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71-657: The very first DocuTech system, known as the DocuTech Production Publisher was announced on October 2, 1990. Its 135 page-per minute, black and white, xerographic print engine and attached finisher module were largely based on ones previously developed for the Xerox 5090 Duplicator system (announced by Xerox in 1988). However, image generation in the DocuTech was performed using a digitally driven, dual-beam, Laser ROS (Raster Output Scanner) rather than by

142-443: A boron nitride rectifying (diode-causing) layer that minimizes current leakage, and a surface layer of silicon doped with oxygen or nitrogen; silicon nitride is a scuff-resistant material. The steps of the process are described below as applied on a cylinder, as in a photocopier. Some variants are described within the text. Every step of the process has design variants. The physics of the xerographic process are discussed at length in

213-401: A multi-function printer : a device that combined the roles of a photocopier, a fax machine, a scanner , and a computer network-connected printer . Low-end machines that can copy and print in color have increasingly dominated the home-office market as their prices fell steadily during the 1990s. High-end color photocopiers capable of heavy-duty handling cycles and large-format printing remain

284-402: A special pattern . Color copying also raises concerns regarding the copying and/or forging of other documents, such as driver's licenses and university degrees and transcripts. Some driver's licenses are made with embedded holograms so that a police officer can detect a fake copy. Some university and college transcripts have special anti-copying watermarks in the background. If a copy is made,

355-487: A DocuTech Network Server was also offered which enabled the now growing family of DocuTech Publishing Systems to be utilized with a broader set of networks. The DocuTech 6135 is an improved version of the DT135, with a Sun Blade workstation controller replacing the original controller and scanner. Additional improvements include an optional VLD laser assembly, which uses sub-pixel dot positioning, while not truly increasing

426-442: A book. An electrostatic charge of −600 volts is uniformly distributed over the surface of the drum by a corona discharge from a corona unit (Corotron), with output limited by a control grid or screen. This effect can also be achieved by using a contact roller with a charge applied to it. Essentially, a corona discharge is generated by a very thin wire 1 ⁄ 4 to 1 ⁄ 2  inch (6.35 to 12.7 mm) away from

497-439: A charge under light. In the 1970s, IBM Corporation sought to avoid Xerox's patents for selenium drums by developing organic photoconductors as an alternative to the selenium drum. In the original system, photocopiers that rely on silicon or selenium (and its alloys) are charged positively in use (hence work with negatively charged " toner " powder). Photoconductors using organic compounds are electrochemically charged vice versa to

568-609: A costly option found primarily in print and design shops. Chester Carlson (1906-1968), the inventor of photocopying, was originally a patent attorney , as well as a part-time researcher and inventor. His job at the patent office in New York required him to make a large number of copies of important papers. Carlson, who was arthritic , found this a painful and tedious process. This motivated him to conduct experiments with photoconductivity. Carlson used his kitchen for his " electrophotography " experiments, and, in 1938, he applied for

639-404: A cylinder to carry the photosensor, automatic processing was enabled. In 1960, the automatic photocopier was created and many millions have been built since. The same process is used in microform printers and computer output laser or LED printers . A metal cylinder called the drum is mounted to rotate about a horizontal axis. The drum rotates at the speed of paper output. One revolution passes

710-399: A magnetic roller to present to the surface of the drum or belt a brush of toner. By contact with the carrier each neutral toner particle has an electric charge of polarity opposite to the charge of the latent image on the drum. The charge attracts toner to form a visible image on the drum. To control the amount of toner transferred, a bias voltage is applied to the developer roller to counteract

781-483: A non-profit organization in Columbus, Ohio , contracted with Carlson to refine his new process. Over the next five years, the institute conducted experiments to improve the process of electrophotography. In 1947, Haloid Corporation, a manufacturer of photographic paper, approached Battelle to obtain a license to develop and market a copying machine based on this technology. Haloid felt that the word "electrophotography"

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852-410: A patent for the process. He made the first photocopy using a zinc plate covered with sulfur . The words "10-22-38 Astoria" were written on a microscope slide, which was placed on top of more sulfur and under a bright light. After the slide was removed, a mirror image of the words remained. Carlson tried to sell his invention to some companies but failed because the process was still underdeveloped. At

923-411: A process known as 'toner polluting' whereby concentration levels of toner/developer having poor electrostatic properties are permitted to build up in the developer unit, reducing the overall efficiency of the toner in the system. Some systems have abandoned the separate developer (carrier). These systems, known as monocomponent, operate as above, but use either a magnetic toner or fusible developer. There

994-423: A single scan to four separate, miniature process units, operating simultaneously, each with its own coronas, drum and developer unit. Paper is passed between the drum and the transfer corona, which has a polarity that is the opposite of the charge on the toner. The toner image is transferred from the drum to the paper by a combination of pressure and electrostatic attraction. On many color and high-speed machines, it

1065-425: A standard PC scanner coupled to an inkjet or low-end laser printer, which are far slower than their counterparts in high-end copiers. However, low-end scanner-inkjets can provide color copying at a lower upfront purchase-price but a much higher cost per copy. Combined digital scanner/printers sometimes have built-in fax machines and can be classified as one type of multifunction printer . A negative photocopy inverts

1136-608: A technology called xerography , a dry process that uses electrostatic charges on a light-sensitive photoreceptor to first attract and then transfer toner particles (a powder) onto paper in the form of an image. The toner is then fused onto the paper using heat, pressure, or a combination of both. Copiers can also use other technologies, such as inkjet , but xerography is standard for office copying. Commercial xerographic office photocopying gradually replaced copies made by verifax , photostat , carbon paper , mimeograph machines , and other duplicating machines . Photocopying

1207-589: A variety of light sources are used. As glass transmits ultraviolet rays between 325 and 400 nanometers, copiers with ultraviolet-producing lights such as fluorescent, tungsten halogen, or xenon flash, expose documents to some ultraviolet. Concerns about emissions from photocopy machines have been expressed by some in connection with the use of selenium and emissions of ozone and fumes from heated toner. Similar to forensic identification of typewriters , computer printers and copiers can be traced by imperfections in their output. The mechanical tolerances of

1278-496: A working commercial product. It was almost 18 years before a fully automated process was developed, the key breakthrough being the use of a cylindrical drum coated with selenium instead of a flat plate. This resulted in the first commercial automatic copier, the Xerox 914 , being released by Haloid/Xerox in 1960. Xerography is now used in most photocopying machines and in laser and LED printers . The first commercial use

1349-421: Is "automatic digital collation ". For example, when copying a set of 20 pages 20 times, a digital copier scans each page only once, then uses the stored information to produce 20 sets. In an analog copier, either each page is scanned 20 times (a total of 400 scans), making one set at a time, or 20 separate output trays are used for the 20 sets. Low-end copiers also use digital technology, but tend to consist of

1420-511: Is common practice, as the cost of purchasing a book for the sake of one article or a few pages can be excessive. The principle of fair use (in the United States) or fair dealing (in other Berne Convention countries) allows copying for certain specified purposes. In certain countries, such as Canada, some universities pay royalties from each photocopy made at university copy machines and copy centers to copyright collectives out of

1491-415: Is common to replace the transfer corona with one or more charged bias transfer rollers, which apply greater pressure and produce a higher quality image. Electric charges on the paper are partially neutralized by AC from a second corona, usually constructed in tandem with the transfer corona and immediately after it. As a result, the paper, complete with most (but not all) of the toner image, is separated from

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1562-447: Is inferior to a belt in the sense that although it is simpler than a belt, it must be buffered gradually in parts rolling on the curved drum, while the flat belt efficiently uses one exposure to make a direct passage. In a laser or LED printer, modulated light is projected onto the drum surface to create the latent image. The modulated light is used only to create the positive image, hence the term "blackwriting". In high-volume copiers,

1633-437: Is no need to replace worn-out developer, as the user effectively replaces it along with the toner. An alternative developing system, developed by KIP from an abandoned line of research by Xerox, completely replaces magnetic toner manipulation and the cleaning system, with a series of computer-controlled, varying biases. The toner is printed directly onto the drum, by direct contact with a rubber developing roller which, by reversing

1704-440: Is projected onto and synchronized with the moving drum surface. Alternatively, the image may be exposed using a xenon strobe illuminating the surface of the moving drum or belt, fast enough to render a perfect latent image. Where there is text or image on the document, the corresponding area of the drum will remain unlit. Where there is no image the drum will be illuminated and the charge will be dissipated. The charge that remains on

1775-408: Is removed from the drum surface by a rotating brush under suction, or a squeegee known as the cleaning blade. This 'waste' toner usually is routed into a waste toner compartment for later disposal; however, in some systems, it is routed back into the developer unit for reuse. This process, known as toner reclaim, is much more economical, but can possibly lead to a reduced overall toner efficiency through

1846-399: Is used for producing black on white from negative originals (mainly microfilm) and all digital printing and copying. This is to economize on the use of laser light by the "blackwriting" or "write to black" exposure method. The document or microform to be copied is illuminated by flash lamps on the platen and either passed over a lens or scanned by a moving light and lens, such that its image

1917-451: Is widely used in the business, education, and government sectors. While there have been predictions that photocopiers will eventually become obsolete as information workers increase their use of digital document creation, storage, and distribution and rely less on distributing actual pieces of paper, as of 2015, photocopiers continue to be widely used. During the 1980s, a convergence began in some high-end machines towards what came to be called

1988-529: The Color-in-Color copier, which used a dye sublimation process rather than conventional electrostatic technology. Xerox introduced the first electrostatic color-copier (the 6500) in 1973. Color photocopying is a concern to governments , as it facilitates counterfeiting currency and other documents: for more information, see § Counterfeiting . There is an increasing trend for new photocopiers to implement digital technology, thereby replacing

2059-473: The "Save Queue" where they could be retained, edited if desired (using the built in editor), and later printed "on demand". The system was also capable of printing on sheet sizes up to 14x17 inches. Another important feature of this earliest DocuTech was its ability to perform signature imposition and generate "2-up signatures" (later 4-up was added) in the proper page imposition order to create signature booklets. (note: Folding, trimming, and stitching of booklets

2130-538: The "print-on-demand" industry. In late 1991, Xerox re-branded the original DocuTech Production Publisher as the DocuTech Production Publisher Model 135 (DT135). This was done to distinguish it from the DocuTech Production Publisher Model 90 which the company anticipated announcing in 1992. The model numbers were chosen to reflect the page-per-minute print speeds of the two models. The controller and scanner were common to both models, but

2201-620: The 1980s, colored lines were introduced and used in animated features like The Secret of NIMH . Xerography has been used by photographers internationally as a direct imaging photographic process, by book artists for publishing one-of-a-kind books or multiples, and by collaborating artists in portfolios such as those produced by the International Society of Copier Artists founded by American printmaker and book artist, Louise Odes Neaderland . Art critic Roy Proctor said of artist/curator Louise Neaderland during her residency for

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2272-702: The IBM InfoPrint. Xerox retired the original DocuTech 135 platform in favor of the DocuTech 61xx and later, the Nuvera systems (originally introduced as the DocuTech 100/120 Copier/Printer). Xerography Xerography is a dry photocopying technique. Originally called electrophotography, it was renamed xerography—from the Greek roots ξηρός xeros , meaning "dry" and -‍γραφία -‍graphia , meaning "writing"—to emphasize that unlike reproduction techniques then in use such as cyanotype ,

2343-567: The Late Twentieth Century , notes that during this period (1970s through 1990s) the copy machine played "an especially notable role in the era's punk, street art, and DIY movements." FedEx purchased the Kinko's chain in 2004, and its services were incorporated into the name FedEx Office in 2008. Colored toner became available in the 1940s, although full-color copiers were not commercially available until 1968, when 3M released

2414-466: The Model 90 used a different print engine based on one developed for the previously announced Xerox 4090 printer. The original DocuTech Production Publisher was capable of scanning and then printing black-and-white pages at up to 135 pages per minutes (for letter or A4 sizes) with an output resolution of 600 x 600 dots per inch (dpi). Scanned documents could be saved to a special memory area on disk known as

2485-526: The US government has asked these companies to implement such a tracking scheme, so that counterfeiting can be traced. The EFF has filed a Freedom of Information Act request in order to look into privacy implications of this tracking. Photocopying, using liquid developer, was developed by Ken Metcalfe and Bob Wright of Defence Standards Laboratory in Adelaide in 1952. Photocopying, using liquid developer,

2556-484: The attraction between toner and latent image. Where a negative image is required, as when printing from a microform negative, then the toner has the same polarity as the corona in step 1. Electrostatic lines of force drive the toner particles away from the latent image towards the uncharged area, which is the area exposed from the negative. Early color copiers and printers used multiple copy cycles for each page output, using colored filters and toners. Modern units use only

2627-408: The bias, removes all the unwanted toner and returns it to the developer unit for reuse. The development of xerography has led to new technologies that have the potential to eventually eradicate traditional offset printing machines. These new machines that print in full CMYK color, such as Xeikon , use xerography but provide nearly the quality of traditional ink prints. Xerographic documents (and

2698-434: The closely related laser printer printouts) can have excellent archival durability, depending on the quality of the paper used. If low-quality paper is used, it can yellow and degrade due to residual acid in the untreated pulp; in the worst case, old copies can literally crumble into small particles when handled. High-quality xerographic copies on acid-free paper can last as long as typewritten or handwritten documents on

2769-492: The company. Before the widespread adoption of xerographic copiers, photo-direct copies produced by machines such as Kodak 's Verifax (based on a 1947 patent) were used. A primary obstacle associated with the pre-xerographic copying technologies was the high cost of supplies: a Verifax print required supplies costing US$ 0.15 in 1969, while a Xerox print could be made for $ 0.03, including paper and labor. The coin-operated Photostat machines still found in some public libraries in

2840-424: The document's colors when creating a photocopy, resulting in letters that appear white on a black background instead of black on a white background. Negative photocopies of old or faded documents sometimes produce documents that have better focus and are easier to read and study. Photocopying material that is subject to copyright (such as books or scientific papers) is subject to restrictions in most countries. This

2911-459: The drum after this exposure is a 'latent' image and is a negative of the original document. Whether in a scanning or a stationary optical system, combinations of lenses and mirrors are used to project the original image on the platen (scanning surface) onto the photoconductor. Additional lenses, with different focal lengths or zooming lenses are utilized to enlarge or reduce the image; the scanning speed must adapt to elements or reductions. A drum

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2982-418: The drum is presented with a slowly turbulent mixture of toner particles and larger, iron, reusable carrier particles. Toner is a powder; its early form was carbon powder, then melt-mixed with a polymer. The carrier particles have a coating which, during agitation, generates a triboelectric charge (a form of static electricity), which attracts a coating of toner particles. In addition, the mix is manipulated with

3053-416: The drum or belt surface. The toner image is permanently fixed to the paper using either a heat and pressure mechanism (hot roll fuser) or a radiant fusing technology (oven fuser) to melt and bond the toner particles into the medium (usually paper) being printed. There also used to be available "offline" vapor fusers. These were trays covered in cotton gauze sprinkled with a volatile liquid, such as ether. When

3124-460: The drum surface through the steps described below. The end-to-end dimension is the width of print to be produced plus a generous tolerance. The drums in the copiers originally developed by Xerox Corporation were manufactured with a surface coating of amorphous selenium (more recently ceramic or organic photoconductor or OPC), applied by vacuum deposition . Amorphous selenium will hold an electrostatic charge in darkness and will conduct away such

3195-573: The exhibition Art ex Machina at 1708 Gallery in Richmond, Virginia, "She's living proof that, when a new technology begins to be mass-produced, artists will be curious enough—and imaginative enough—to explore its creative uses. Photocopier A photocopier (also called copier or copy machine , and formerly Xerox machine , the generic trademark ) is a machine that makes copies of documents and other visual images onto paper or plastic film quickly and cheaply. Most modern photocopiers use

3266-546: The first xerographic copier, called the Model A. Seeing off computing-leader IBM in the office-copying market, Xerox became so successful that, in North America, photocopying came to be popularly known as "xeroxing". Xerox has actively fought to prevent Xerox from becoming a genericized trademark . While the word Xerox has appeared in some dictionaries as a synonym for photocopying, Xerox Corporation typically requests such entries be modified, and discourages use of

3337-549: The hand-inking stage in the animation process by printing the animator's drawings directly to the animation cels . The first animated feature film to use this process was One Hundred and One Dalmatians (1961), although the technique was already tested in Sleeping Beauty , released two years earlier. At first, only black lines were possible, but in 1977, gray lines were introduced and used in The Rescuers and in

3408-436: The late 1960s made letter-size copies for $ 0.25 each, when the minimum wage for a US worker was $ 1.65 per hour; the Xerox machines that replaced them typically charged $ 0.10. Xerographic-copier manufacturers took advantage of the high perceived value copying had in the 1960s and early 1970s and marketed "specially designed" paper for xerographic output. By the end of the 1970s, paper producers made xerographic "runability" one of

3479-410: The light-lens optics and exposure lamps found in the "analog" 5090 system. The system's scanner module allowed document scanning in a number of modes including manually from the platen or automatically using a 23 page-per-minute recirculating document feeder. The scanner also had a semi-automatic side feeder which could be used to scan large originals and computer fan-fold (CFF) input. The entire system

3550-531: The older analog technology. With digital copying, the copier effectively consists of an integrated scanner and laser printer . This design has several advantages, such as automatic image-quality enhancement and the ability to "build jobs" (that is, to scan page images independently of printing them). Some digital copiers can function as high-speed scanners; such models typically offer the ability to send documents via email or make them available on file servers. A significant advantage of digital copier technology

3621-417: The photoconductor. A negative charge is placed on the wire, which will ionize the space between the wire and conductor, so electrons will be repelled and pushed away onto the conductor. The conductor is set on top of a conducting surface, kept at ground potential. The polarity is chosen to suit the positive or negative process. Positive process is used for producing black on white copies. Negative process

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3692-410: The preceding system in order to exploit their native properties in printing. Organic photoconductors are now preferred because they can be deposited on a flexible, oval or triangular, belt instead of a round drum, facilitating significantly smaller device build size. Laser printer photo drums are made with a doped silicon diode sandwich structure with a hydrogen-doped silicon light-chargeable layer,

3763-542: The print resolution to 600 x 1200 dpi, improves the halftone quality. The DocuTech system's main competitor in the field of print-on-demand production plant is IBM 's InfoPrint system. In addition, there are a number of other competitors in the field, led by the Kodak Digimaster Production Printer, which is sold under a number of different brand names, including the Canon imageRUNNER and

3834-540: The printed pages, as fine and almost invisible patterns of yellow dots. Some sources identify Xerox and Canon as companies doing this. The Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) has investigated this issue and documented how the Xerox DocuColor printer's serial number, as well as the date and time of the printout, are encoded in a repeating 8×15 dot pattern in the yellow channel. EFF is working to reverse engineer additional printers. The EFF also reports that

3905-488: The process of xerography used no liquid chemicals . Xerography was invented by American physicist Chester Carlson , based significantly on contributions by Hungarian physicist Pál Selényi . Carlson applied for and was awarded U.S. patent 2,297,691 on October 6, 1942. Carlson's innovation combined electrostatic printing with photography , unlike the dry electrostatic printing process invented by Georg Christoph Lichtenberg in 1778. Carlson's original process

3976-487: The reader. To counter the risk of people using color copiers to create counterfeit copies of paper currency, some countries have incorporated anti-counterfeiting technologies into their currency. These include watermarks, microprinting, holograms , tiny security strips made of plastic (or other material), and ink that appears to change color as the currency is viewed at an angle. Some photocopying machines contain special software that can prevent copying currency that has

4047-521: The requirements for most of their office-paper brands . Some devices sold as photocopiers have replaced the drum-based process with inkjet or transfer-film technology. Among the key advantages of photocopiers over earlier copying technologies is their ability: In 1970, Paul Orfalea founded Kinko's retail chain, in Isla Vista, California. Starting with a single copier that year, this copy service chain would expand to over 1,000 locations around

4118-508: The revenues from the photocopying, and these collectives distribute resulting funds to various scholarly publishers. In the United States, photocopied compilations of articles, handouts, graphics, and other information called readers often require texts for college classes. Either the instructor or the copy center is responsible for clearing copyright for every article in the reader, and attribution information must be clearly included in

4189-403: The same paper. However, xerographic copies are vulnerable to undesirable toner transfer if they are stored in direct contact or close proximity to plasticizers , which are present in looseleaf binders made with PVC . In extreme cases, the ink toner will stick directly to the binder cover, pulling away from the paper copy and rendering it illegible. Ub Iwerks adapted xerography to eliminate

4260-484: The term Xerox in this way. In the early 1950s, Radio Corporation of America (RCA) introduced a variation on the process called Electrofax , whereby images are formed directly on specially coated paper and rendered with a toner dispersed in a liquid. During the 1960s and through the 1980s, Savin Corporation developed and sold a line of liquid-toner copiers that implemented a technology based on patents held by

4331-503: The time, multiple copies were most commonly made at the point of document origination, using carbon paper or manual duplicating machines . People did not see the need for an electronic copier. Between 1939 and 1944, Carlson was turned down by over 20 companies, including IBM and General Electric —neither of which believed there was a significant market for copiers. In 1944, the Battelle Memorial Institute ,

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4402-419: The toner and paper feed mechanisms cause banding , which can reveal information about the individual device's mechanical properties. It is often possible to identify the manufacturer and brand, and, in some cases, the individual printer can be identified from a set of known printers by comparing their outputs. Some high-quality color printers and copiers steganographically embed their identification code into

4473-430: The transferred image was brought into proximity with the vapor from the evaporating liquid, the result was a perfectly fixed copy without any of the distortion or toner migration which can occur with the other methods. This method is no longer used due to emissions of fumes. The drum, having already been partially discharged during detack, is further discharged by light. Any remaining toner, that did not transfer in step 6,

4544-408: The watermarks will become highly visible, which allows the recipient to determine that they have a copy rather than a genuine original transcript. Exposure to ultraviolet light is a concern. In the early days of photocopiers, the sensitizing light source was filtered green to match the optimal sensitivity of the photoconductive surface. This filtering conveniently removed all ultraviolet. Currently,

4615-669: The world. By the 1980s, Kinko's operated 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, with customers using the copy center for academic and business work as well as personal publishing and advertising. By the 1990s, Kinko's had 700 locations around the United States, with 5 in Manhattan. In such urban areas, Kinko's became a place where a multitude of users could make their ideas "typed, designed and xeroxed, then transmitted by fax, computer disk and Federal Express." Kate Eichhorn, in Adjusted Margin: Xerography, Art, and Activism in

4686-473: Was absent on release, but planned for the following year. With its ability to digitally scan, edit and store documents for later retrieval, and also its ability to output stitched or tape-bound books, the DocuTech Production Publisher was arguably the first fully integrated " print-on-demand " publishing system. In fact, the Xerox DocuTech line of publishing systems is largely credited with establishing

4757-554: Was controlled by an electronic sub-system (ESS) of a proprietary Xerox design. The ESS incorporated a large number of Xerox proprietary Mesa processors which were specifically designed for high-speed image processing, 32 MegaBytes of RAM, I/O control interfaces for communicating with the Printer and Scanner modules, as well as 3 disk drives which contained system software and space for storing images (including those for saved jobs). The network connectivity to allow sending print jobs over

4828-431: Was cumbersome, requiring several manual processing steps with flat plates. In 1946, Carlson signed an agreement with Haloid Photographic Company to develop it as a commercial product. Before that year, Carlson had proposed his idea to more than a dozen companies, but none was interested. Haloid's president, Joseph C. Wilson , saw the promise of Carlson's invention, and saw to it that Haloid diligently worked to produce

4899-440: Was done by an optional accessory known as a C.P. Bourg Signature Booklet Maker or SBM-1, which could be attached in-line to the system's output finisher.) In June 1992 Xerox announced the DocuTech 135 Network Publisher which augmented the earlier DocuTech's capability by enabling it to receive and print documents transmitted over a network. Although this system's network connectivity was limited to Xerox's proprietary XNS network,

4970-412: Was hand processing of a flat photosensor (an electrostatic component that detects the presence of visible light) with a copy camera and a separate processing unit to produce offset lithographic plates. Today this technology is used in photocopy machines , laser printers , and digital presses which are slowly replacing many traditional offset presses in the printing industry for shorter runs. By using

5041-469: Was too complicated and did not have good recall value. After consulting a professor of classical language at Ohio State University , Haloid and Carlson changed the name of the process to xerography , a term, coined from Greek roots, that meant "dry writing." Haloid called the new copier machines "Xerox Machines" and, in 1948, the term Xerox was trademarked . Haloid eventually became Xerox Corporation in 1961. In 1949, Xerox Corporation introduced

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