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55-522: Gyula may refer to: Gyula (title) , Hungarian leader title in the 9th–10th centuries Gyula (name) , Hungarian male given name, derived from the title People Gyula II , the Hungarian gyula who ruled Transylvania in the 10th-century and was baptized in Constantinople around 950 Gyula III , the gyula who ruled Transylvania and

110-605: A Samoyedic equivalent have been reconstructed for Proto-Uralic. That methodology has been criticised, as no coherent explanation other than inheritance has been presented for the origin of most of the Finno-Ugric vocabulary (though a small number has been explained as old loanwords from Proto-Indo-European or its immediate successors). The Samoyedic group has undergone a longer period of independent development, and its divergent vocabulary could be caused by mechanisms of replacement such as language contact . (The Finno-Ugric group

165-458: A certain Vlach, held sway, strove through the grace of Duke Árpád , his lord, to acquire the land of Transylvania for himself and his posterity. This was later so done, for the posterity of Tuhutum up to the time of the holy King Stephen held the land of Transylvania and would have held it longer, had the younger Gyula with his two sons, Bolya and Bonyha, wished to be Christians and not always opposed

220-466: A lowering *u → *o in Samoyedic (PU * lumi → *lomə → Proto-Samoyedic *jom ). Janhunen (2007, 2009) notes a number of derivational innovations in Finno-Ugric, including *ńoma "hare" → *ńoma-la , (vs. Samoyedic *ńomå ), *pexli "side" → *peel-ka → *pelka "thumb", though involving Proto-Uralic derivational elements. The Finno-Ugric group is not typologically distinct from Uralic as

275-509: A nominal title, for the name of the man who is actually king over them is called jila [jula] and all the Majgars accept the orders of their jila [jula] in the matters of war and defense and the like. These Majgars are a type of the Turks. Their leader rides out with 20,000 warriors. This leader they call künde [kende] . This is the title of the greater of their kings. That leader who appoints

330-422: A subfamily of Uralic is based on criteria formulated in the 19th century and is criticized by some contemporary linguists such as Tapani Salminen and Ante Aikio . The three most spoken Uralic languages, Hungarian , Finnish , and Estonian , are all included in Finno-Ugric. The term Finno-Ugric , which originally referred to the entire family, is sometimes used as a synonym for the term Uralic , which includes

385-687: A whole: the most widespread structural features among the group all extend to the Samoyedic languages as well. Modern linguistic research has shown that Volgaic languages is a geographical classification rather than a linguistic one, because the Mordvinic languages are more closely related to the Finno-Samic languages than the Mari languages . The relation of the Finno-Permic and the Ugric groups

440-633: Is * yk+teksa and * kak+teksa , respectively, where * teksa cf. deka is an Indo-European loan; the difference between /t/ and /d/ is not phonemic, unlike in Indo-European. Another analysis is * ykt-e-ksa , * kakt-e-ksa , with * e being the negative verb. 100-word Swadesh lists for certain Finno-Ugric languages can be compared and contrasted at the Rosetta Project website: Finnish , Estonian , Hungarian , and Erzya . The four largest ethnic groups that speak Finno-Ugric languages are

495-731: Is a dignity, like gylas , which is superior to karchas. The Byzantine Ioannes Skylitzes in the second half of the 11th century recounted (using earlier written sources) the baptism of the Hungarian chieftain Gyula (or gyula ) in Constantinople in the mid-10th century. According to Ioannes Skylitzes, Gyula stayed true to his new faith and took a missionary bishop, Hierotheos, with him. A Slavic source also contains related information. The almost contemporary Annales Hildesheimenses ("The Annals of Hildesheim") recorded for 1003 that "King Stephen of Hungary led an army against his maternal uncle, King Gyula" and "obliged his country by force to adopt

550-642: Is a major obstacle. As for the Finno-Ugric Urheimat , most of what has been said about it is speculation. Some linguists criticizing the Finno-Ugric genetic proposal, especially Angela Marcantonio, also question the validity of the entire Uralic family, instead proposing a Ural–Altaic hypothesis , within which they believe Finno-Permic may be as distant from Ugric as from Turkic. However, this approach has been rejected by nearly all other specialists in Uralic linguistics. One argument in favor of

605-482: Is adjudged remote by some scholars. On the other hand, with a projected time depth of only 3,000 to 4,000 years, the traditionally accepted Finno-Ugric grouping would be far younger than many major families such as Indo-European or Semitic , and would be about the same age as, for instance, the Eastern subfamily of Nilotic . But the grouping is far from transparent or securely established. The absence of early records

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660-656: Is attested in some of the Proto-Finno-Ugric material. Another feature attested in the Finno-Ugric vocabulary is that *i now behaves as a neutral vowel with respect to front-back vowel harmony, and thus there are roots such as *niwa- "to remove the hair from hides". Regular sound changes proposed for this stage are few and remain open to interpretation. Sammallahti (1988) proposes five, following Janhunen's (1981) reconstruction of Proto- Finno-Permic : Sammallahti (1988) further reconstructs sound changes *oo , *ee → *a , *ä (merging with original *a , *ä ) for

715-498: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Gyula (title) According to the Hungarian chronicles, Transylvania was ruled by a line of princes called Gyula, and their country was occupied by King Stephen I of Hungary (1000/1001–1038). The etymology of the word is disputed. It is traditionally considered of Turkic origin, however other etymological explanations have recently been proposed. According to Lóránd Benkő ,

770-553: Is organised annually by students of Finno-Ugric languages to bring together people from all over the world who are interested in the languages and cultures. The first conference was held in 1984 in Göttingen in Germany. IFUSCO features presentations and workshops on topics such as linguistics, ethnography, history and more. The International Congress for Finno-Ugric Studies is the largest scientific meeting of scientists studying

825-418: Is possible that such words have been acquired by the languages only after the initial dissolution of the Uralic family into individual dialects, and that the scarcity of loanwords in Samoyedic results from its peripheric location. The number systems among the Finno-Ugric languages are particularly distinct from the Samoyedic languages: only the numerals "2", "5", and "7" have cognates in Samoyedic, while also

880-425: Is usually dated to approximately 4,000 years ago, the Samoyedic a little over 2,000.) Proponents of the traditional binary division note, however, that the invocation of extensive contact influence on vocabulary is at odds with the grammatical conservatism of Samoyedic. The consonant *š ( voiceless postalveolar fricative , [ʃ] ) has not been conclusively shown to occur in the traditional Proto-Uralic lexicon, but it

935-651: The Christian faith ". The anonymous writer of the Gesta Hungarorum ("The Deeds of the Hungarians") was the first Hungarian chronicler who compiled the list of the seven Hungarian conqueror chiefs around 1210. At the seventh place we can find Tétény (Tuhutum) , his son Horka (Horca) and the latter's sons, Gyula (Gyyla/Geula) and Zombor (Zubor) . According to the author of the Gesta , Zombor (Zubor)

990-658: The Finno-Permic languages are as distinct from the Ugric languages as they are from the Samoyedic languages spoken in Siberia, or even that none of the Finno-Ugric, Finno-Permic, or Ugric branches has been established. Received opinion is that the easternmost (and last discovered) Samoyed had separated first and the branching into Ugric and Finno-Permic took place later, but this reconstruction does not have strong support in

1045-568: The Hungarians (14.5 million), Finns (6.5 million), Estonians (1.1 million), and Mordvins (0.85 million). Majorities of three (the Hungarians, Finns, and Estonians) inhabit their respective nation states in Europe, i.e. Hungary , Finland , and Estonia , while a large minority of Mordvins inhabit the federal Mordovian Republic within Russia (Russian Federation). The indigenous area of

1100-470: The Hungarians were ruled conjointly by two ‘kings’. The major one, called kende (or künde ), enjoyed nominal leadership, while effective power was exercised by his colleague, inferior in rank, called the gyula . This peculiar form of governance (‘ dual kingship ’) is generally supposed to have been imitative of the Khazar Khaganate , which did indeed have a similar organization. However,

1155-453: The Samoyedic languages , as commonly happens when a language family is expanded with further discoveries. Before the 20th century, the language family might be referred to as Finnish , Ugric , Finno-Hungarian or with a variety of other names. The name Finno-Ugric came into general use in the late 19th or early 20th century. The validity of Finno-Ugric as a phylogenic grouping is under challenge, with some linguists maintaining that

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1210-581: The Sámi people is known as Sápmi and it consists of the northern parts of the Fennoscandian Peninsula . Some other peoples that speak Finno-Ugric languages have been assigned formerly autonomous republics within Russia. These are the Karelians ( Republic of Karelia ), Komi ( Komi Republic ), Udmurts ( Udmurt Republic ) and Mari ( Mari El Republic ). The Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug

1265-1046: The 1st World Congress of Finno-Ugric Peoples was organized in Syktyvkar in the Komi Republic in Russia, the 2nd World Congress in 1996 in Budapest in Hungary, the 3rd Congress in 2000 in Helsinki in Finland, the 4th Congress in 2004 in Tallinn in Estonia, the 5th Congress in 2008 in Khanty-Mansiysk in Russia, the 6th Congress in 2012 in Siófok in Hungary, the 7th Congress in 2016 in Lahti in Finland, and

1320-787: The 8th Congress in 2021 in Tartu in Estonia. The members of the Finno-Ugric Peoples' Consultative Committee include: the Erzyas, Estonians, Finns, Hungarians, Ingrian Finns, Ingrians, Karelians, Khants, Komis, Mansis, Maris, Mokshas, Nenetses, Permian Komis, Saamis, Tver Karelians, Udmurts, Vepsians; Observers: Livonians, Setos. In 2007, the 1st Festival of the Finno-Ugric Peoples was hosted by President Vladimir Putin of Russia, and visited by Finnish President, Tarja Halonen , and Hungarian Prime Minister, Ferenc Gyurcsány . The International Finno-Ugric Students' Conference (IFUSCO)

1375-590: The Finno-Ugric grouping has come from loanwords . Several loans from the Indo-European languages are present in most or all of the Finno-Ugric languages, while being absent from Samoyedic. According to Häkkinen (1983) the alleged Proto-Finno-Ugric loanwords are disproportionally well-represented in Hungarian and the Permic languages, and disproportionally poorly represented in the Ob-Ugric languages; hence it

1430-400: The Hungarian language: gyúl (to catch fire, to be ignited) cf. West Old Turkic: *jul ; East Old Turkic: *yul . András Róna-Tas and Árpád Berta also consider the latter to be Turkic. Dániel Németh suggested that the word may have Uralic origins. He derives it from the Finno-Ugric *ćȣlkɜ-, *ćȣ̈lkɜ- (shines, gleam, glitter) and the Ugric *čittɜ- (shine, illuminate) words. This theory

1485-512: The Hungarians living in Pannonia, King Saint Stephen had him taken to Pannonia. But this was not this Captain Gyula, but the third one in descent. In a later chapter, the chronicle tells the story of Stephen 's campaign against Gyula and the annexation of Gyula's territory ( Transylvania ) to the Kingdom of Hungary . Then, after he was awarded the crown of royal majesty by divine ordinance,

1540-720: The Hungarians. His entire realm, which was most wide and rich, was now joined to the kingdom of Hungary. This realm is called in Hungarian Erdély; it is watered by many streams, in whose sands gold is found, and the gold from that land is the best. The family tree of the Gyula family according to the Chronicon Pictum : The list of persons who held the gyula office is still subject to debate. Many historians ( e.g. , György Györffy , Florin Curta ) suggest that at

1595-536: The area in which Proto-Finno-Ugric was spoken reached between the Baltic Sea and the Ural Mountains . Traditionally, the main set of evidence for the genetic proposal of Proto-Finno-Ugric has come from vocabulary. A large amount of vocabulary (e.g. the numerals "one", "three", "four" and "six"; the body-part terms "hand", "head") is only reconstructed up to the Proto-Finno-Ugric level, and only words with

1650-508: The blessed Stephen waged a war of fame and of gain upon his uncle, by name Gyula, who at that time held sway over the whole country of Transylvania. In the year of our Lord 1002, the blessed King Stephen took Duke Gyula captive with his wife and two sons and sent them to Hungary. This he did, because Gyula, though admonished many times by the blessed King Stephen, neither would convert to the Christian faith nor would he rest from doing injury to

1705-482: The culture and languages of Finno-Ugric peoples , held every five years. The first congress was organized in 1960 in Budapest , the last congress took place in 2022 in Vienna , the next congress is planned to be held in Tartu , Estonia in 2025. The linguistic reconstruction of the Finno-Ugric language family has led to the postulation that the ancient Proto-Finno-Ugric people were ethnically related, and that even

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1760-562: The development from Proto-Finno-Ugric to Proto-Ugric. Similar sound laws are required for other languages as well. Thus, the origin and raising of long vowels may actually belong at a later stage, and the development of these words from Proto-Uralic to Proto-Ugric can be summarized as simple loss of *x (if it existed in the first place at all; vowel length only surfaces consistently in the Baltic-Finnic languages . ) The proposed raising of *o has been alternatively interpreted instead as

1815-811: The functionaries they call jula [jole] . What the jula commands, the Majgars do. Following the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin around 896, the title gyula can be found in the De administrando imperio ("On the Governance of the Empire") written by the Byzantine Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus . The emperor confirms that around 950 the gyla was one of the two important officers who assisted

1870-614: The holy King Stephen subjugated to himself the land of Transylvania and led Geula in fetters to Hungary and held him imprisoned for all the days of his life because he was false in faith and refused to be a Christian and did many things against the holy King Stephen, even though he was of the line of his mother. The family tree of the gyula s according to the anonymous author of the Gesta Hungarorum : Simon of Kéza , who wrote his Gesta Hungarorum between 1280 and 1285, inserted Gyula /Iula/ in connection to Transylvania in

1925-593: The holy king, as will be said in the following. As he was in flight, hastening to his castle beside the Szamos River , Tuhutum’s warriors, boldly pursuing Duke Gelou, slew him beside the Kapus River . Then the inhabitants of the land, seeing the death of their lord, giving the right hand of their own free will chose to themselves as lord Tuhutum, father of Horca, and in that place, which is called Esculeu , they confirmed their troth with an oath and from that day

1980-457: The leader of Hungarian tribal federation ; also, each tribe had a chieftain. They /the Hungarians/ have for their first chief the prince who comes by succession of Árpád’s family , and two others, the gylas and the karchas , who have the rank of judge; and each clan has a prince. The karchas Boultzous is the son of the karchas Kalis, and Kalis is a proper name, but karchas

2035-434: The linguistic data. Attempts at reconstructing a Proto-Finno-Ugric proto-language , a common ancestor of all Uralic languages except for the Samoyedic languages, are largely indistinguishable from Proto-Uralic , suggesting that Finno-Ugric might not be a historical grouping but a geographical one, with Samoyedic being distinct by lexical borrowing rather than actually being historically divergent. It has been proposed that

2090-606: The list of the seven Hungarian conqueror chiefs. He, as opposed to the anonymous writer of the Gesta Hungarorum , wrote not about two but only one Gyula. The third host was commanded by Gyula /Iula/ . Although he came into Pannonia with the others, Gyula finally settled in Transylvania. After St Stephen was crowned and chief Koppány was finally put to death, the King brought his uncle Gyula /Iula/ with his wife and sons from Transylvania to Pannonia. The chronicle increased

2145-474: The members of the Gyula family with the same name to three. However, it caused a problem for the author to separate these three persons. The chronicle attributes the finding of the ruins of Gyulafehérvár (in Hungarian, ‘Gyula’s White Castle’; Apulum in Roman Dacia , now Alba Iulia , Romania) to the conqueror Gyula. Gyula was the third captain from whom Gyula son of Ladislaus descends. This Gyula

2200-480: The modern Finno-Ugric-speaking peoples are ethnically related. Such hypotheses are based on the assumption that heredity can be traced through linguistic relatedness, although it must be kept in mind that language shift and ethnic admixture, a relatively frequent and common occurrence both in recorded history and most likely also in prehistory, confuses the picture and there is no straightforward relationship, if at all, between linguistic and genetic affiliation. Still,

2255-937: The most common Y-chromosome haplogroup in Southeast Asia). A study of the Finno-Ugric-speaking peoples of northern Eurasia (i.e., excluding the Hungarians), carried out between 2002 and 2008 in the Department of Forensic Medicine at the University of Helsinki , showed that the Finno-Ugric-speaking populations do not retain genetic evidence of a common founder. Most possess an amalgamation of West and East Eurasian gene pools that may have been present in central Asia, with subsequent genetic drift and recurrent founder effects among speakers of various branches of Finno-Ugric. Not all branches show evidence of

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2310-489: The numerals, "1", "3", "4", "6", "10" are shared by all or most Finno-Ugric languages. Below are the numbers 1 to 10 in several Finno-Ugric languages. Forms in italic do not descend from the reconstructed forms. The number '2' descends in Ugric from a front-vocalic variant *kektä. The numbers '9' and '8' in Finnic through Mari are considered to be derived from the numbers '1' and '2' as '10–1' and '10–2'. One reconstruction

2365-454: The only thing that the Muslim sources tell us is that the gyula was in charge of the military matters of the tribal confederation; whereas there existed a legitimate ruler (the kende ) who had little influence on army-related issues. The Majgars are a race of the Turks and their leader rides out with horsemen to the number of 20,000. Their leader is called künde [kende] , but this is only

2420-458: The place is called Esculeu, because they swore there. Tuhutum possessed that land peacefully and happily from that day, but his posterity possessed it only up to the times of the holy King Stephen. Tuhutum begat Horca, Horca begat Geula and Zubor, Geula begat two daughters, of whom one was called Caroldu and the other Saroltu , and Sarolt was the mother of the holy King Stephen. Zumbor begat the younger Geula, father of Bua and Bucna, during whose time

2475-632: The premise that the speakers of the ancient proto-language were ethnically homogeneous is generally accepted. Modern genetic studies have shown that the Y-chromosome haplogroup N3 , and sometimes N2, is almost specific though certainly not restricted to Uralic- or Finno-Ugric-speaking populations, especially as high frequency or primary paternal haplogroup. These haplogroups branched from haplogroup N , which probably spread north, then west and east from Northern China about 12,000–14,000 years before present from father haplogroup NO (haplogroup O being

2530-599: The time of the Hungarian conquest Árpád was the gyula , who was later considered to be the ancestor of the dynasty that ruled Hungary until 1301. At any rate, Hungarian chroniclers are unanimous in reporting that the conquest of the Carpathian Basin was directed by Árpád. Florin Curta suggests that when the kende of the conquest (whom he does not name) died in 902, the leadership passed onto Árpád, and one of Árpád's kinsmen became gyula . Other scholars ( e.g. , Gábor Vékony , C. A. Macartney ) argues that Árpád

2585-442: The title Gyula . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gyula&oldid=1225153574 " Categories : Disambiguation pages Human name disambiguation pages Place name disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Articles containing Hungarian-language text Short description

2640-462: The word originates from Old Turkic , where it can be found as a personal- ( altaic : Kaltanjula ), genus- ( Bulgar : Дуло - Dulo) and tribal ( Pecheneg : Yula , Bashkir : Yulaman) name. It was transferred as a title in the Hungarian language, presumably from the Khazar language . Benkő assumed a *ǰula form derived from a Turkic word meaning 'torch'. Related words of Turkic origin can be found in

2695-463: Was a great and powerful chieftain; on a hunt, he found a great city built by the Romans long before. He had a beautiful daughter called Sarolt, of whose beauty the princes of several provinces had been talking for a long time. Prince Géza married her as his lawful wife at the advice and with the help of Beliud who possessed the land of Kulán. Finally, given that Gyula was hostile and often offensive to

2750-424: Was criticized by János B. Szabó and Balázs Sudár : "Recently, Dániel Németh presented a strongly hypothetical etymological proposal based on both a Turkic and Finno-Ugric linguistic background, deviating from historical data." The first data of the title, recorded by Ibn Rusta and Gardizi , can be traced back to the earlier works of Abu Abdallah al-Jayhani . According to these earliest pieces of evidence,

2805-758: Was defeated by his maternal uncle, King Stephen I of Hungary around 1003 Places Gyula, Hungary , town in Hungary Gyulaháza , village in Hungary Gyulakeszi , village in Hungary Gyulafehérvár , Hungarian name of Alba Iulia , city in Romania, the former seat of the Transylvanian gyulas Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with

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2860-501: Was occupied by the Hungarian king in 1003 was Procui . The following is the list of the gyula s supposed by modern historians: Primary sources Secondary sources Finno-Ugric languages Finno-Ugric ( / ˌ f ɪ n oʊ ˈ juː ɡ r ɪ k , - ˈ uː -/ ) is a traditional linguistic grouping of all languages in the Uralic language family except for the Samoyedic languages . Its once commonly accepted status as

2915-504: Was set up for the Khanty and Mansi of Russia. A once-autonomous Komi-Permyak Okrug was set up for a region of high Komi habitation outside the Komi Republic. Some of the ethnicities speaking Finno-Ugric languages are: In the Finno-Ugric countries of Finland, Estonia and Hungary that find themselves surrounded by speakers of unrelated tongues, language origins and language history have long been relevant to national identity . In 1992,

2970-419: Was the kende , and the gyula was Kurszán ( Chussal , Chussol ) whose name, in contrast to Árpád, can be found in contemporary Western texts. The Slavic source narrating the baptism of the Gyula in Constantinople in the middle of the 10th century mentions that his baptismal name was Stefan . According to the chronicle of Thietmar of Merseburg (975-1018), the name of King Stephen's uncle whose country

3025-474: Was the father of the younger Gyula (Geula/Gyla) . The Gesta also narrates that Tétény occupied the land of Transylvania from the Vlach ( Romanian ) Duke Gelou ; neither Tétény nor Gelou are mentioned in other primary sources. And while they tarried there some while, Tuhutum father of Horca, as he was a shrewd man, when he learned from the inhabitants of the goodness of the land of Transylvania, where Gelou,

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