125-402: The Dodge Lancer is an automobile that was marketed in three unrelated versions by Dodge during the 1950s, 1960s, and 1980s. The first version debuted as a hardtop version of the full-sized 1955 Dodge , and was produced in that form until 1959. The second version revived the nameplate in 1961 for a Chrysler A platform -based compact that was marketed for two model years and replaced by
250-536: A Flemish member of a Jesuit mission in China around 1672. It was a 65-centimetre-long (26 in) scale-model toy for the Kangxi Emperor that was unable to carry a driver or a passenger. It is not known with certainty if Verbiest's model was successfully built or run. Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot is widely credited with building the first full-scale, self-propelled mechanical vehicle in about 1769; he created
375-748: A right hand drive version of the Lancer was sold from 1961 through 1963, badged as the DeSoto Rebel not long after the DeSoto name was discontinued in the U.S. All were equipped with the 170 cu in (2.8 L) Slant 6 engine, and most had the three-speed manual transmission. As with the Australian RV1 and SV1 Valiants, the DeSoto Rebel used the instrument cluster from the U.S. 1961 Plymouth Valiant . White reflectors were mounted to
500-513: A 15.67 E.T. Although the bigger Dodges were beginning to appear at drag strips around the country, the "Golden Lancer" of Dode Martin and Jim Nelson was one of the fastest compacts on the strips in 1962. The engine was a 413 cu in (6.77 liters) Chrysler RB V8 engine modified by the Chrysler engineers' "Ramchargers" racing team. The Golden Lancer raced successfully in A/FX class and could do
625-407: A Fiat vehicle. Toyota , Nissan , Suzuki , Mazda , and Honda began as companies producing non-automotive products before the war, switching to car production during the 1950s. Kiichiro Toyoda's decision to take Toyoda Loom Works into automobile manufacturing would create what would eventually become Toyota Motor Corporation , the largest automobile manufacturer in the world. Subaru , meanwhile,
750-446: A bottom fill system that required a stable flow-front. Logical thought processes and trial and error were used because computerized analysis did not exist yet; however this modeling was the precursor to computerized flow and fill modeling. The Acurad system was the first die casting process that could successfully cast low-iron aluminium alloys, such as A356 and A357 . In a traditional die casting process these alloys would solder to
875-437: A combination of the use of feet and hands, and occasionally by voice on 21st-century cars. These controls include a steering wheel , pedals for operating the brakes and controlling the car's speed (and, in a manual transmission car, a clutch pedal), a shift lever or stick for changing gears, and a number of buttons and dials for turning on lights, ventilation, and other functions. Modern cars' controls are now standardised, such as
1000-440: A die is directly dependent on the temperature of the molten metal and the cycle time. The dies used in die casting are usually made out of hardened tool steels , because cast iron cannot withstand the high pressures involved, therefore the dies are very expensive, resulting in high start-up costs. Metals that are cast at higher temperatures require dies made from higher alloy steels . The main failure mode for die casting dies
1125-575: A four-door wagon. After 1962, the line was renamed the Dodge Dart . A survey of 1961 Lancer owners by Popular Mechanics based on a total of 1,023,938-mile (1,647,868 km) miles driven reported that 77.6.2% rated their cars as excellent with handling, comfortable ride, power/performance, and styling as their top likes. The Lancer wheelbase and body shell were identical to those of the Valiant, but interior and exterior trim were more upscale for
1250-615: A highly refined process there will still be some porosity in the center of the casting. Most die casters perform other secondary operations to produce features not readily castable, such as tapping a hole, polishing, plating, buffing, or painting. After the shakeout of the casting it is inspected for defects. The most common defects are misruns and cold shuts . These defects can be caused by cold dies, low metal temperature, dirty metal, lack of venting, or too much lubricant. Other possible defects are gas porosity, shrinkage porosity , hot tears , and flow marks. Flow marks are marks left on
1375-406: A large composition of aluminium, magnesium and copper. The process for these machines start with melting the metal in a separate furnace. Then a precise amount of molten metal is transported to the cold-chamber machine where it is fed into an unheated shot chamber (or injection cylinder). This shot is then driven into the die by a hydraulic or mechanical piston. The biggest disadvantage of this system
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#17327831632311500-590: A large production volume is needed. Other disadvantages are: Acurad was a die casting process developed by General Motors in the late 1950s and 1960s. The name is an acronym for accurate, reliable, and dense. It was developed to combine a stable fill and directional solidification with the fast cycle times of the traditional die casting process. The process pioneered four breakthrough technologies for die casting: thermal analysis , flow and fill modeling, heat treatable and high integrity die castings, and indirect squeeze casting (explained below). The thermal analysis
1625-483: A long-established wagon and coach manufacturer, started to build cars in 1897 and commenced sales of electric vehicles in 1902 and petrol vehicles in 1904. In Britain, there had been several attempts to build steam cars with varying degrees of success, with Thomas Rickett even attempting a production run in 1860. Santler from Malvern is recognised by the Veteran Car Club of Great Britain as having made
1750-670: A new model DMG car was produced and the model was named Mercedes after the Maybach engine, which generated 35 hp. Maybach quit DMG shortly thereafter and opened a business of his own. Rights to the Daimler brand name were sold to other manufacturers. In 1890, Émile Levassor and Armand Peugeot of France began producing vehicles with Daimler engines, and so laid the foundation of the automotive industry in France . In 1891, Auguste Doriot and his Peugeot colleague Louis Rigoulot completed
1875-403: A pool of molten metal to feed the die. At the beginning of the cycle the piston of the machine is retracted, which allows the molten metal to fill the "gooseneck". The pneumatic - or hydraulic -powered piston then forces this metal out of the gooseneck into the die. The advantages of this system include fast cycle times (approximately 15 cycles a minute) and the convenience of melting the metal in
2000-423: A quarter of world oil production as of 2019 . Both petrol and diesel cars pollute more than electric cars. Cars and vans caused 8% of direct carbon dioxide emissions in 2021. As of 2021 , due to greenhouse gases emitted during battery production, electric cars must be driven tens of thousands of kilometres before their lifecycle carbon emissions are less than fossil fuel cars; however this varies considerably and
2125-419: A result, Ford's cars came off the line in 15-minute intervals, much faster than previous methods, increasing productivity eightfold, while using less manpower (from 12.5 manhours to 1 hour 33 minutes). It was so successful, paint became a bottleneck. Only Japan black would dry fast enough, forcing the company to drop the variety of colours available before 1913, until fast-drying Duco lacquer
2250-548: A single Carter four-barrel carburetor rated at 320 hp (239 kW; 324 PS), as well as a Super D-500 version with dual four-barrel carburetors producing 340 hp (254 kW; 345 PS). The Custom Royal Lancer featured a padded dashboard and steering wheel, Lancer emblems on the fenders, steering wheel, hubcaps, foot-operated windshield wipers, dual-radio antennas, deluxe side trim, and thick chrome eyebrows. Optional equipment included power windows and brakes, air conditioning, and swivel seats . The Lancer designation
2375-467: A steam-powered road vehicle. It was unable to maintain sufficient steam pressure for long periods and was of little practical use. The development of external combustion (steam) engines is detailed as part of the history of the car but often treated separately from the development of true cars. A variety of steam-powered road vehicles were used during the first part of the 19th century, including steam cars , steam buses , phaetons , and steam rollers . In
2500-544: A steam-powered tricycle. He also constructed two steam tractors for the French Army, one of which is preserved in the French National Conservatory of Arts and Crafts . His inventions were limited by problems with water supply and maintaining steam pressure. In 1801, Richard Trevithick built and demonstrated his Puffing Devil road locomotive, believed by many to be the first demonstration of
2625-579: A three-wheeled car powered by electricity at the International Exposition of Electricity . Although several other German engineers (including Gottlieb Daimler , Wilhelm Maybach , and Siegfried Marcus ) were working on cars at about the same time, the year 1886 is regarded as the birth year of the modern car—a practical, marketable automobile for everyday use—when the German Carl Benz patented his Benz Patent-Motorwagen ; he
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#17327831632312750-519: A tilt steering wheel, and a two-position cup holder. While some of the modifications from the 1987 Shelbys were included, the Shelby shocks and wheels were replaced by Chrysler units and the rear disk brakes were discontinued in favor of the regular Lancer's rear drums. Most of the Shelby graphics and badges were also removed and the Pioneer CD player was replaced by Chrysler's Infinity II system. While
2875-571: A total of 487 units. In April 1988, Chrysler started offering some models on the European market. One of them was the "Chrysler GTS", a rebadged version of the Dodge Lancer ES. Due to European vehicle regulations , the exterior appearance was slightly different. The rear turn signals were amber rather than red, the front sidemarkers and the centre high mount stop lamp (CHMSL) were blanked off, small round repeaters were installed into
3000-401: A vacuum pump removes air and gases from die cavity and metal delivery system before and during injection. Vacuum die casting reduces porosity, allows heat treating and welding, improves surface finish, and can increase strength. Heated-manifold direct-injection die casting , also known as direct-injection die casting or runnerless die casting , is a zinc die casting process where molten zinc
3125-429: A variety of lamps . Over the decades, additional features and controls have been added to vehicles, making them progressively more complex. These include rear-reversing cameras , air conditioning , navigation systems , and in-car entertainment . Most cars in use in the early 2020s are propelled by an internal combustion engine , fueled by the combustion of fossil fuels . Electric cars , which were invented early in
3250-673: A way to head off on unchaperoned dates, plus they had a private space to snuggle up close at the end of the night." Similarly the costs to society of car use may include; maintaining roads , land use , air pollution , noise pollution , road congestion , public health , health care, and of disposing of the vehicle at the end of its life; and can be balanced against the value of the benefits to society that car use generates. Societal benefits may include: economy benefits, such as job and wealth creation, of car production and maintenance, transportation provision, society wellbeing derived from leisure and travel opportunities, and revenue generation from
3375-408: Is wear or erosion . Other failure modes are heat checking and thermal fatigue . Heat checking is when surface cracks occur on the die due to a large temperature change on every cycle. Thermal fatigue is when surface cracks occur on the die due to a large number of cycles. The following are the four steps in traditional die casting , also known as high-pressure die casting , these are also
3500-450: Is a metal casting process that is characterized by forcing molten metal under high pressure into a mold cavity . The mold cavity is created using two hardened tool steel dies which have been machined into shape and work similarly to an injection mold during the process. Most die castings are made from non-ferrous metals , specifically zinc , copper , aluminium , magnesium , lead , pewter , and tin -based alloys. Depending on
3625-480: Is a summary of the advantages of each alloy: As of 2008 , maximum weight limits for aluminium, brass , magnesium, and zinc castings are estimated at approximately 70 pounds (32 kg), 10 lb (4.5 kg), 44 lb (20 kg), and 75 lb (34 kg), respectively. By late-2019, press machines capable of die casting single pieces over-100 kilograms (220 lb) were being used to produce aluminium chassis components for cars. The material used defines
3750-479: Is called " Fordism " and was copied by most major industries. The efficiency gains from the assembly line also coincided with the economic rise of the US. The assembly line forced workers to work at a certain pace with very repetitive motions which led to more output per worker while other countries were using less productive methods. In the automotive industry, its success was dominating, and quickly spread worldwide seeing
3875-515: Is cut into two cavity inserts , which are separate pieces that can be replaced relatively easily and bolt into the die halves. The dies are designed so that the finished casting will slide off the cover half of the die and stay in the ejector half as the dies are opened. This assures that the casting will be ejected every cycle because the ejector half contains the ejector pins to push the casting out of that die half. The ejector pins are driven by an ejector pin plate , which accurately drives all of
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4000-448: Is expected to improve in future due to lower carbon electricity , and longer lasting batteries produced in larger factories. Many governments use fiscal policies, such as road tax , to discourage the purchase and use of more polluting cars; and many cities are doing the same with low-emission zones . Fuel taxes may act as an incentive for the production of more efficient, hence less polluting, car designs (e.g., hybrid vehicles ) and
4125-475: Is forced through a heated manifold and then through heated mini-nozzles, which lead into the moulding cavity. This process has the advantages of lower cost per part, through the reduction of scrap (by the elimination of sprues, gates, and runners) and energy conservation, and better surface quality through slower cooling cycles. Semi-solid die casting uses metal that is heated between its liquidus and solidus (or liquidus and eutectic temperature), so that it
4250-469: Is generally acknowledged as the inventor of the car. In 1879, Benz was granted a patent for his first engine, which had been designed in 1878. Many of his other inventions made the use of the internal combustion engine feasible for powering a vehicle. His first Motorwagen was built in 1885 in Mannheim , Germany. He was awarded the patent for its invention as of his application on 29 January 1886 (under
4375-540: Is in a "mushy" state. This allows for more complex parts and thinner walls. Low-pressure die casting (LPDC) is a process developed to improve the consistency and integrity of parts, at the cost of a much slower cycle time. In LPDC, material is held in a reservoir below the die, from which it flows into the cavity when air pressure in the reservoir is increased. Typical pressures range from 0.3 bar (4.4 psi) to 0.5 bar (7.3 psi). Somewhat higher pressures (up to 1 bar (15 psi)) may be applied after
4500-500: Is injected into the die before each shot to purge any air from the mould cavity. This causes small dispersed oxides to form when the molten metal fills the die, which virtually eliminates gas porosity. An added advantage to this is greater strength. Unlike standard die castings, these castings can be heat treated and welded . This process can be performed on aluminium, zinc, and lead alloys. In vacuum assisted high pressure die casting , a.k.a. vacuum high pressure die casting (VHPDC),
4625-401: Is often done using a special trim die in a power press or hydraulic press. Other methods of shaking out include sawing and grinding. A less labor-intensive method is to tumble shots if gates are thin and easily broken; separation of gates from finished parts must follow. This scrap is recycled by remelting it. The yield is approximately 67%. The high-pressure injection leads to a quick fill of
4750-621: Is that cars can use lighter batteries. Most cars are designed to carry multiple occupants, often with four or five seats. Cars with five seats typically seat two passengers in the front and three in the rear. Full-size cars and large sport utility vehicles can often carry six, seven, or more occupants depending on the arrangement of the seats. On the other hand, sports cars are most often designed with only two seats. Utility vehicles like pickup trucks , combine seating with extra cargo or utility functionality. The differing needs for passenger capacity and their luggage or cargo space has resulted in
4875-826: Is the replacement of physical knobs and switches by secondary controls with touchscreen controls such as BMW 's iDrive and Ford 's MyFord Touch . Another change is that while early cars' pedals were physically linked to the brake mechanism and throttle, in the early 2020s, cars have increasingly replaced these physical linkages with electronic controls. Cars are typically equipped with interior lighting which can be toggled manually or be set to light up automatically with doors open, an entertainment system which originated from car radios , sideways windows which can be lowered or raised electrically (manually on earlier cars), and one or multiple auxiliary power outlets for supplying portable appliances such as mobile phones , portable fridges, power inverters , and electrical air pumps from
5000-418: Is the slower cycle time due to the need to transfer the molten metal from the furnace to the cold-chamber machine. Two dies are used in die casting; one is called the "cover die half" and the other the "ejector die half". Where they meet is called the parting line . The cover die contains the sprue (for hot-chamber machines) or shot hole (for cold-chamber machines), which allows the molten metal to flow into
5125-471: Is the usual formal term in British English . "Autocar", a variant likewise attested from 1895 and literally meaning " self-propelled car", is now considered archaic. " Horseless carriage " is attested from 1895. "Automobile", a classical compound derived from Ancient Greek autós ( αὐτός ) "self" and Latin mobilis "movable", entered English from French and was first adopted by
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5250-404: Is why die casting produces more castings than any other casting process. Die castings are characterized by a very good surface finish (by casting standards) and dimensional consistency. Die casting equipment was invented in 1838 for the purpose of producing movable type for the printing industry . The first die casting-related patent was granted in 1849 for a small hand-operated machine for
5375-718: The Aries and the 600 . All Lancers were built in Sterling Heights , Michigan . Production ended on April 7, 1989, and the market position was replaced by the Spirit . A special version was available for the 1987 model year called the Shelby Lancer , which was built by Shelby Automobiles in Whittier, California. A total of 800 units were produced with half featuring a 5-speed manual transmission and cloth seats while
5500-593: The Automobile Club of Great Britain in 1897. It fell out of favour in Britain and is now used chiefly in North America , where the abbreviated form "auto" commonly appears as an adjective in compound formations like " auto industry " and " auto mechanic ". In 1649, Hans Hautsch of Nuremberg built a clockwork-driven carriage. The first steam-powered vehicle was designed by Ferdinand Verbiest ,
5625-483: The Dodge Dart . The third version returned the Lancer nameplate in 1985 for a front-wheel drive mid-sized Chrysler H platform model that was in production until 1988 after which it was replaced by the Dodge Spirit . Dodge used the Lancer name from 1955 until 1959 to designate the two- and four-door hardtop (no B-pillar) models in the full-sized Coronet , Royal, and Custom Royal lines. The Custom Royal Lancer
5750-639: The Great Depression , by 1940, only 17 of those were left. In Europe, much the same would happen. Morris set up its production line at Cowley in 1924, and soon outsold Ford, while beginning in 1923 to follow Ford's practice of vertical integration , buying Hotchkiss' British subsidiary (engines), Wrigley (gearboxes), and Osberton (radiators), for instance, as well as competitors, such as Wolseley : in 1925, Morris had 41 per cent of total British car production. Most British small-car assemblers, from Abbey to Xtra , had gone under. Citroën did
5875-679: The Portsmouth Block Mills , England, in 1802. The assembly line style of mass production and interchangeable parts had been pioneered in the US by Thomas Blanchard in 1821, at the Springfield Armory in Springfield, Massachusetts . This concept was greatly expanded by Henry Ford , beginning in 1913 with the world's first moving assembly line for cars at the Highland Park Ford Plant . As
6000-520: The Wankel engine has had more than very limited success. All in all, it is estimated that over 100,000 patents created the modern automobile and motorcycle. Large-scale, production-line manufacturing of affordable cars was started by Ransom Olds in 1901 at his Oldsmobile factory in Lansing, Michigan , and based upon stationary assembly line techniques pioneered by Marc Isambard Brunel at
6125-409: The history of the car , became commercially available in the 2000s and are predicted to cost less to buy than petrol-driven cars before 2025. The transition from fossil fuel-powered cars to electric cars features prominently in most climate change mitigation scenarios , such as Project Drawdown 's 100 actionable solutions for climate change. There are costs and benefits to car use . The costs to
6250-440: The tax opportunities. The ability of humans to move flexibly from place to place has far-reaching implications for the nature of societies. Cars are a major cause of urban air pollution , with all types of cars producing dust from brakes, tyres, and road wear , although these may be limited by vehicle emission standards . While there are different ways to power cars, most rely on petrol or diesel , and they consume almost
6375-699: The 1.8% annual average reduction between 2010 and 2015. Given slow progress to date, the IEA estimates fuel consumption will have to decrease by 4.3% per year on average from 2019 to 2030. The increase in sales of SUVs is bad for fuel economy. Many cities in Europe have banned older fossil fuel cars and all fossil fuel vehicles will be banned in Amsterdam from 2030. Many Chinese cities limit licensing of fossil fuel cars, and many countries plan to stop selling them between 2025 and 2050. Die casting Die casting
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#17327831632316500-444: The 170s and 770s such as the "Lancer" door scripts, the slanted chrome hash marks on the lower quarter panel, and the hook-ended stainless steel door-to-fender spears. The Lancer used the slant-6 engine. The base engine was the 170 cu in (2.8 L) unit, rated at 101 bhp (75 kW). The optional power package consisted of the larger 225 cu in (3.7 L) engine, rated at 145 bhp (108 kW). After
6625-533: The 1908 Ford Model T , both American cars, are widely considered the first mass-produced and mass-affordable cars, respectively. Cars were rapidly adopted in the US, where they replaced horse-drawn carriages . In Europe and other parts of the world, demand for automobiles did not increase until after World War II . In the 21st century, car usage is still increasing rapidly, especially in China, India, and other newly industrialised countries . Cars have controls for driving , parking , passenger comfort, and
6750-487: The 1950s, Chevrolet shared bonnet, doors, roof, and windows with Pontiac ; by the 1990s, corporate powertrains and shared platforms (with interchangeable brakes , suspension, and other parts) were common. Even so, only major makers could afford high costs, and even companies with decades of production, such as Apperson , Cole , Dorris , Haynes , or Premier, could not manage: of some two hundred American car makers in existence in 1920, only 43 survived in 1930, and with
6875-440: The 1987 models were only available in red, the 1988 and 1989 models added a choice of white or black. The Lancer Shelby used a true intercooled Turbo II engine for the manual transmission version, providing the same 175 hp (130 kW) and 175 lb⋅ft (237 N⋅m) of torque. The automatic variant was equipped with the 146 hp (109 kW) Turbo I . 279 Lancer Shelbys were produced in 1988 and 208 in 1989 for
7000-408: The 1988 model year, building them in the same Sterling Heights plant as regular Lancers. The "Dodge Lancer Shelby" featured many of the same appearance and handling modifications as the Shelby, with some omissions. These included the upgraded sway bars , shorter springs, and quicker steering along with other comfort and convenience features such as leather seats, power locks, windows, seats and mirrors,
7125-812: The 20th and 21st centuries because there are more cars; the 1980s oil glut even fuelled the sales of low-economy vehicles in OECD countries. The BRIC countries are adding to this consumption. As of 2023 few production cars use wheel hub motors . In almost all hybrid (even mild hybrid ) and pure electric cars regenerative braking recovers and returns to a battery some energy which would otherwise be wasted by friction brakes getting hot. Although all cars must have friction brakes (front disc brakes and either disc or drum rear brakes ) for emergency stops, regenerative braking improves efficiency, particularly in city driving. Cars are equipped with controls used for driving, passenger comfort, and safety, normally operated by
7250-561: The Benz car to his line of products. Because France was more open to the early cars, initially more were built and sold in France through Roger than Benz sold in Germany. In August 1888, Bertha Benz , the wife and business partner of Carl Benz, undertook the first road trip by car, to prove the road-worthiness of her husband's invention. In 1896, Benz designed and patented the first internal-combustion flat engine , called boxermotor . During
7375-405: The Lancer. Lancers featured round taillights and a full-width grille, instead of the Valiant's cat's-eye taillights and central grille. For 1961, trim levels were the basic "170" and the premium "770". During 1961, the two-door hardtop was marketed as the "Lancer 770 2-Door Hardtop". For the 1962 model year, the hardtop was marketed as the "GT 2-Door Hardtop" and carried premium trim. Two-tone paint
7500-614: The US's first pedestrian car casualties in 1899 in New York City. There are now standard tests for safety in new cars, such as the Euro and US NCAP tests, and insurance-industry-backed tests by the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS). However, not all such tests consider the safety of people outside the car, such as drivers of other cars, pedestrians and cyclists. The costs of car usage, which may include
7625-635: The United Kingdom, sentiment against them led to the Locomotive Acts of 1865. In 1807, Nicéphore Niépce and his brother Claude created what was probably the world's first internal combustion engine (which they called a Pyréolophore ), but installed it in a boat on the river Saone in France. Coincidentally, in 1807, the Swiss inventor François Isaac de Rivaz designed his own " de Rivaz internal combustion engine ", and used it to develop
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#17327831632317750-658: The United States. His patent was challenged by Henry Ford and others, and overturned in 1911. In 1893, the first running, petrol-driven American car was built and road-tested by the Duryea brothers of Springfield, Massachusetts . The first public run of the Duryea Motor Wagon took place on 21 September 1893, on Taylor Street in Metro Center Springfield. Studebaker , subsidiary of
7875-412: The auspices of his major company, Benz & Cie. , which was founded in 1883). Benz began promotion of the vehicle on 3 July 1886, and about 25 Benz vehicles were sold between 1888 and 1893, when his first four-wheeler was introduced along with a cheaper model. They also were powered with four-stroke engines of his own design. Emile Roger of France, already producing Benz engines under license, now added
8000-462: The availability of a large variety of body styles to meet individual consumer requirements that include, among others, the sedan/saloon , hatchback , station wagon/estate , coupe , and minivan . Traffic collisions are the largest cause of injury-related deaths worldwide. Mary Ward became one of the first documented car fatalities in 1869 in Parsonstown , Ireland, and Henry Bliss one of
8125-434: The basis for any of the die casting variations: die preparation, filling, ejection, and shakeout. The dies are prepared by spraying the mould cavity with lubricant . The lubricant both helps control the temperature of the die and it also assists in the removal of the casting. The dies are then closed and molten metal is injected into the dies under high pressure; between 10 and 175 megapascals (1,500 and 25,400 psi). Once
8250-564: The brand name Daimler . It was a horse-drawn stagecoach built by another manufacturer, which they retrofitted with an engine of their design. By 1895, about 30 vehicles had been built by Daimler and Maybach, either at the Daimler works or in the Hotel Hermann, where they set up shop after disputes with their backers. Benz, Maybach, and the Daimler team seem to have been unaware of each other's early work. They never worked together; by
8375-455: The car visible to other users, so that the vehicle can be used at night; in some jurisdictions, daytime running lights ; red brake lights to indicate when the brakes are applied; amber turn signal lights to indicate the turn intentions of the driver; white-coloured reverse lights to illuminate the area behind the car (and indicate that the driver will be or is reversing); and on some vehicles, additional lights (e.g., side marker lights) to increase
8500-427: The casting machine. The disadvantages of this system are that it is limited to use with low- melting point metals and that aluminium cannot be used because it picks up some of the iron while in the molten pool. Therefore, hot-chamber machines are primarily used with zinc-, tin-, and lead-based alloys. These are used when the casting alloy cannot be used in hot-chamber machines; these include aluminium, zinc alloys with
8625-422: The casting's purpose. Other die components include cores and slides . Cores are components that usually produce holes or opening, but they can be used to create other details as well. There are three types of cores: fixed, movable, and loose. Fixed cores are ones that are oriented parallel to the pull direction of the dies (i.e. the direction the dies open), therefore they are fixed, or permanently attached to
8750-443: The cost of: acquiring the vehicle, repairs and auto maintenance , fuel, depreciation , driving time, parking fees , taxes, and insurance, are weighed against the cost of the alternatives, and the value of the benefits—perceived and real—of vehicle usage. The benefits may include on-demand transportation, mobility, independence, and convenience, and emergency power . During the 1920s, cars had another benefit: "[c]ouples finally had
8875-588: The development of alternative fuels . High fuel taxes or cultural change may provide a strong incentive for consumers to purchase lighter, smaller, more fuel-efficient cars, or to not drive . The lifetime of a car built in the 2020s is expected to be about 16 years, or about 2 millionkm (1.2 millionmiles) if driven a lot. According to the International Energy Agency the average rated fuel consumption of new light-duty vehicles fell by only 0.9% between 2017 and 2019, far smaller than
9000-423: The die by hand before each cycle and then ejected with the part at the end of the cycle. The core then must be removed by hand. Loose cores are the most expensive type of core, because of the extra labor and increased cycle time. Other features in the dies include water-cooling passages and vents along the parting lines . These vents are usually wide and thin (approximately 0.13 mm or 0.005 in) so that when
9125-416: The die, which is required so the entire cavity fills before any part of the casting solidifies. In this way, discontinuities are avoided, even if the shape requires difficult-to-fill thin sections. This creates the problem of air entrapment, because when the mould is filled quickly there is little time for the air to escape. This problem is minimized by including vents along the parting lines, however, even in
9250-533: The die. Movable cores are ones that are oriented in any other way than parallel to the pull direction. These cores must be removed from the die cavity after the shot solidifies, but before the dies open, using a separate mechanism. Slides are similar to movable cores, except they are used to form undercut surfaces. The use of movable cores and slides greatly increases the cost of the dies. Loose cores, also called pick-outs , are used to cast intricate features, such as threaded holes . These loose cores are inserted into
9375-452: The die. Similarly, Acurad castings could be heat treated and meet the U.S. military specification MIL-A-21180-D . Finally, the Acurad system employed a patented double shot piston design. The idea was to use a second piston (located within the primary piston) to apply pressure after the shot had partially solidified around the perimeter of the casting cavity and shot sleeve. While the system
9500-433: The dies; this feature matches up with the injector nozzle on the hot-chamber machines or the shot chamber in the cold-chamber machines. The ejector die contains the ejector pins and usually the runner , which is the path from the sprue or shot hole to the mould cavity. The cover die is secured to the stationary, or front, platen of the casting machine, while the ejector die is attached to the movable platen. The mould cavity
9625-749: The driver from a crash perspective, but more dangerous for other vehicles and road users. The weight of a car influences fuel consumption and performance, with more weight resulting in increased fuel consumption and decreased performance. The Wuling Hongguang Mini EV , a typical city car , weighs about 700 kilograms (1,500 lb). Heavier cars include SUVs and extended-length SUVs like the Suburban . Cars have also become wider. Some places tax heavier cars more: as well as improving pedestrian safety this can encourage manufacturers to use materials such as recycled aluminium instead of steel. It has been suggested that one benefit of subsidising charging infrastructure
9750-660: The end of 1989, the GTS was replaced by the Saratoga . Production Figures: Rebadged models, mostly from Japanese or Korean manufacturers – Rebadged Chrysler/Plymouth models for external markets Automobile A car , or an automobile , is a motor vehicle with wheels . Most definitions of cars state that they run primarily on roads , seat one to eight people, have four wheels , and mainly transport people over cargo . There are around one billion cars in use worldwide. The French inventor Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot built
9875-412: The end of that year there were more than 16 million electric cars on the world's roads. Despite rapid growth, less than two per cent of cars on the world's roads were fully electric and plug-in hybrid cars by the end of 2021. Cars for racing or speed records have sometimes employed jet or rocket engines, but these are impractical for common use. Oil consumption has increased rapidly in
10000-456: The engine and transmission moved for a flatter front floor. Transmission options were a Chrysler-built A903 three-speed manual with the shifter on the floor in 1961 and on the steering column in 1962, or a pushbutton-operated A904 Torqueflite three-speed automatic. In the 1962 NHRA Winternationals, Wayne Weihe won the C/FX (Factory Experimental) class with a Hyper-Pak-equipped Lancer, clocking
10125-569: The first petrol-driven car in the country in 1894, followed by Frederick William Lanchester in 1895, but these were both one-offs. The first production vehicles in Great Britain came from the Daimler Company , a company founded by Harry J. Lawson in 1896, after purchasing the right to use the name of the engines. Lawson's company made its first car in 1897, and they bore the name Daimler. In 1892, German engineer Rudolf Diesel
10250-500: The first steam-powered road vehicle in 1769, while the Swiss inventor François Isaac de Rivaz designed and constructed the first internal combustion-powered automobile in 1808. The modern car—a practical, marketable automobile for everyday use—was invented in 1886, when the German inventor Carl Benz patented his Benz Patent-Motorwagen . Commercial cars became widely available during the 20th century. The 1901 Oldsmobile Curved Dash and
10375-425: The founding of Ford France and Ford Britain in 1911, Ford Denmark 1923, Ford Germany 1925; in 1921, Citroën was the first native European manufacturer to adopt the production method. Soon, companies had to have assembly lines, or risk going broke; by 1930, 250 companies which did not, had disappeared. Development of automotive technology was rapid, due in part to the hundreds of small manufacturers competing to gain
10500-584: The front bumper, in compliance with South African vehicle equipment regulations. The Rebel name was re-introduced by Chrysler South Africa in 1967 as the economy-priced " Valiant Rebel". The Dodge Lancer was re-introduced in 1985 as a mid-sized 5-door hatchback . It was a rebadged version of the Chrysler LeBaron GTS and was based on the Chrysler H platform , a stretched version of the Chrysler K platform . The Lancer eventually slotted between
10625-456: The front fenders and the sideview mirrors were of spring-hinged rather than rigid design. The engine options included the naturally aspirated 2.2 L (134 cu in) Four, and a turbocharged version of the same engine. From 1989 on, the 2.5 L (153 cu in) Four became available with or without a turbocharger. The 2.2 engine was dropped, except for the Turbo II version that
10750-565: The growth of consumer goods, and appliances, by greatly reducing the production cost of intricate parts in high volumes. In 1966, General Motors released the Acurad process. The main die casting alloys are: zinc , aluminium, magnesium, copper, lead, and tin; although uncommon, ferrous die casting is also possible. Specific die casting alloys include: zinc aluminium ; aluminium to, e.g. The Aluminum Association (AA) standards: AA 380, AA 384, AA 386, AA 390; and AZ91D magnesium. The following
10875-534: The high temperatures found in die casting, they form a thin film. Other substances are added to control the viscosity and thermal properties of these emulsions, e.g. graphite , aluminium , mica . Other chemical additives are used to inhibit rusting and oxidation . In addition emulsifiers are added to improve the emulsion manufacturing process, e.g. soap , alcohol esters , ethylene oxides . Historically, solvent-based lubricants, such as diesel fuel and kerosene , were commonly used. These were good at releasing
11000-528: The idea of different makes of cars produced by one company, called the General Motors Companion Make Program , so that buyers could "move up" as their fortunes improved. Reflecting the rapid pace of change, makes shared parts with one another so larger production volume resulted in lower costs for each price range. For example, in the 1930s, LaSalles , sold by Cadillac , used cheaper mechanical parts made by Oldsmobile ; in
11125-403: The individual include acquiring the vehicle, interest payments (if the car is financed), repairs and maintenance , fuel, depreciation , driving time, parking fees, taxes, and insurance . The costs to society include maintaining roads, land-use , road congestion , air pollution , noise pollution , public health , and disposing of the vehicle at the end of its life . Traffic collisions are
11250-476: The largest cause of injury-related deaths worldwide. Personal benefits include on-demand transportation, mobility, independence, and convenience. Societal benefits include economic benefits, such as job and wealth creation from the automotive industry , transportation provision, societal well-being from leisure and travel opportunities, and the generation of revenue from taxation. People's ability to move flexibly from place to place has far-reaching implications for
11375-637: The last years of the 19th century, Benz was the largest car company in the world with 572 units produced in 1899 and, because of its size, Benz & Cie., became a joint-stock company . The first motor car in central Europe and one of the first factory-made cars in the world, was produced by Czech company Nesselsdorfer Wagenbau (later renamed to Tatra ) in 1897, the Präsident automobil. Daimler and Maybach founded Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft (DMG) in Cannstatt in 1890, and sold their first car in 1892 under
11500-580: The location for the accelerator and brake, but this was not always the case. Controls are evolving in response to new technologies, for example, the electric car and the integration of mobile communications. Some of the original controls are no longer required. For example, all cars once had controls for the choke valve, clutch, ignition timing , and a crank instead of an electric starter . However, new controls have also been added to vehicles, making them more complex. These include air conditioning , navigation systems , and in-car entertainment . Another trend
11625-422: The longest trip by a petrol-driven vehicle when their self-designed and built Daimler powered Peugeot Type 3 completed 2,100 kilometres (1,300 mi) from Valentigney to Paris and Brest and back again. They were attached to the first Paris–Brest–Paris bicycle race, but finished six days after the winning cyclist, Charles Terront . The first design for an American car with a petrol internal combustion engine
11750-461: The lubricant is applied, the water cools the die surface by evaporating, hence depositing the oil that helps release the shot. A common mixture for this type of emulsion is thirty parts water to one part oil, however in extreme cases a ratio of one-hundred to one is used. Oils that are used include heavy residual oil (HRO), animal fat , vegetable fat , synthetic oil , and all sorts of mixtures of these. HROs are gelatinous at room temperature, but at
11875-545: The market. In Japan, car production was very limited before World War II. Only a handful of companies were producing vehicles in limited numbers, and these were small, three-wheeled for commercial uses, like Daihatsu , or were the result of partnering with European companies, like Isuzu building the Wolseley A-9 in 1922. Mitsubishi was also partnered with Fiat and built the Mitsubishi Model A based on
12000-454: The material is in the die, to work it into fine details of the cavity and eliminate porosity. Typical cycle times for a low-pressure die casting process are longer than for other die-casting processes; an engine block can take up to fifteen minutes. It is primarily used for aluminum, but has been used for carbon steel as well. Integrated die casting refers to the high-level integration of multiple separate and dispersed alloy parts through
12125-620: The minimum section thickness and minimum draft required for a casting as outlined in the table below. The thickest section should be less than 13 mm (0.5 in), but can be greater. There are a number of geometric features to be considered when creating a parametric model of a die casting: There are two basic types of die casting machines: hot-chamber machines and cold-chamber machines . These are rated by how much clamping force they can apply. Typical ratings are between 400 and 4,000 st (2,500 and 25,400 kg). Hot-chamber die casting, also known as gooseneck machines , rely upon
12250-486: The molten metal starts filling them the metal quickly solidifies and minimizes scrap. No risers are used because the high pressure ensures a continuous feed of metal from the gate. The most important material properties for the dies are thermal shock resistance and softening at elevated temperature; other important properties include hardenability , machinability , heat checking resistance, weldability, availability (especially for larger dies), and cost. The longevity of
12375-408: The mould cavity is filled, the pressure is maintained until the casting solidifies. The dies are then opened and the shot (shots are different from castings because there can be multiple cavities in a die, yielding multiple castings per shot) is ejected by the ejector pins. Finally, the shakeout involves separating the scrap, which includes the gate , runners , sprues and flash , from the shot. This
12500-426: The nature of societies . The English word car is believed to originate from Latin carrus / carrum "wheeled vehicle" or (via Old North French ) Middle English carre "two-wheeled cart", both of which in turn derive from Gaulish karros " chariot ". It originally referred to any wheeled horse-drawn vehicle , such as a cart , carriage , or wagon . "Motor car", attested from 1895,
12625-404: The on-board electrical system. More costly upper-class and luxury cars are equipped with features earlier such as massage seats and collision avoidance systems . Dedicated automotive fuses and circuit breakers prevent damage from electrical overload . Cars are typically fitted with multiple types of lights. These include headlights , which are used to illuminate the way ahead and make
12750-654: The other half were equipped with a 3-speed automatic transmission and leather upholstery. Along with Shelby-themed trim changes, the cars included modified suspension, with upgraded sway bars , shorter springs, and quicker steering, as well as 4-wheel disc brakes and a Pioneer CD player which were an advanced features for the time. The Lancer Shelby is powered by a 2.2 L Turbo I engine converted to Turbo II specifications with an intercooler , producing 175 hp (130 kW) and 175 lb⋅ft (237 N⋅m) of torque. Period 0-60 mph (97 km/h) tests achieved between 7.2 and 8.0 seconds. Chrysler took over production starting with
12875-492: The part from the die, but a small explosion occurred during each shot, which led to a build-up of carbon on the mould cavity walls. However, they were easier to apply evenly than water-based lubricants. Advantages of die casting: The main disadvantage to die casting is the very high capital cost . Both the casting equipment required and the dies and related components are very costly, as compared to most other casting processes. Therefore, to make die casting an economic process,
13000-434: The pins at the same time and with the same force, so that the casting is not damaged. The ejector pin plate also retracts the pins after ejecting the casting to prepare for the next shot. There must be enough ejector pins to keep the overall force on each pin low, because the casting is still hot and can be damaged by excessive force. The pins still leave a mark, so they must be located in places where these marks will not hamper
13125-644: The purpose of mechanized printing type production. In 1885 Ottmar Mergenthaler invented the Linotype machine , which cast an entire line of type as a single unit, using a die casting process . It nearly completely replaced setting type by hand in the publishing industry. The Soss die-casting machine, manufactured in Brooklyn, NY, was the first machine to be sold in the open market in North America. Other applications grew rapidly, with die casting facilitating
13250-431: The quarter-mile in 12.68 seconds at 113 mph (182 km/h). Lancer sales did not meet expectations and sold about half as well as the Valiant. As a late part of the total redesign of Dodge's compact car for 1963, the Lancer name was discontinued. Dodge compacts for 1963 through 1976 were named Dart , a name that had previously been assigned to a larger car produced by Dodge from 1960 through 1962. In South Africa ,
13375-472: The same in France, coming to cars in 1919; between them and other cheap cars in reply such as Renault 's 10CV and Peugeot 's 5CV , they produced 550,000 cars in 1925, and Mors , Hurtu , and others could not compete. Germany's first mass-manufactured car, the Opel 4PS Laubfrosch (Tree Frog), came off the line at Rüsselsheim in 1924, soon making Opel the top car builder in Germany, with 37.5 per cent of
13500-402: The start of the 1961 model year, a die-cast aluminum version of the 225 engine block was made available. The aluminum 225 weighed 45 lb (20 kg) less than the iron 170 and 80 lb (36 kg) less than the iron 225. Any of the available engines could be equipped at the dealer with Chrysler's Hyper Pak parts kit for a significant power upgrade: the 170 Hyper Pak's published output
13625-523: The surface of the casting due to poor gating, sharp corners, or excessive lubricant. Water-based lubricants are the most used type of lubricant, because of health, environmental, and safety reasons. Unlike solvent-based lubricants, if water is properly treated to remove all minerals from it, it will not leave any by-product in the dies. If the water is not properly treated, then the minerals can cause surface defects and discontinuities. Today "water-in-oil" and "oil-in-water" emulsions are used, because, when
13750-405: The time of the merger of the two companies, Daimler and Maybach were no longer part of DMG. Daimler died in 1900 and later that year, Maybach designed an engine named Daimler-Mercedes that was placed in a specially ordered model built to specifications set by Emil Jellinek . This was a production of a small number of vehicles for Jellinek to race and market in his country. Two years later, in 1902,
13875-432: The type of metal being cast, a hot- or cold-chamber machine is used. The casting equipment and the metal dies represent large capital costs and this tends to limit the process to high-volume production. Manufacture of parts using die casting is relatively simple, involving only four main steps, which keeps the incremental cost per item low. It is especially suited for a large quantity of small- to medium-sized castings, which
14000-530: The visibility of the car. Interior lights on the ceiling of the car are usually fitted for the driver and passengers. Some vehicles also have a boot light and, more rarely, an engine compartment light. During the late 20th and early 21st century, cars increased in weight due to batteries, modern steel safety cages, anti-lock brakes, airbags, and "more-powerful—if more efficient—engines" and, as of 2019 , typically weigh between 1 and 3 tonnes (1.1 and 3.3 short tons; 0.98 and 2.95 long tons). Heavier cars are safer for
14125-482: The world's attention. Key developments included electric ignition and the electric self-starter (both by Charles Kettering , for the Cadillac Motor Company in 1910–1911), independent suspension , and four-wheel brakes. Since the 1920s, nearly all cars have been mass-produced to meet market needs, so marketing plans often have heavily influenced car design. It was Alfred P. Sloan who established
14250-645: The world's first vehicle to be powered by such an engine. The Niépces' Pyréolophore was fuelled by a mixture of Lycopodium powder (dried spores of the Lycopodium plant), finely crushed coal dust and resin that were mixed with oil, whereas de Rivaz used a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen . Neither design was successful, as was the case with others, such as Samuel Brown , Samuel Morey , and Etienne Lenoir , who each built vehicles (usually adapted carriages or carts) powered by internal combustion engines. In November 1881, French inventor Gustave Trouvé demonstrated
14375-509: Was 148 bhp (110 kW), while the 225 Hyper Pak's was 196 bhp (146 kW). The Hyper-Pak shaved more than four seconds off the 0 to 60 mph (97 km/h) time versus the standard 225, and was over a second quicker and seven miles per hour faster in the quarter mile. With the Hyper Pak, a 225 Lancer could go from 0 to 60 mph (97 km/h) in 8.6 seconds and turn in a standing quarter-mile time of 16.4 seconds. 1962 cars had
14500-420: Was a hardtop only and top-of-the-line model for Dodge in 1959. There were 6,278 two-door and 5,019 four-door hardtops made in 1959. A total of 11,397 Custom Royal Lancers were built. The Custom Royal Lancer featured a big-block V8 engine, the 361 cu in (5.9 L) producing 305 hp (227 kW; 309 PS). A D-500 option was available, which included a 383 cu in (6.3 L) engine with
14625-465: Was available and instead of the front bench seat, there were two bucket seats. Also for the 1962 model, "Lancer GT" medallions were mounted on the doors' interior trim panels below the vent window and on the sides of the front fenders just aft of the headlamps . "GT" emblems were placed on the hood, the deck lid, and on the vinyl dash pad. The headlamp bezels and the grille's horizontal slats were blacked-out. The GT also lacked certain ornamentation found on
14750-407: Was developed in 1926. This is the source of Ford's apocryphal remark, "any color as long as it's black". In 1914, an assembly line worker could buy a Model T with four months' pay. Ford's complex safety procedures—especially assigning each worker to a specific location instead of allowing them to roam about—dramatically reduced the rate of injury. The combination of high wages and high efficiency
14875-616: Was dropped for 1960. For the 1961 model year , Dodge applied the Lancer nameplate to a higher-priced, upmarket badge-engineered version of Chrysler's Valiant compact. The model was introduced when Chrysler officially assigned the Valiant to the Plymouth division for 1961, leaving Dodge dealers without a compact car to sell. All body styles of the Valiant were also available on the Lancer: two- and four-door sedans, two-door hardtop, and
15000-1429: Was formed from a conglomerate of six companies who banded together as Fuji Heavy Industries , as a result of having been broken up under keiretsu legislation. The transport sector is a major contributor to air pollution , noise pollution and climate change . Most cars in use in the early 2020s run on petrol burnt in an internal combustion engine (ICE). The International Organization of Motor Vehicle Manufacturers says that, in countries that mandate low sulphur motor spirit, petrol-fuelled cars built to late 2010s standards (such as Euro-6) emit very little local air pollution. Some cities ban older petrol-driven cars and some countries plan to ban sales in future. However, some environmental groups say this phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles must be brought forwards to limit climate change. Production of petrol-fuelled cars peaked in 2017. Other hydrocarbon fossil fuels also burnt by deflagration (rather than detonation ) in ICE cars include diesel , autogas , and CNG . Removal of fossil fuel subsidies , concerns about oil dependence , tightening environmental laws and restrictions on greenhouse gas emissions are propelling work on alternative power systems for cars. This includes hybrid vehicles , plug-in electric vehicles and hydrogen vehicles . Out of all cars sold in 2021, nine per cent were electric, and by
15125-414: Was granted a patent for a "New Rational Combustion Engine". In 1897, he built the first diesel engine . Steam-, electric-, and petrol-driven vehicles competed for a few decades, with petrol internal combustion engines achieving dominance in the 1910s. Although various pistonless rotary engine designs have attempted to compete with the conventional piston and crankshaft design, only Mazda 's version of
15250-427: Was made in 1877 by George Selden of Rochester, New York . Selden applied for a patent for a car in 1879, but the patent application expired because the vehicle was never built. After a delay of 16 years and a series of attachments to his application, on 5 November 1895, Selden was granted a US patent ( U.S. patent 549,160 ) for a two-stroke car engine, which hindered, more than encouraged , development of cars in
15375-408: Was not very effective, it did lead the manufacturer of the Acurad machines, Ube Industries , to discover that it was just as effective to apply sufficient pressure at the right time later in the cycle with the primary piston; this is indirect squeeze casting. When no porosity is allowed in a cast part then the pore-free casting process is used. It is identical to the standard process except oxygen
15500-565: Was standard equipment on the Chrysler GTS Shelby, the European sibling of the Dodge Lancer Shelby . A five-speed manual gearbox was standard, with a three-speed automatic transmission as an extra-cost option. The GTS Shelby came only with a manual transmission. The Chrysler GTS had few buyers in Europe; the competition was too hard. Even the comparatively low prices could not help, and sales figures were very low. By
15625-429: Was the first done for any casting process. This was done by creating an electrical analog of the thermal system. A cross-section of the dies were drawn on Teledeltos paper and then thermal loads and cooling patterns were drawn onto the paper. Water lines were represented by magnets of various sizes. The thermal conductivity was represented by the reciprocal of the resistivity of the paper. The Acurad system employed
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