322-656: The Japanese Army in the 20th century to justify the Japanese invasion of Korea. According to his books, Sakō altered the copy and later the Japanese General Staff thrice sent a team to make the falsification of the stele with lime. In 1981, the Korean Lee Hyung-gu began putting forth the argument, based on the irregularity of the Chinese character style and grammar, that the sinmyo passage was altered so as 後 read 倭, and 不貢因破 read 來渡海破. Thus,

8468-494: The Korean Peninsula, and achieved undisputed control of most of Manchuria and over two thirds of the Korean Peninsula. Gwanggaeto's exploits were recorded on a huge memorial stele erected by his son Jangsu, located in present-day Ji'an on the border between China and North Korea. Jangsu (r. 413–491) ascended to the throne in 413 and moved the capital in 427 to Pyongyang , a more suitable region to grow into

8614-537: The Korean Peninsula, while omitting Goguryeo and Balhae, whose main territories belonged to the current North Korea and some parts of Manchuria, the current Chinese territory. This sparked diplomatic protests and demands of apology from the Republic of Korea, which accused the National Museum of China of tampering the chronology that Korea had initially given to China. This is raising speculation that Beijing

8760-839: The Korean peninsula, and the Mohe people in Manchuria , who would later become the Jurchens . Goguryeo experienced a golden age under Gwanggaeto the Great and his son Jangsu . During this period, Goguryeo territories included three fourths of the Korean Peninsula , including what is now Seoul , almost all of Manchuria, and parts of Inner Mongolia . There is archaeological evidence that Goguryeo's maximum extent lay even further west in now Mongolia , based on discoveries of Goguryeo fortress ruins in Mongolia. Gwanggaeto

8906-496: The Liaodong, Lelang and Xuantu commanderies. As Goguryeo extended its reach into the Liaodong Peninsula , the last Chinese commandery at Lelang was conquered and absorbed by Micheon in 313, bringing the remaining northern part of the Korean peninsula into the fold. This conquest resulted in the end of Chinese rule over territory in the northern Korean peninsula, which had spanned 400 years. From that point on, until

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9052-406: The Northeast Project annihilated China's diplomatic accomplishments in South Korea with a stroke. On the celebration of the 30th anniversary of Korea-China ties, the National Museum of China presented a chronology of Ancient Korean history which only included information about kingdoms like Baekje (18 B.C.-660 A.D.) and Silla (57 B.C.-935 A.D.) which were located on the southern and central parts of

9198-432: The Northeast Project's conclusions in its history textbooks, and both South Korea and China expressed the desire not to see the issue damage relations. However, China's expressed concerns that Korean irredentism towards northeast China were not addressed by the South Korean side. In September, the South Korean government declared that the 1909 Jiandao Convention , which ceded Korean claims to northeast Chinese territory,

9344-460: The Old Japanese one for castle 城 ki , considered a borrowing from Baekje 己 *kuy , in turn a borrowing from Goguryeo 忽 *kolo . Middle Korean 골〯 kwǒl [ko̞ɭ] and ᄀᆞ옳 kòwòlh [kʌ̀.òl] ("district") are likely descended from *kolo . The name Goguryeo ( Korean :  고구려 ; Hanja :  高句麗 ; Korean pronunciation: [ko̞ɡuɾjʌ̹] ), which means "high castle", is

9490-525: The Queen Dowager and Queen prisoner, and forced Gogukwon to flee for a while. The Xianbei also devastated Buyeo in 346, accelerating Buyeo migration to the Korean peninsula. In 371, Geunchogo of Baekje killed Gogukwon in the Battle of Chiyang and sacked Pyongyang , one of Goguryeo's largest cities. Sosurim , who succeeded the slain Gogukwon, reshaped the nation's institutions to save it from

9636-722: The Sea due to the chaos of war by Qin and Han". Later Han dynasty established the Four Commanderies, and in 12 AD Goguryeo made its first attack on the Xuantu Commandery. The population of Xuantu Commandery was about 221,845 in 2 AD, and they lived in the commandery's three counties of Gaogouli, Shangyintai, and Xigaima. Later on, Goguryeo gradually annexed all the Four Commanderies of Han during its expansion. Both Goguryeo and Baekje shared founding myths and originated from Buyeo . The earliest mention of Jumong

9782-444: The South Korean popular press in South Korea expressed outrage over the Northeast Project, and some commentators suspected, that because the CASS receives government funding, the Chinese government might support the Northeast Project. However, the CASS's Center for Borderland History and Geography Research is underfunded, understaffed (containing only 21 researchers), and not self-sufficient; government subsidies came in response to

9928-416: The Wa (people from what is now Japan). The king of Goguryeo is described as assisting Silla when it was invaded by the Wa, and punishing Baekje for allying with the Wa. The inscription states that since the "sinmyo" year (391 AD), the Wa had been crossing the sea into Korea. The passage continues by saying that "it" subjugated the two kingdoms Baekche and Silla. Japanese scholarship generally considers that Wa

10074-505: The Wei state responded by invading and defeated Goguryeo. The capital at Hwando was destroyed by Wei forces in 244. It is said that Dongcheon , with his army destroyed, fled for a while to the Okjeo state in the east. Wei invaded again in 259 but was defeated at Yangmaenggok; according to the Samguk sagi , Jungcheon assembled 5,000 elite cavalry and defeated the invading Wei troops, beheading 8,000 enemies. In only 70 years, Goguryeo rebuilt its capital Hwando and again began to raid

10220-431: The advent of this copy. Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office invited leading sinologists and historians to decode the text, later publishing their findings in Kaiyoroku 會餘録, volume 5 (1889). The first authentic rubbings of the full inscriptions were not made until 1887 according to one researcher. It was after the authentic "rubbings" (rather than "tracings") became available that Chinese scholars started studying

10366-418: The alternative proposal that the Guguryeo people were first located in or around Liaoxi (western Liaoning and parts of Inner Mongolia ) and later migrated eastward, pointing to another account in the Book of Han . The early Goguryeo tribes from whom the administrative name is derived were located close to or within the area of control of the Xuantu Commandery. Its tribal leaders also appeared to have held

10512-411: The attention of Korean, Chinese and Japanese scholars, the third often supplemented by Japanese spies travelling incognito to spy the region's fortifications and natural layout, prescient of a future of increased international rivalry. Initially only rubbings of sporadic individual letters could be made, due to the overgrowth. In order to uncover the entire inscription, the county magistrate in 1882 ordered

10658-479: The command Prince Li Daozong attempted to build a rampart to seize the city in a last ditch effort, but was foiled when Goguryeo troops managed to seize control of it. Afterwards, Taizong decided to withdraw in the face of incoming Goguryeo reinforcements, deteriorating weather conditions and the difficult supply situation. The campaign was unsuccessful for the Tang Chinese, failing to capture Ansi Fortress after

10804-524: The concubine of Geumwa . Jumong was well known for his exceptional archery skills. Eventually, Geumwa's sons became jealous of him, and Jumong was forced to leave Eastern Buyeo . The Stele and later Korean sources disagree as to which Buyeo Jumong came from. The Stele says he came from Buyeo and the Samguk yusa and Samguk sagi say he came from Eastern Buyeo. Jumong eventually made it to Jolbon , where he married Soseono , daughter of its ruler. He subsequently became king himself, founding Goguryeo with

10950-427: The conflict. Li views that South Korean historians push for a strong selective narrative in Korean history, and that the motive for rejecting Goguryeo's Chinese connections is to establish a narrative of a continuous Korean nation-state from Dangun Joseon to Goryeo and modern Korea. As both China and South Korea are in the process of nation-building , Li believes that recognizing South Korea's changes and establishing

11096-481: The debate since 1993, Goguryeo "was clearly not a Chinese state in any sense, as demonstrated abundantly by China's own dynastic histories". Byington says that the Chinese position is "historically indefensible" and "historically flawed", but at the same time has valid reasons, politically (e.g. territorial concerns), and is not as "sinister" as many Koreans believe (i.e., "a prelude to an active aggression against Korea"). Finnish linguist Juha Janhunen believes that it

11242-505: The defeated inhabitants of numerous Goguryeo fortresses, refusing to permit his troops to loot downs and enslave inhabitants and when faced with protest from his commanders and soldiers, rewarded them with his own money. Ansi City (in modern Haicheng , Liaoning), which was the last fortress that would clear the Liaodong Peninsula of significant defensive works and was promptly put under siege. Initially, Taizong and his forces achieve great progress, when his numerically inferior force smashed

11388-399: The earnest, and the first scholarly paper produced by the Chinese was Wang Chih-hsiu (王志修; Wang Zhixiu), Kao-chü-li Yung-lo t'ai-wang ku pei k'ao (高句麗永樂太王古碑攷 1895). And Korea was not aware of the monument until Kaiyoroku was published in 1889. Thus, the Japanese scholars were the ones to make the first detailed analysis of the stele's ancient text. There is some discrepancy with regards to

11534-497: The ears of Chinese scholars and epigraphers . A few tiles were found inscribed "May the mausoleum of the Great King be secure like a mountain and firm like a peak". It was around 1876 that a local Chinese official named Guan Yueshan, who also dabbled as an amateur epigrapher, began collecting such tiles and discovered the mammoth stone stele of Gwanggaeto obscured under centuries of mud and overgrowth. The discovery soon attracted

11680-459: The entire Liaodong Peninsula ; to the north and east, he annexed much of Buyeo and conquered the Sushen , who were Tungusic ancestors of the Jurchens and Manchus ; and to the south, he defeated and subjugated Baekje , contributed to the dissolution of Gaya , and vassalized Silla after defending it from a coalition of Baekje, Gaya, and Wa. Gwanggaeto brought about a loose unification of

11826-683: The extremely low salaries in CASS's history and philosophy departments, in contrast to the more lucrative fields of economics and law, and the money given does not match the high strategic value of borderland research. Historically, the CASS has produced research that disagreed with or is critical of government policies. Other, still more moderate voices in Korea pointed out that several official publications in China refer to Goguryeo simply as Korea's history. Chinese scholars who disagreed with Sun and Zhang's "Chinese local history" view were interviewed by South Korean newspapers. The negative press coverage over

11972-464: The fact that in modern Korean nationalism , Goguryeo's history is presented as a contrast to Korean history in the 19th and 20th century, during which Korea was subjugated during Korea under Japanese rule after which it became the first major battleground during the Cold War . Another founding tenet of Korean nationalism is to establish independence from China, which it had long been subordinate to as

12118-545: The first time in centuries was met with alarm in Goguryeo, and Pyeongwon of Goguryeo began preparations for a future war by augmenting military provisions and training more troops. Although Sui was far larger and stronger than Goguryeo, the Baekje-Silla Alliance that had driven Goguryeo from the Han Valley had fallen apart, and thus Goguryeo's southern border was secure. Initially, Goguryeo tried to appease Sui by offering tribute as Korean kingdoms had done under

12264-414: The following year but was captured and killed. The war, along the middle of the Korean peninsula , had very important consequences. It effectively made Baekje the weakest player on the Korean Peninsula and gave Silla an important resource and population rich area as a base for expansion. Conversely, it denied Goguryeo the use of the area, which weakened the kingdom. It also gave Silla direct access to

12410-475: The foundations of our state, he came forth from Northern Buyeo as the son of the Celestial Emperor. His mother, the daughter of Habaek , gave birth to him by cracking an egg and bringing her child forth from it. Endowed with heavenly virtue, King Ch'umo [ accepted his mother's command and ] made an imperial tour to the south. His route went by the way of Puyo's Great Omni River. Gazing over the ford,

12556-471: The future. Sosurim's internal arrangements laid the groundwork for Gwanggaeto's expansion. His successor and the father of Gwanggaeto the Great , Gogukyang , invaded Later Yan , the successor state of Former Yan, in 385 and Baekje in 386. Goguryeo used its military to protect and exploit semi-nomadic peoples, who served as vassals, foot soldiers, or slaves, such as the Okjeo people in the northeast end of

12702-509: The great nobles of Goguryeo, and plotted with other officials to kill him. However, Yeon Gaesomun caught news of the plot and killed Yeongnyu and 100 officials, initiating a coup d'état . He proceeded to enthrone Yeongnyu's nephew, Go Jang, as King Bojang while wielding de facto control of Goguryeo himself as the Dae Magniji ( 대막리지 ; 大莫離支 ; a position equivalent to a modern era dual office of prime minister and generalissimo ). At

12848-546: The grounds of the War Memorial of Seoul and the rubbed copies made in 1881 and 1883 are in the custody of China and Japan. The stele's location, in Ji'an in the northeastern Chinese province of Jilin , was key to its long neglect. Following the fall of Goguryeo in 668, and to a lesser extent the fall of its successor state Balhae in 926, the region drifted outside the sway of both Korean and Chinese geopolitics. Afterwards

12994-583: The hereditary position. Accordingly, he [ritually] summoned the Yellow Dragon to come down and "meet the king." The King was on the hill east of Cholbon, and the Yellow Dragon took him on its back and ascended to Heaven. He left a testamentary command to his heir apparent, King Yuryu , that he should conduct his government in accordance with the Way. Great King Churyu succeeded to rule and the throne

13140-468: The heyday of Maoism , the Chinese government line was that the history of Goguryeo ( Gaogouli in Chinese) was Korean history. Notable statements on Goguryeo being Korean included those by Chinese Prime Minister Zhou Enlai, who said in 1963 that Korean people have lived in the northeastern region of China since ancient times and excavated relics prove that Balhae, considered a successor state of Goguryeo,

13286-426: The inviolability of its territory and the unity of its ethnic groups. Some scholars have also criticized the projection of modern-day national identities onto ancient peoples. As neighboring areas, northeast China and North Korea have both laid claim to the history of ancient kingdoms that occupied the region. The interpretation of history in this region has implications for contemporary territorial sovereignty. During

13432-546: The issue concerning the historical place of Goguryeo. As early as the 1940s, Jin Yufu (金毓黻), a prominent scholar in Northeast Chinese history, asserted that Fuyu (Buyeo) and Goguryeo were indisputable members of the Chinese nation . The following arguments largely represent research work after the 1980s by Sun Jinji, Zhang Bibo, et al., who regard Goguryeo as a Chinese state first and foremost, as well as supporters of

13578-716: The king said, "I am Ch'umo, son of August Heaven and the daughter of the Earl of the River. Weave together the bulrushes for me so that the turtles will float to the surface." And no sooner had he spoken than [the God of the River] wove the bullrushes so that the turtles floated to the surface, whereupon he crossed over the river. Upon the mountain-fort west of Cholbon in Piryu Valley established his capital, wherein his family would long enjoy

13724-409: The kingdoms of Silla and Baekje, and the tribes of Wuji and Khitan. Goguryeo reached its zenith in the 6th century. After this, however, it began a steady decline. Anjang was assassinated, and succeeded by his brother Anwon , during whose reign aristocratic factionalism increased. A political schism deepened as two factions advocated different princes for succession, until the eight-year-old Yang-won

13870-500: The launching of the Project as a defensive reaction to preserve China's own territorial integrity and stability." Various explanations advanced for China's interest in northeastern history include: South Korean irredentism over Jiandao ( Gando in Korean), privileges granted by South Korea to Koreans in China , and the possible collapse of North Korea . Modern Chinese nationalism , which in contrast to Korean nationalism ,

14016-426: The lens of nationalism and ethnocentrism. Yonson Ahn and Jie-Hyun Lim believe that projecting modern concepts of national territory and identity onto ancient nation states is self-serving. Yonson says that the Chinese claims on Goguryeo history tend to be centered on territory: because Goguryeo and Balhae shared territories with modern-day China, it is therefore Chinese. Korean arguments tend to stem from ancestry,

14162-498: The maintenance of Gwanggaeto's tomb in perpetuity. It is the rest of the inscription, which provides a synopsis of Gwanggaeto's reign and his numerous martial accomplishments (see section above) that is rife with the most controversy. The most controversial portion of the stele's narrative has come to be known simply as the "sinmyo passage". The sinmyo passage as far as it is definitively legible reads thus (with highly defaced or unreadable characters designated by an X): Disagreement in

14308-505: The meaning of "high and beautiful". The earliest record of the name of Goguryeo can be traced to geographic monographs in the Book of Han and is first attested as the name of one of the subdivisions of the Xuantu Commandery , established along the trade routes within the Amnok river basin following the destruction of Gojoseon in 113 BC. The American historian Christopher Beckwith offers

14454-698: The modern Goguryeo controversy. However, the Northeast Project cannot be equated with the study of Goguryeo, because it studied more topics than Goguryeo, including the history of the Russian Far East , the Bohai Kingdom , economic history, and local histories in ancient China and Korea. China states that Goguryeo was an ethnic Tungusic state and in modern-day China, Tungusic ethnicities like Manchus, Xibe, Oroqen, and Nanai are citizens of China and viewed as part of China's multi-ethnic historical civilization. The Tungusic Yemaek founded Goguryeo and it

14600-544: The new statelet, Goguryeo. After Yuri , son of Jumong and his first wife, Lady Ye, came from Dongbuyeo and succeeded Jumong, she left Goguryeo, taking her two sons Biryu and Onjo south to found their own kingdoms, one of which was Baekje . Jumong's given surname was "Hae" ( Korean :  해 ; Hanja :  解 ), the name of the Buyeo rulers. According to the Samguk yusa , Jumong changed his surname to "Go" ( Korean :  고 ; Hanja :  高 ) in conscious reflection of his divine parentage. Jumong

14746-454: The newly discovered rubbed copy. In the project of writing a common history textbook, Kim Tae-sik of Hongik University (Korea) denied Japan's theory. But, Kōsaku Hamada  [ ja ] of Kyushu University (Japan) reported his interpretation of the Gwanggaeto Stele text, neither of them adopting Lee's theory in their interpretations. In refuting the interpretation that Wa conquered Baekje and Silla, some Korean scholars alleges that it

14892-477: The north and west. New laws regulated peasants and the aristocracy, as tribal leaders continued to be absorbed into the central aristocracy. Royal succession changed from fraternal to patrilineal, stabilizing the royal court. The expanding Goguryeo kingdom soon entered into direct military contact with the Liaodong Commandery to its west. Around this time, Chinese warlord Gongsun Kang established

15038-478: The number of inscribed characters. Some sources state that the stele has 1,802 characters, while others say it has 1,775. The inscribed text can be grouped by content into three parts. 1) Foundation myth of the Goguryeo kingdom; 2) the military exploits of King Gwanggaeto; and 3) personal record of the custodians of the monarch's grave. The first part details the legend of the Goguryeo's founder and his lineage while

15184-606: The original 305,000 soldiers of Sui's nine division armies, it is said that only 2,700 escaped to Sui China. The 613 and 614 campaigns were aborted after launch—the 613 campaign was terminated when the Sui general Yang Xuangan rebelled against Emperor Yang , while the 614 campaign was terminated after Goguryeo offered a truce and returned Husi Zheng (斛斯政), a defecting Sui general who had fled to Goguryeo, Emperor Yang later had Husi executed. Emperor Yang planned another attack on Goguryeo in 615, but due to Sui's deteroriating internal state he

15330-507: The others' territories to rule the peninsula, and attempted to curry Sui's favor to achieve these goals. Goguryeo's expansion and its attempts to equalize the relationship conflicted with Sui China and increased tensions. In 598, Goguryeo made a preemptive attack on Liaoxi which led to the Battle of Linyuguan , but was beaten back by Sui forces. This caused Emperor Wen to launch a counterattack by land and sea that ended in disaster for Sui. Sui's most disastrous campaign against Goguryeo

15476-760: The outset of his rule, Yeon Gaesomun took a brief conciliatory stance toward Tang China. For instance, he supported Taoism at the expense of Buddhism , and to this effect in 643, sent emissaries to the Tang court requesting Taoist sages, eight of whom were brought to Goguryeo. This gesture is considered by some historians as an effort to pacify Tang and buy time to prepare for the Tang invasion Yeon thought inevitable given his ambitions to annex Silla. However, Yeon Gaesomun took an increasingly provocative stance against Silla Korea and Tang China . Soon, Goguryeo formed an alliance with Baekje and invaded Silla, Daeya-song (modern Hapchon) and around 40 border fortresses were conquered by

15622-460: The passage as follows (brackets designating a "reading into" the text where the character is not legible): And in the sinmyo year (辛卯年) the Wa (倭) came and crossed the sea (來渡海) and defeated (破) Baekje (百 殘), [unknown], and [Sil]la (新羅) and made them (以爲) subjects (臣民) They presumed that Wa referred to a centralized Japanese government at the time that controlled the entire western part of Japan. In

15768-414: The passage is that Goguryeo, not Japan, crossed the sea and defeated Baekje or Wa. In the case of this interpretation, and the abbreviation of King Gwanggaeto's title in the passage, the passage states: And in the sinmyo year the Wa crossed the sea. King Gwanggaeto (abbreviation) made Silla and Baekje subjects of (?) Some point out several facts that put in doubt the traditional Japanese interpretation of

15914-459: The reevaluation of history, including Korean irredentism towards adjacent Chinese territory, the possibility of North Korean collapse, and the challenge to China from transnational separatism . Nationalist historiography has inflamed both sides of the debate, as Korean nationalism treats the themes of a powerful Korean Goguryeo and independence from China as central (see: Korean nationalist historiography ), while Chinese nationalism stresses

16060-624: The region came under the control of numerous Manchurian states, notably the Jurchen and from the 16th century the Manchu . When the Manchu conquered China in 1644 and established the Qing dynasty , they instituted a "closure policy" ( fengjin 封禁) that blocked entry into a vast area in Manchuria north of the Yalu River, including the stele's site. This seclusion came to an end in the latter half of

16206-450: The region to feed its population and thus, following historical pastoralist tendencies, would have sought to raid and exploit neighboring societies for their land and resources. Aggressive military activities may have also aided expansion, allowing Goguryeo to exact tribute from their tribal neighbors and dominate them politically and economically. Taejo conquered the Okjeo tribes of what

16352-515: The repair of the stele and concluded that Sakō's copy had not been made by the rubbing method but rather had been traced, a method known in China as shuanggou tianmo ( 双鉤塡墨 ). The North Korean scholar Kim reported his conclusions in a 1963 article. He had studied the Japanese chronicles Kojiki and Nihonshoki , and concluded that Wa referred to colonies of Samhan in Japan. He claimed that these colonies were established by Korean immigrants and

16498-472: The ruler title of "marquis" over said nominal Gaogouli/Goguryeo county . The collapse of the first Xuantu Commandery in 75 BC is generally attributed to the military actions of the Goguryeo natives. In the Old Book of Tang (945), it is recorded that Emperor Taizong refers to Goguryeo's history as being some 900 years old. According to the 12th-century Samguk sagi and the 13th-century Samguk yusa ,

16644-636: The same lineage as the Chinese in the Northeast region, while the Korean people were a part of the Silla lineage." Another faction of historians, led by Sun Jinji ( 孙进己 , Sūn Jìnjǐ ) and Zhang Bibo ( 张碧波 , Zhāng Bìbō ), of the Heilongjiang Academy of Sciences, criticized Tan and put forth the thesis that Goguryeo should be regarded as a regional subset of Chinese history ("local Chinese history") rather than purely Korean history. They cited

16790-459: The scholarship on the Goguryeo controversy has focused on China's strategic intentions towards the Koreas, and presumptively overlooked the validity of Chinese scholars' historical claims. Yonson Ahn, a Korean scholar who has studied Korean comfort women and historical debates in Korea and Japan, writes that historians such as Quan Zhezhu , Sun Jinji , Kim Hui-kyo , and Mark Byington "perceive

16936-471: The sea." But, it is probable that the phrase indicate Battle in Gwanmi, a maritime fortress of Baekje until 391. Goguryeo controversies The Goguryeo controversies are disputes between China and Korea ( North and South ) on the history of Goguryeo , an ancient kingdom (37 BC – 668 AD) located in present-day Northeast China and the Korean Peninsula. At the heart of the Goguryeo controversy

17082-410: The second outlined Gwanggaeto's martial accomplishments, beginning with the conquest of Paeryo ( 稗麗 ) in 395. The record of the king's conquest was outlined in the form of a list of the castles he occupied and the surrender of the states conquered such as Paekche 's in 396. The stele identified a total of seven conquests, which were corroborated by the historical accounts found in the Samguk sagi , or

17228-419: The sentence 渡海破 and 以爲臣民 were respectively Goguryeo and Baekje. By Chŏng's interpretation the entire passage read as follows: And in the sinmyo year Wa [invaded Goguryeo], [and Goguryeo also] came and crossed the sea and defeated [Wa]. Then Baekje [allied with Wa] and subjugated [Sil]la In 1959 the Japanese scholar Teijiro Mizutani published another important study. He had acquired rubbed copies made before

17374-543: The sinmyo passage. Firstly, the term Wa at the time the stele was made did not solely refer to people from Japan but could also refer to the people from southern Korean, particularly from the Gaya Confederacy. In 1972 the Zainichi Korean scholar Lee Jin-hui (Yi Jin-hui; romaji : Ri Jinhi) reported the most controversial theory of the interpretation. He claimed the stele had been intentionally damaged by

17520-482: The south in 551. In the late 6th and early 7th centuries, Goguryeo was often in military conflict with the Sui and Tang dynasties of China. Its relations with Baekje and Silla were complex and alternated between alliances and enmity. A neighbor in the northwest were the Eastern Türks which was a nominal ally of Goguryeo. In 551 AD, Baekje and Silla entered into an alliance to attack Goguryeo and conquer

17666-563: The state's old interpretation of history, arguing for the study of all polities within China's territory as part of Chinese history. Jiang Mengshan proposed a "one history, dual use" ( 一史两用 , yīshǐ liǎngyòng ) system whereby Goguryeo would also be considered part of China's history, arguing that the kingdom's capital, for 460 out of 706 years, lay in modern northeast China, and that three-quarters of its population were not ethnic Korean . He related ancient identities to modern-day peoples by suggesting that "the people of Buyeo and Goguryeo had

17812-441: The stele was dedicated to king Gwanggaeto of Goguryeo, who reigned 391–413 CE It also became clear the stele was raised as a grand memorial epitaph to the celebrated monarch, whose empty tomb lay nearby. Though historians and epigraphers still grapple with the interpretation of portions of the text, the inscription's general layout is clear. One face provides a retelling of the foundation legend of Goguryeo. Another provides terms for

17958-401: The stele. Therefore, the statement in the stele that claims Baekje was a Goguryeo subject before the sinmyo passage would be propaganda on the part of Goguryeo; thus the conquest of Baekje would not be redundant. Further, Japanese arbitrarily assert the Korean interpretation which claim Goguryeo as the subject that conquered Baekje and Silla as an inconsistency with the preceding phrase "crossed

18104-439: The subject of the sinmyo passage becomes Goguryeo. Geng Tie-Hua questioned another character, claiming 毎 was altered to 海. Chinese scholars participated in studies of the stele from the 1980s. Wang Jianqun interviewed local farmers and decided the intentional fabrication had not occurred and the lime was pasted by local copy-making workers to enhance readability. He criticized Lee Jin-hui's claim. He considered 倭 ("Wa") word meaning

18250-551: The sun god Haebak ( Korean :  해밝 ). The Samguk sagi and Samguk yusa paint additional detail and names Jumong's mother as Yuhwa ( Korean :  유화 ; Hanja :  柳花 ). Jumong's biological father was said to be a man named Haemosu who is described as a "strong man" and "a heavenly prince." The river god chased Yuhwa away to the Ubal River ( Korean :  우발수 ; Hanja :  優渤水 ) due to her pregnancy, where she met and became

18396-470: The time of Taejodae in 53 AD, five local tribes were reorganized into five centrally ruled districts. Foreign relations and the military were controlled by the king. Early expansion might be best explained by ecology; Goguryeo controlled territory in what is currently central and southern Manchuria and northern Korea , which are both very mountainous and lacking in arable land. Upon centralizing, Goguryeo might have been unable to harness enough resources from

18542-665: The time of its fall and afterwards. Additionally, significant numbers of dispersed Goguryeo people taken into Tang custody would break free and escape to these neighboring states during the Khitan rebellion of 696 led by Li Jinzhong . Many would later be subjugated by Balhae in its conquest of Little Goguryeo during the era of King Seon . Certain amounts of dispersed population having been assimilated into foreign polities also took place with other Korean dynasties like Goryeo ( Mongol invasions of Korea ) and Joseon ( Manchu Invasions of Korea ) during times of war. This does not make them

18688-404: The traditional view in Chinese historiography that Korea was founded by the Chinese prince Jizi , as well as Goguryeo's status as a tributary to ancient China . In 2002 these scholars, mostly from northeast China themselves, established the Northeast Project of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences to investigate this view. The establishment of the Northeast Project marks the beginning of

18834-435: The vegetation to be burnt off, causing damage to the stele's surface. Almost every inch of the stele's four sides were found to be covered with Chinese characters (nearly 1800 in total), each about the size of a grown man's hand. But rubbed copies could not initially be made due to the irregular surface and other factors, so that the early batch of copied inscriptions were actually "tracings" rather than "rubbings". In 1883,

18980-418: Was a Korean kingdom which was located on the northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula and the southern and central parts of modern-day Northeast China ( Manchuria ). At its peak of power, Goguryeo encompassed most of the Korean Peninsula and large parts of Manchuria , along with parts of eastern Mongolia , Inner Mongolia , and modern-day Russia . Along with Baekje and Silla , Goguryeo

19126-537: Was a character used derogatively by Goguryeo in place of the character "jae" ( 濟 ) in Baekje's official name (this may have denoted wishful thinking on the part of Goguryeo that another nation came and conquered Baekje). Thus, when taking into consideration the major absence of characters and lack of punctuation, the passage reads: And in the sinmyo year the Wa (Japanese) crossed the sea. (Abbreviation of someone's title) made (?) subjects of (?) However, further analysis of

19272-422: Was able to defeat the Sui navy, thus when the Sui's nine division armies finally reached Pyongyang, they didn't have the supplies for a lengthy siege. Sui troops retreated, but General Eulji Mundeok led the Goguryeo troops to victory by luring the Sui into an ambush outside of Pyongyang. At the Battle of Salsu , Goguryeo soldiers released water from a dam, which split the Sui army and cut off their escape route. Of

19418-593: Was also populated by Tungusic Mohe people. In 2003, China applied with UNESCO to register the Capital Cities and Tombs of the Ancient Koguryo Kingdom within its territory as a World Heritage Site . In December, the South Korean government published a report denying that Goguryeo could be considered part of Chinese history, and giving directions to Korean civil society groups on how to counter Chinese claims. Korean nationalists groups and

19564-496: Was centered in Kyūshū , Kinai , Izumo . Later, according to Kim, the colonies were absorbed by Yamato polity , which was also founded by Koreans. He also posited that the subject of 來渡海破百殘 was Goguryeo, and 百殘 was not the Baekje kingdom but Baekje's colony in Japan. Other North Korean scholar also argued for Goguryeo's invasion of Japan. Many Korean scholars reject the interpretation that Japan ( 倭 ) conquered ( 破 ) Baekje and Silla. It

19710-570: Was finally crowned. But the power struggle was never resolved definitively, as renegade magistrates with private armies appointed themselves de facto rulers of their areas of control. Taking advantage of Goguryeo's internal struggle, a nomadic group called the Tuchueh attacked Goguryeo's northern castles in the 550s and conquered some of Goguryeo's northern lands. Weakening Goguryeo even more, as civil war continued among feudal lords over royal succession, Baekje and Silla allied to attack Goguryeo from

19856-717: Was further empowered by the two nation's mutual grievances towards Japan due to the atrocities committed by the Empire of Japan during the Second World War, which often led to them jointly filing protests alongside North Korea towards Japan on topics such as the Rape of Nanking and Comfort Women . However, according to Han-Wool Jung, vice-director of the Center for Public Opinion Analysis of the East Asia Institute,

20002-477: Was handed on, [eventually] to the seventeenth in succession, [who], having ascended the throne at twice-nine [i.e., eighteen], was named King Yongnak ("Eternal Enjoyment") (Gwanggaeto the Great) The inscription continues with the king's obituary and an account of the erection of the stele. The stele records entire battles of Gwanggaeto's reign and his triumphs. Many of the battles concern conflict with

20148-550: Was in 612, in which Sui, according to the History of the Sui dynasty, mobilized 30 division armies, about 1,133,800 combat troops. Pinned along Goguryeo's line of fortifications on the Liao River , a detachment of nine division armies, about 305,000 troops, bypassed the main defensive lines and headed towards the Goguryeo capital of Pyongyang to link up with Sui naval forces, who had reinforcements and supplies. However, Goguryeo

20294-439: Was invalid. In 2005, South Korea conducted joint research projects with North Korea on Goguryeo relics near Pyongyang . Meanwhile, Chinese social scientists continued to publish research articles on the ancient Northeast Asian polities, including Guchaoxian (Gija Chosun), Fuyu (Puyo), Goguryeo, and Bohai, which Koreans exclusively considered their own. In 2006, South Korean president Roh Moo-hyun protested this research at

20440-441: Was likely that a " Tungusic-speaking elite" ruled Goguryeo and Balhae, describing them as "protohistorical Manchurian states" and that part of their population was Tungusic, and that the area of southern Manchuria was the origin of Tungusic peoples and inhabited continuously by them since ancient times, and Janhunen rejected opposing theories of Goguryeo and Balhae's ethnic composition. According to scholar Andrei Lankov : "There

20586-450: Was more or less exaggerated by Goguryeo to illustrate the triumph of the King, and the sinmyo passage does not necessarily prove the power of Wa in Korean peninsula of the late 4th century. On the other hand, they generally reject the Korean interpretation because the stele says Baekje was previously a state subservient to Goguryeo before the sinmyo passage and that recording the conquest into Baekje would result tautology in this section of

20732-435: Was never able to launch it. Sui was weakened due to rebellions against Emperor Yang's rule and his failed attempts to conquer Goguryeo. They could not attack further because the provinces in the Sui heartland would not send logistical support. Emperor Yang's disastrous defeats in Korea greatly contributed to the collapse of the Sui dynasty. In the winter of 642, King Yeongnyu was apprehensive about Yeon Gaesomun , one of

20878-461: Was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea . It was an active participant in the power struggle for control of the Korean peninsula and was also associated with the foreign affairs of neighboring polities in China and Japan . The Samguk sagi , a 12th-century text from Goryeo , indicates that Goguryeo was founded in 37 BC by Jumong , a prince from Buyeo , who was enthroned as Dongmyeong . Goguryeo

21024-465: Was one of the great powers in East Asia until its defeat by a Silla–Tang alliance in 668 after prolonged exhaustion and internal strife following the death of Yeon Gaesomun . After its fall, its territory was divided between the Tang dynasty , Later Silla and Balhae . The name "Goryeo" (alternatively spelled "Koryŏ"), a shortened form of Goguryeo (Koguryŏ), was adopted as the official name in

21170-472: Was proposed by Chinese historical geographer Tan Qixiang in the 1980s. In 427 AD, Goguryeo moved its capital to Pyongyang, and its political and economic center shifted to the Korean Peninsula. Therefore, Tan divided Goguryeo history into two phases: it is considered a regional Chinese power until 427, and a foreign state after moving its capital. Jiang Mengshan suggested that Goguryeo was simultaneously part of Chinese and Korean history. He compared Goguryeo to

21316-489: Was used at a later stage as an administrative subdivision with the spelling of hwol [hʌ̹ɭ] , as in 買忽 mwoyhwol/michwuhwol [mit͡ɕʰuhʌ̹ɭ] , alongside the likely cognate of 骨 kwol [ko̞ɭ] . Nam Pung-hyun presents it also as a Baekje term, probably a cognate with the Goguryeo word with the same meaning and spelling. The iteration of 徐羅伐 Syerapel as 徐羅城 *SyeraKUY equated the Old Korean word for village, 伐 pel with

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