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97-415: Bengal is not rich in good stone for building, and traditional Bengali architecture mostly uses brick and wood, often reflecting the styles of the wood, bamboo and thatch styles of local vernacular architecture for houses. Decorative carved or moulded plaques of terracotta (the same material as the brick) are a special feature. The brick is extremely durable and disused ancient buildings were often used as

194-812: A UNESCO World Heritage Site . These show other distinctive features, such as a multiplicity of doors and mihrab s; the Sixty Dome Mosque has 26 doors (11 at the front, 7 on each side, and one in the rear). These increased the light and ventilation. Further mosques include the Baro Shona Masjid ; the Pathrail Mosque , the Bagha Mosque , the Darasbari Mosque , and the Kusumba Mosque . Single-domed mosques include

291-656: A "house in the Bengal style". Such houses were traditionally small, only one storey and detached, and had a wide veranda were adapted by the British, who used them as houses for colonial administrators in summer retreats in the Himalayas and in compounds outside Indian cities. The Bungalow style houses are still very popular in the rural Bengal. In the rural areas of Bangladesh, it is often called “Bangla Ghar” (Bengali Style House). The main construction material used in modern time

388-463: A 1964 exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art, New York , designed by architect Bernard Rudofsky , with a subsequent book. Both were called Architecture Without Architects . Featuring dramatic black-and-white photography of vernacular buildings around the world, the exhibition was extremely popular. Rudofsky brought the concept into the eye of the public and of mainstream architecture, and also kept

485-498: A ceramic glaze. Terracotta sculptures in the West were rarely left in their "raw" fired state until the 18th century. Terracotta female figurines were uncovered by archaeologists in excavations of Mohenjo-daro , Pakistan (3000–1500 BCE). Along with phallus-shaped stones, these suggest some sort of fertility cult. The Burney Relief is an outstanding terracotta plaque from Ancient Mesopotamia of about 1950 BCE. In Mesoamerica ,

582-668: A convenient source of materials by local people, often being stripped to their foundations over the centuries. Urbanization is recorded in the region since the first millennium BCE. This was part of the second wave of urban civilization in the Indian subcontinent, following the decline of the Indus Valley civilization . Ancient Bengal was part of a network of urban and trading hubs stretching to Ancient Persia . The archaeological sites of Mahasthangarh , Paharpur, Wari-Bateshwar ruins , Chandraketugarh and Mainamati provide evidence of

679-662: A highly organized urban civilization in the region. Terracotta became a hallmark of Bengali construction, as the region lacked stone reserves. Bricks were produced with the clay of the Bengal delta . Ancient Bengali architecture reached its pinnacle during the Pala Empire (750–1120); this was Bengali-based and the last Buddhist imperial power in the Indian subcontinent. Most patronage was of Buddhist viharas , temples and stupas . Pala architecture influenced Tibetan and Southeast Asian architecture . The most famous monument built by

776-660: A large impact on the appearance of temples and other buildings in the classical architecture of Europe , as well as in the Ancient Near East . This article covers the senses of terracotta as a medium in sculpture, as in the Terracotta Army and Greek terracotta figurines , and architectural decoration. East Asian and European sculpture in porcelain is not covered. Prior to firing, terracotta clays are easy to shape. Shaping techniques include throwing , slip casting as well as others . After drying, it

873-484: A lengthy discussion of the relevant terms, in Traditional Buildings: A Global Survey of Structural Forms and Cultural Functions. Noble concluded that "folk architecture" is built by "persons not professionally trained in building arts." "Vernacular architecture" is "of the common people", but may be built by trained professionals, using local, traditional designs and materials. "Traditional architecture"

970-507: A number of different forms of shelter appropriate to different seasons and geographical locations, including the igloo (for winter) and the tupiq (for summer). The Sami of Northern Europe, who live in climates similar to those experienced by the Inuit, have developed different shelters appropriate to their culture including the lavvu and goahti . The development of different solutions in similar circumstances because of cultural influences

1067-610: A proponent of the Gothic Revival movement in England, Scott used the term as a pejorative to refer to the "prevailing architecture" in England of the time, all of it, as opposed to the Gothic he wanted to introduce. In this "vernacular" category Scott included St Paul's Cathedral , Greenwich Hospital, London , and Castle Howard , although admitting their relative nobility. The term was popularized with positive connotations in

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1164-556: A relatively flimsy, lightweight structure is also less likely to cause serious injury than a heavy structure. Over time, dwellings' architecture may come to reflect a very specific geographical locale. The local environment and the construction materials it can provide, govern many aspects of vernacular architecture. Areas rich in trees will develop a wooden vernacular, while areas without much wood may use mud or stone. In early California redwood water towers supporting redwood tanks and enclosed by redwood siding ( tankhouses ) were part of

1261-611: A self-contained wind-powered domestic water system. In the Far East it is common to use bamboo, as it is both plentiful and versatile. Vernacular, almost by definition, is sustainable, and will not exhaust the local resources. If it is not sustainable, it is not suitable for its local context, and cannot be vernacular. Construction elements and materials frequently found in vernacular buildings include: As many jurisdictions introduce tougher building codes and zoning regulations, "folk architects" sometimes find themselves in conflict with

1358-490: A significant part of urban economies in the region, with acclaimed architects such as Rafiq Azam . In 2015, Marina Tabassum and Kashef Mahboob Chowdhury were declared winners of the Aga Khan Award for Architecture for their mosque and community center designs respectively, which were inspired by the region's ancient heritage. Vernacular architecture Vernacular architecture (also folk architecture )

1455-411: A speciality of terracotta temples, with the sculpted decoration from the same material as the main brick construction. Terracotta tiles have also been used extensively for floors since ancient times. The quality of terracotta floor tiles depends on the suitability of the clay, the manufacturing methods (kiln-fired being more durable than sun baked), and whether the terracotta tiles are sealed or not. In

1552-512: A style of Jain and Hindu temple architecture of Bengal, where the temple lacks the usual mandapa beside the main shrine, and the main unit consists only of the shrine and a deul above it. The type arose between the 6th and 10th centuries, and most examples are now ruins; it was revived in the 16th to 19th century. The later representatives of this style were generally smaller and included features influenced by Islamic architecture. Most temples surviving in reasonable condition date from about

1649-535: A very early date. The famous Terracotta Army of Emperor Qin Shi Huang , 209–210 BCE, was somewhat untypical, and two thousand years ago reliefs were more common, in tombs and elsewhere. Later Buddhist figures were often made in painted and glazed terracotta, with the Yixian glazed pottery luohans , probably of 1150–1250, now in various Western museums, among the most prominent examples. Brick-built tombs from

1746-591: Is a clay -based non-vitreous ceramic fired at relatively low temperatures. It is therefore a term used for earthenware objects of certain types, as set out below. Usage and definitions of the term vary, such as: Glazed architectural terracotta and its unglazed version as exterior surfaces for buildings were used in East Asia for centuries before becoming popular in the West in the 19th century. Architectural terracotta can also refer to decorated ceramic elements such as antefixes and revetments , which had

1843-401: Is a limit on the stress that can be imposed on terracotta, and terracotta statues of unsupported standing figures are limited to well under life-size unless extra structural support is added. This is also because large figures are extremely difficult to fire, and surviving examples often show sagging or cracks. The Yixian figures were fired in several pieces, and have iron rods inside to hold

1940-528: Is architecture passed down from person to person, generation to generation, particularly orally, but at any level of society, not just by common people. "Primitive architecture" is a term Noble discourages the use of. The term popular architecture is used more in Eastern Europe and is synonymous with folk or vernacular architecture. Architecture designed by professional architects is usually not considered to be vernacular. Indeed, it can be argued that

2037-523: Is borrowed from linguistics , where vernacular refers to language use particular to a time, place, or group. The phrase dates to at least 1857, when it was used by Sir George Gilbert Scott , as the focus of the first chapter of his book "Remarks on Secular & Domestic Architecture, Present & Future", and in a paper read to an architectural society in Leicester in October of that year. As

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2134-479: Is building done outside any academic tradition, and without professional guidance. It is not a particular architectural movement or style, but rather a broad category, encompassing a wide range and variety of building types, with differing methods of construction, from around the world, both historical and extant and classical and modern. Vernacular architecture constitutes 95% of the world's built environment, as estimated in 1995 by Amos Rapoport , as measured against

2231-655: Is corrugated steel sheets. Previously they had been constructed from wood, bamboo and a kind of straw called “Khar”. Khar was used in the roof of the Bungalow house and kept the house cold during hot summer days. Another roofing material for Bungalow houses has been red clay tiles. Art deco, which originated after the first World war, became prevalent all over India. Art deco is seen in the bungalows of Kolkata as well, which are being destroyed and replaced by high-rise buildings. Art Deco influences continued in Chittagong during

2328-426: Is informed largely by vernacular architecture. Vernacular architecture is influenced by a great range of different aspects of human behaviour and environment, leading to differing building forms for almost every different context; even neighbouring villages may have subtly different approaches to the construction and use of their dwellings, even if they at first appear the same. Despite these variations, every building

2425-450: Is no clearly defined and specialized discipline for the study of dwellings or the larger compass of vernacular architecture. If such a discipline were to emerge it would probably be one that combines some of the elements of both architecture and anthropology with aspects of history and geography. Architects have developed a renewed interest in vernacular architecture as a model for sustainable design. Contemporary complementary architecture

2522-584: Is not a stylistic description, much less one specific style, so it cannot be summarized in terms of easy-to-understand patterns, characteristics, materials, or elements. Because of the usage of traditional building methods and local builders, vernacular buildings are considered cultural expressions—aboriginal, indigenous, ancestral, rural, ethnic, or regional—as much as architectural artifacts. The term vernacular means 'domestic, native, indigenous', from verna 'native slave' or 'home-born slave'. The word probably derives from an older Etruscan word. The term

2619-522: Is placed in a kiln or, more traditionally, in a pit covered with combustible material, then fired . The typical firing temperature is around 1,000 °C (1,830 °F), though it may be as low as 600 °C (1,112 °F) in historic and archaeological examples. During this process, the iron oxides in the body reacts with oxygen, often resulting in the reddish colour known as terracotta . However, color can vary widely, including shades of yellow, orange, buff, red, pink, grey or brown. A final method

2716-487: Is seasonal, reaching its peak during the harvest festival, when new pottery and votive idols are required. During the rest of the year, the makers rely on agriculture or some other means of income. The designs are often redundant as crafters apply similar reliefs and techniques for different subjects. Customers suggest subjects and uses for each piece. To sustain the legacy, the Indian Government has established

2813-634: Is subject to the same laws of physics, and hence will demonstrate significant similarities in structural forms . One of the most significant influences on vernacular architecture is the macro climate of the area in which the building is constructed. Buildings in cold climates invariably have high thermal mass or significant amounts of insulation . They are usually sealed in order to prevent heat loss, and openings such as windows tend to be small or even absent altogether. Buildings in warm climates, by contrast, tend to be constructed of lighter materials and to allow significant cross ventilation through openings in

2910-614: Is to carve fired bricks or other terracotta shapes. This technique is less common, but examples can be found in the architecture of Bengal on Hindu temples and mosques. Terracotta is not watertight , but its porousness decreases when the body is surface-burnished before firing. Glazes can used to decrease permeability and hence increase watertightness. Unglazed terracotta is suitable for use below ground to carry pressurized water (an archaic use), for garden pots and irrigation or building decoration in many environments, and for oil containers, oil lamps, or ovens. Most other uses require

3007-552: Is typical of vernacular architecture. Many nomadic people use materials common in the local environment to construct temporary dwellings, such as the Punan of Sarawak who use palm fronds, or the Ituri Pygmies who use saplings and mongongo leaves to construct domed huts. Other cultures reuse materials, transporting them with them as they move. Examples of this are the tribes of Mongolia, who carry their gers (yurts) with them, or

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3104-510: Is widely scattered across the region. Mughal Bengal saw the spread of Mughal architecture in the region, including forts , havelis , gardens , caravanserais , hammams and fountains . Mughal Bengali mosques also developed a distinct provincial style. Dhaka and Murshidabad were the hubs of Mughal architecture. The Mughals copied the do-chala roof tradition in North India. The Bengal Sultanate (1352–1576) normally used brick as

3201-582: The Encyclopedia of Vernacular Architecture of the World edited in 1997 by Paul Oliver of the Oxford Institute for Sustainable Development . Oliver argued that vernacular architecture, given the insights it gives into issues of environmental adaptation, will be necessary in the future to "ensure sustainability in both cultural and economic terms beyond the short term." The encyclopedia defined

3298-661: The Aphrodite Heyl ; the Romans too made great numbers of small figurines, which were often used in a religious context as cult statues or temple decorations. Etruscan art often used terracotta in preference to stone even for larger statues, such as the near life-size Apollo of Veii and the Sarcophagus of the Spouses . Campana reliefs are Ancient Roman terracotta reliefs , originally mostly used to make friezes for

3395-466: The Choto Sona Mosque (around 1500), which is in stone, unusually for Bengal, but shares the style and mixes domes and a curving "paddy" roof based on village house roofs made of vegetable thatch. Such roofs feature even more strongly in later Bengal Hindu temple architecture , with types such as the do-chala , jor-bangla , and char-chala . For larger mosques, Bengali architects multiplied

3492-690: The Firoz Minar was built in Gauda to commemorate Bengali military victories. The ruined Adina Mosque (1374–75) is very large, which is unusual in Bengal, with a barrel vaulted central hall flanked by hypostyle areas. It is said to be the largest mosque in the sub-continent, and modeled after the Ayvan-e Kasra of Ctesiphon, Iraq, as well as the Umayyad Mosque of Damascus. The heavy rainfall in Bengal necessitated large roofed spaces, and

3589-564: The Gupta period and the centuries immediately following it. Several vigorous local popular traditions of terracotta folk sculpture remain active today, such as the Bankura horses . Precolonial West African sculpture also made extensive use of terracotta. The regions most recognized for producing terracotta art in that part of the world include the Nok culture of central and north-central Nigeria ,

3686-544: The Han dynasty were often finished on the interior wall with bricks decorated on one face; the techniques included molded reliefs. Later tombs contained many figures of protective spirits and animals and servants for the afterlife, including the famous horses of the Tang dynasty ; as an arbitrary matter of terminology these tend not to be referred to as terracottas. European medieval art made little use of terracotta sculpture, until

3783-518: The Ife - Benin cultural axis in western and southern Nigeria (also noted for its exceptionally naturalistic sculpture), and the Igbo culture area of eastern Nigeria, which excelled in terracotta pottery. These related, but separate, traditions also gave birth to elaborate schools of bronze and brass sculpture in the area. Chinese sculpture made great use of terracotta, with and without glazing and color, from

3880-694: The Singar Mosque , and the Shankarpasha Shahi Masjid . Both capitals of the Bengal Sultanate, first Pandua or Adina , then from 1450 Gauda or Gaur , started to be abandoned soon after the conquest of the sultanate by the Mughals in 1576, leaving many grand buildings, mostly religious. The materials from secular buildings were recycled by builders in later periods. While minarets are conspicuously absent in most mosques,

3977-492: The 17th century onwards, after temple building revived; it had stopped after the Muslim conquest in the 13th century. The roofing style of Bengali Hindu temple architecture is unique and closely related to the paddy roofed traditional building style of rural Bengal. The "extensive improvisation within a local architectural idiom" which the temples exhibit is often ascribed to a local shortage of expert Brahmin priests to provide

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4074-759: The 1930s. Indo-Saracenic architecture can be seen in the Ahsan Manzil and Curzon Hall in Dhaka, Chittagong Court Building in Chittagong, and Hazarduari Palace in Murshidabad. The Victoria Memorial in Kolkata, designed by Vincent Esch also has Indo-Saracenic features, possibly inspired from the Taj Mahal. The origin of the bungalow has its roots in the vernacular architecture of Bengal. The term baṅgalo , meaning "Bengali" and used elliptically for

4171-684: The 1950s. * East Pakistan was the center of the Bengali modernist movement started by Muzharul Islam . Many renowned global architects worked in the region during the 1960s, including Louis Kahn , Richard Neutra , Stanley Tigerman , Paul Rudolph , Robert Boughey and Konstantinos Doxiadis . Louis Kahn designed the Jatiyo Sangshad Bhaban , the preeminent symbol of modern Bangladeshi architecture. The cityscapes of modern Bengali cities are dominated by midsized skyscrapers and often called concrete jungles. Architecture services form

4268-400: The 19th century, the possibilities of terracotta decoration for buildings were again appreciated by architects, often using thicker pieces of terracotta and styled surfaces. The American architect Louis Sullivan is well known for his elaborate glazed terracotta ornamentation, designs that would have been impossible to execute in any other medium. Terracotta and tile were used extensively in

4365-518: The 5th century until the conquest. However, most of temples are in ruins and relatively small. The Sena dynasty built the relatively modest Dhakeshwari Temple in Dhaka , although this has been greatly rebuilt, which is the national temple of Bangladesh now. The stone temple at Garui in Bardhaman district of West Bengal, was built in the 14th century. The term deula , deul or deoul is used for

4462-554: The Bengali architecture can be seen from the 13th century, but before the Mughals has usually strongly reflected local traditions. The oldest surviving mosque was built during the Delhi Sultanate . The mosque architecture of the independent Bengal Sultanate period (14th, 15 and 16th centuries) represents the most important element of the Islamic architecture of Bengal. This distinctive regional style drew its inspiration from

4559-678: The Pala emperors was the Grand Vihara of Somapura , now a UNESCO World Heritage Site . Historians believe Somapura was a model for the architects of Angkor Wat in Cambodia. Bengal was one of the last strongholds of Indian Buddhism in the medieval period, and Hindu temples before the Muslim conquest (starting in 1204) were relatively small. Most of the Hindu temples were built in Gupta era, Shashanka , Pala and Sena dynasty who ruled since

4656-486: The Roman Emperors adorning Hampton Court Palace , by Giovanni da Maiano , 1521, were another example of Italian work in England. They were originally painted but this has now been lost from weathering. In the 18th-century unglazed terracotta, which had long been used for preliminary clay models or maquettes that were then fired, became fashionable as a material for small sculptures including portrait busts. It

4753-400: The Romans and is seen nowhere else in the country. Contemporary centres for terracotta figurines include West Bengal , Bihar , Jharkhand , Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu . In Bishnupur , West Bengal, the terracotta pattern–panels on the temples are known for their intricate details. The Bankura Horse is also very famous and belongs to the Bengal school of terracotta. Madhya Pradesh is one of

4850-594: The Vastu-Shilpa Foundation in Ahmedabad to research the vernacular architecture of the region; and Sheila Sri Prakash who has used rural Indian architecture as an inspiration for innovations in environmental and socio-economically sustainable design and planning. The Dutch architect Aldo van Eyck was also a proponent of vernacular architecture, as were Samuel Mockbee , Christopher Alexander , and Paolo Soleri . Oliver claims that: As yet there

4947-402: The baking time, the colour differed from red to light orange. The Satavahanas used two different moulds- one for the front and the other for the back and kept a piece of clay in each mould and joined them together, making some artefacts hollow from within. Some Satavahana terracotta artefacts also seem to have a thin strip of clay joining the two moulds. This technique may have been imported from

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5044-509: The black desert tents of the Qashgai in Iran . Notable in each case is the significant impact of the availability of materials and the availability of pack animals or other forms of transport on the ultimate form of the shelters. All the shelters are adapted to suit the local climate. The Mongolian gers (yurts), for example, are versatile enough to be cool in hot continental summers and warm in

5141-571: The building into separate rooms. Culture also has a great influence on the appearance of vernacular buildings, as occupants often decorate buildings in accordance with local customs and beliefs. There are many cultures around the world which include some aspect of nomadic life, and they have all developed vernacular solutions for the need for shelter. These all include appropriate responses to climate and customs of their inhabitants, including practicalities of simple construction such as huts , and if necessary, transport such as tents . The Inuit have

5238-464: The capital and labour required to construct them is a one-time cost. Permanent dwellings often offer a greater degree of protection and shelter from the elements. In some cases, however, where dwellings are subjected to severe weather conditions such as frequent flooding or high winds, buildings may be deliberately "designed" to fail and be replaced, rather than requiring the uneconomical or even impossible structures needed to withstand them. The collapse of

5335-474: The centre or corners of the curving roof. These are straight-sided, often with conical roofs. They have little resemblance to a typical north Indian shikara temple tower. The pancharatna ("five towers") and navaratna ("nine towers") styles are varieties of this type. The temple structures contain gabled roofs which are colloquially called the chala, For example, a gabled roof with an eight sided pyramid structured roof will be called "ath chala" or literally

5432-537: The climate it is used in, does not need to provide the same degree of protection from the elements. The type of structure and materials used for a dwelling vary depending on how permanent it is. Frequently moved nomadic structures will be lightweight and simple, more permanent ones will be less so. When people settle somewhere permanently, the architecture of their dwellings will change to reflect that. Materials used will become heavier, more solid and more durable. They may also become more complicated and more expensive, as

5529-552: The courts ordered the building to be demolished by 1 February 2009. On 26 December 2008, the tower was pulled down, and the remainder was dismantled manually over the course of the next several months. Inter-regional Brazil Canada Iraq Germany Indonesia Israel Italy Norway Philippines Terracotta Terracotta , also known as terra cotta or terra-cotta ( Italian: [ˌtɛrraˈkɔtta] ; lit.   ' baked earth ' ; from Latin terra cocta  'cooked earth'),

5626-566: The definitions loose: he wrote that the exhibition "attempts to break down our narrow concepts of the art of building by introducing the unfamiliar world of nonpedigree architecture. It is so little known that we don't even have a name for it. For want of a generic label we shall call it vernacular, anonymous, spontaneous, indigenous, rural, as the case may be." The book was a reminder of the legitimacy and "hard-won knowledge" inherent in vernacular buildings, from Polish salt-caves to gigantic Syrian water wheels to Moroccan desert fortresses and

5723-438: The eight faces of the roof. And frequently there is more than one tower in the temple building. These are built of laterite and brick bringing them at the mercy of severe weather conditions of southern Bengal. Dakshineswar Kali Temple is a nine-spired temple while the additional small temples of Shiva along the river bank are example of southern Bengal roof style though in much smaller dimension. Indo-Islamic architecture in

5820-678: The fabric of the building. Buildings for a continental climate must be able to cope with significant variations in temperature and may even be altered by their occupants according to the seasons. In hot arid and semi-arid regions, vernacular structures typically include a number of distinctive elements to provide for ventilation and temperature control. Across the middle east, these elements included such design features as courtyard gardens with water features, screen walls, reflected light, mashrabiya (the distinctive oriel window with timber latticework) and bad girs ( wind-catchers ). Buildings take different forms depending on precipitation levels in

5917-485: The family. In polygamous communities there may be separate dwellings for different wives, and more again for sons who are too old to share space with the women of the family. Social interaction within the family is governed by, and privacy is provided by, the separation between the structures in which family members live. By contrast, in Western Europe, such separation is accomplished inside one dwelling, by dividing

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6014-441: The field of vernacular architecture as: comprising the dwellings and all other buildings of the people. Related to their environmental contexts and available resources they are customarily owner- or community-built, utilizing traditional technologies. All forms of vernacular architecture are built to meet specific needs, accommodating the values, economies and ways of life of the cultures that produce them. In 2007 Allen Noble wrote

6111-463: The fingers, allows the artist to take a more free and flexible approach. Small details that might be impractical to carve in stone, of hair or costume for example, can easily be accomplished in terracotta, and drapery can sometimes be made up of thin sheets of clay that make it much easier to achieve a realistic effect. Reusable mold-making techniques may be used for production of many identical pieces. Compared to marble sculpture and other stonework,

6208-418: The finished product is far lighter and may be further painted and glazed to produce objects with color or durable simulations of metal patina. Robust durable works for outdoor use require greater thickness and so will be heavier, with more care needed in the drying of the unfinished piece to prevent cracking as the material shrinks. Structural considerations are similar to those required for stone sculpture; there

6305-599: The great majority of Olmec figurines were in terracotta. Many ushabti mortuary statuettes were also made of terracotta in Ancient Egypt . The Ancient Greeks ' Tanagra figurines were mass-produced mold-cast and fired terracotta figurines, that seem to have been widely affordable in the Hellenistic period , and often purely decorative in function. They were part of a wide range of Greek terracotta figurines , which included larger and higher-quality works such as

6402-582: The highly self-conscious academic attempts at the beautiful throughout Europe". Since at least the Arts and Crafts Movement , many modern architects have studied vernacular buildings and claimed to draw inspiration from them, including aspects of the vernacular in their designs. In 1946, the Egyptian architect Hassan Fathy was appointed to design the town of New Gourna near Luxor . Having studied traditional Nubian settlements and technologies, he incorporated

6499-492: The indigenous vernacular architecture of Bengal, including curved chala roofs, corner towers and complex floral carvings. Sultanate-era mosques featured multiple domes or a single dome, richly designed mihrabs and minbars and an absence of minarets . While clay bricks and terracotta were the most widely used materials, stone was used from mines in the Rarh region . The Sultanate style also includes gateways and bridges. The style

6596-405: The individual will have been guided by a series of conventions built up in his locality, paying little attention to what may be fashionable. The function of the building would be the dominant factor, aesthetic considerations, though present to some small degree, being quite minimal. Local materials would be used as a matter of course, other materials being chosen and imported quite exceptionally. In

6693-544: The landscape to minimise potential storm damage. Climatic influences on vernacular architecture are substantial and can be extremely complex. Mediterranean vernacular, and that of much of the Middle East, often includes a courtyard with a fountain or pond; air cooled by water mist and evaporation is drawn through the building by the natural ventilation set up by the building form. Similarly, Northern African vernacular often has very high thermal mass and small windows to keep

6790-589: The late 14th century, when it became used in advanced International Gothic workshops in parts of Germany. The Virgin illustrated at the start of the article from Bohemia is the unique example known from there. A few decades later, there was a revival in the Italian Renaissance , inspired by excavated classical terracottas as well as the German examples, which gradually spread to the rest of Europe. In Florence , Luca della Robbia (1399/1400–1482)

6887-516: The local authorities. A case that made news in Russia was that of an Arkhangelsk entrepreneur Nikolay P. Sutyagin, who built what was reportedly the world's tallest single-family wooden house for himself and his family, only to see it condemned as a fire hazard. The 13-storey, 44 m (144 ft) tall structure, known locally as "Sutyagin's skyscraper" ( Небоскрёб Сутягина ), was found to be in violation of Arkhangelsk building codes, and in 2008

6984-413: The material to be glazed, such as tableware, sanitary piping, or building decorations built for freezing environments. Terracotta will also ring if lightly struck, as long as it is not cracked. Painted ( polychrome ) terracotta is typically first covered with a thin coat of gesso , then painted. It is widely used, but only suitable for indoor positions and much less durable than fired colors in or under

7081-510: The most famous is The Abduction of Hippodameia depicting the Greek mythological scene of a centaur kidnapping Hippodameia on her wedding day. Terracotta tiles have a long history in many parts of the world. Many ancient and traditional roofing styles included more elaborate sculptural elements than the plain roof tiles , such as Chinese Imperial roof decoration and the antefix of western classical architecture . In India West Bengal made

7178-599: The most prominent production centres of terracotta art today. The tribes of the Bastar have a rich tradition. They make intricate designs and statues of animals and birds. Hand-painted clay and terracotta products are produced in Gujarat . The Aiyanar cult in Tamil Nadu is associated with life-size terracotta statues. Traditional terracotta sculptures, mainly religious, also continue to be made. The demand for this craft

7275-490: The nine-domed mosque, which allowed a large area to be covered, was more popular there than anywhere else. After the Islamic consolidation of Bengal was complete, some local features continued, especially in smaller buildings, but the Mughals used their usual style in imperial commissions. The period of British rule saw wealthy Bengali families, owners of zamindar estates and wealthy traders, employing European architects to design houses and palaces. The Indo-Saracenic style

7372-678: The numbers of domes, with a nine-domed formula (three rows of three) being one option, surviving in four examples, all 15th or 16th century and now in Bangladesh, although there were others with larger numbers of domes. Buildings in the style are the Nine Dome Mosque and the Sixty Dome Mosque (completed 1459) and several other buildings in the Mosque City of Bagerhat , an abandoned city in Bangladesh now featured as

7469-430: The occupants cool, and in many cases also includes chimneys, not for fires but to draw air through the internal spaces. Such specializations are not designed but learned by trial and error over generations of building construction, often existing long before the scientific theories which explain why they work. Vernacular architecture is also used for the purposes of local citizens. The way of life of building occupants, and

7566-403: The outside of buildings, as a cheaper substitute for stone. Indian sculpture made heavy use of terracotta from as early as the Indus Valley civilization (with stone and metal sculpture being rather rare), and in more sophisticated areas had largely abandoned modeling for using molds by the 1st century BCE. This allows relatively large figures, nearly up to life-size, to be made, especially in

7663-409: The people, and by the people, but not for the people." Frank Lloyd Wright described vernacular architecture as "Folk building growing in response to actual needs, fitted into environment by people who knew no better than to fit them with native feeling". suggesting that it is a primitive form of design, lacking intelligent thought, but he also stated that it was "for us better worth study than all

7760-420: The primary construction material, as pre-Islamic buildings had done. Stone had to be imported to most of Bengal , whereas clay for bricks is plentiful. But stone was used for columns and prominent details, often re-used from Hindu or Buddhist temples. The early 15th century Eklakhi Mausoleum at Pandua, Malda or Adina, is often taken to be the earliest surviving square single-domed Islamic building in Bengal,

7857-573: The rare char-chala type, the two roof halves are fused into one unit and have a dome-like shape; the double-storey at-chala type has eight roof corners. Many of these temples are covered on the outer walls with terracotta (carved brick) reliefs . Bishnupur in West Bengal has a remarkable set of 17th and 18th - century temples with a variety of roof styles built by the Malla dynasty . In larger, and later, temples, small towers rise up from

7954-400: The rather rigid guidance as to correct forms that governed temple architecture elsewhere. In the same way the terracotta reliefs often depict secular subjects in a very lively fashion. Roofing styles include the jor-bangla , do-chala , char-chala , at-chala , and ek-ratna . The do-chala type has only two hanging roof tips on each side of a roof divided in the middle by a ridge-line; in

8051-706: The region – leading to dwellings on stilts in many regions with frequent flooding or rainy monsoon seasons. For example, the Queenslander is an elevated weatherboard house with a sloped, tin roof that evolved in the early 19th-century as a solution to the annual flooding caused by monsoonal rain in Australia's northern states. Flat roofs are rare in areas with high levels of precipitation. Similarly, areas with high winds will lead to specialised buildings able to cope with them, and buildings tend to present minimal surface area to prevailing winds and are often situated low on

8148-424: The reputation of the material. By about 1930, the widespread use of concrete and Modernist architecture largely ended the use of terracotta in architecture. As compared to bronze sculpture , terracotta uses a far simpler and quicker process for creating the finished work with much lower material costs. The easier task of modelling, typically with a limited range of knives and wooden shaping tools, but mainly using

8245-481: The small percentage of new buildings every year designed by architects and built by engineers. Vernacular architecture usually serves immediate, local needs, is constrained by the materials available in its particular region and reflects local traditions and cultural practices. The study of vernacular architecture does not examine formally schooled architects , but instead that of the design skills and tradition of local builders, who were rarely given any attribution for

8342-432: The standard form of smaller mosques and mausoleums. But there is a small mosque at Molla Simla, Hooghly district , that is probably from 1375, earlier than the mausoleum. The Eklakhi Mausoleum is large and has several features that were to become common in the Bengal style, including a slightly curved cornice , large round decorative buttresses and decoration in carved terracotta brick. These features are also seen in

8439-574: The structure together. Terracotta has been a medium for art since the Harappan civilization, although techniques used differed in each time period. In the Mauryan times, they were mainly figures of mother goddesses, indicating a fertility cult. Moulds were used for the face, whereas the body was hand-modelled. In the Shungan times, a single mould was used to make the entire figure and depending upon

8536-406: The sub-zero temperatures of Mongolian winters and include a close-able ventilation hole at the centre and a chimney for a stove. A ger is typically not often relocated, and is therefore sturdy and secure, including wooden front door and several layers of coverings. A traditional Berber tent, by contrast, might be relocated daily, and is much lighter and quicker to erect and dismantle – and because of

8633-427: The town buildings of Victorian Birmingham , England. Terracotta was marketed as a miracle material, largely impervious to the elements. Terracotta, however, can be damaged by water penetration, exposure, or failure through faulty design or installation. An excessive faith in the durability of the material led to shortcuts in design and execution, coupled with a belief that the material did not require maintenance, tainted

8730-644: The traditional mud brick vaults of the Nubian settlements in his designs. The experiment failed, due to a variety of social and economic reasons. Sri Lankan architect Geoffrey Bawa is considered the pioneer of regional modernism in South Asia . Along with him, modern proponents of the use of the vernacular in architectural design include Charles Correa , a well known Indian architect; Muzharul Islam and Bashirul Haq , internationally known Bangladeshi architects ; Balkrishna Doshi , another Indian, who established

8827-401: The very process of consciously designing a building makes it not vernacular. Paul Oliver , in his book Dwellings , states: "it is contended that 'popular architecture' designed by professional architects or commercial builders for popular use, does not come within the compass of the vernacular". Oliver also offers the following simple definition of vernacular architecture: "the architecture of

8924-478: The way they use their shelters, is of great influence on building forms. The size of family units, who shares which spaces, how food is prepared and eaten, how people interact, and many other cultural considerations will affect the layout and size of dwellings. For example, the family units of several East African ethnic communities live in family compounds, surrounded by marked boundaries, in which separate single-roomed dwellings are built to house different members of

9021-445: The work. More recently, vernacular architecture has been examined by designers and the building industry in an effort to be more energy conscious with contemporary design and construction—part of a broader interest in sustainable design . As of 1986, even among scholars publishing in the field, the exact boundaries of "vernacular" have not been clear. Vernacular architecture tends to be overlooked in traditional histories of design. It

9118-484: Was a sculptor who founded a family dynasty specializing in glazed and painted terracotta, especially large roundels which were used to decorate the exterior of churches and other buildings. These used the same techniques as contemporary maiolica and other tin-glazed pottery . Other sculptors included Pietro Torrigiano (1472–1528), who produced statues, and in England busts of the Tudor royal family. The unglazed busts of

9215-535: Was considered iconoclastic at the time. The term "commercial vernacular" was popularized in the late 1960s by the publication of Learning from Las Vegas by Robert Venturi and Denise Scott Brown , referring to 20th-century American suburban tract and commercial architecture. Although vernacular architecture might be designed by people who do have some training in design, in 1971 Ronald Brunskill nonetheless defined vernacular architecture as: ...a building designed by an amateur without any training in design;

9312-598: Was much easier to work than carved materials, and allowed a more spontaneous approach by the artist. Claude Michel (1738–1814), known as Clodion , was an influential pioneer in France . John Michael Rysbrack (1694–1770), a Flemish portrait sculptor working in England, sold his terracotta modelli for larger works in stone, and produced busts only in terracotta. In the next century the French sculptor Albert-Ernest Carrier-Belleuse made many terracotta pieces, but possibly

9409-565: Was strongly prevalent in the region, but versions of European Neo-Classical architecture were also found, especially in or near trading cities. While most rural estates featured an elegant country house , the cities of Calcutta , Dacca , Panam and Chittagong had widespread 19th and early 20th century urban architecture, comparable to London, Sydney or other cities of the British Empire . Art deco influences began in Calcutta in

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