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101-598: Following his exile as a result of his actions in support of absolutism in the April Revolt (Abrilada) of 1824, Miguel returned to Portugal in 1828 as regent and fiancé of his niece Queen Maria II . As regent, he claimed the Portuguese throne in his own right, since according to the so-called Fundamental Laws of the Kingdom his older brother Pedro IV and therefore the latter's daughter had lost their rights from

202-805: A prime minister , as is in the case of the United Kingdom , or the Nordic countries . In the Ottoman Empire , the Sultan wielded absolute power over the state and was considered a Padishah meaning "Great King" by his people. Many sultans wielded absolute power through heavenly mandates reflected in their titles, such as "Shadow of God on Earth". In ancient Mesopotamia , many rulers of Assyria , Babylonia and Sumer were absolute monarchs as well. Throughout Imperial China , many emperors and one empress ( Wu Zetian ) wielded absolute power through

303-421: A regency , under his sister, Isabel Maria . Peter had already attempted to coerce Miguel to Brazil (1822) away from their mother without any success. Following the death of their father, Peter once again attempted to mend fences within the family and ensure Maria II's right to the throne by offering Miguel the regency of Portugal (when he became 25) under a new liberal Constitutional Charter that would re-establish

404-495: A century of largely unrestricted parliamentary rule proved just as ruinous, King Gustav III seized back royal power in the coup d'état of 1772 , and later once again abolished the privy council under the Union and Security Act in 1789, which, in turn, was rendered void in 1809 when Gustav IV Adolf was deposed in a coup and the constitution of 1809 was put in its place. The years between 1789 and 1809, then, are also referred to as

505-495: A constitutional monarchy. Under this arrangement, Queen Maria II and Miguel would be married when she came of age; until then Miguel would be her regent in Portugal. The new Constitutional Charter gave the crown moderating authority between the legislative, executive and judiciary, and introduced a 100-member Chamber of Peers (which included aristocrats and bishops and archbishops), a royal veto and indirect elections. Miguel accepted

606-711: A council of war to suspend hostilities and sue for peace. Miguel accepted the decision. After a three-year civil war , Miguel I was forced to abdicate at the Concession of Evoramonte (26 May 1834). While Carlos was transported to England (he later secretly returned to Spain), Miguel embarked on 1 June 1834 on a British warship from Sines bound for Genoa ; he lived in exile first in Italy, then in England, and finally in Germany. He never returned to Portugal. In December 1834

707-463: A fan of the liberal constitution, obeyed his summons and within five days he controlled the insurrectionary forces. The prince, supported by the queen, went so far as to demand the abdication of the king, who, faithful to his earlier oath, wanted to maintain the 1822 Constitution, despite the growing support for absolutist forces in Vila Franca. Miguel and the queen were interested in overthrowing

808-449: A half years prior to Miguel's birth (a period when his parents carried out a conjugal war , during which they were involved in permanent conspiracies, and only encountered each other in rare official circumstances). But despite the gossip, Miguel was always considered to be a son of the king, by the king, by his mother, by the rest of the family, by the court, and by the church. The "illegitimate child" theories may have had their origins in

909-533: A medic and intimate friend of the Miguel, was exiled to Alfeite for joining the chorus of those who challenged the reprisal killings. But the Queen Mother continued to support the attacks on liberals, and motivated these actions in order to strengthen the monarchy. Even after she died on 7 January 1830, many atrocities continued to be committed in the name of Miguel, some against foreign nationals who intervened in

1010-410: A period of absolute monarchy. Many nations formerly with absolute monarchies, such as Jordan , Kuwait , Morocco and Qatar , have de jure moved towards a constitutional monarchy . However, in these cases, the monarch still retains tremendous powers, even to the extent that by some measures, parliament's influence on political life is viewed as negligible or merely consultative. In Bhutan ,

1111-554: A quadruple alliance with the queen and Peter as well as with the governments of France and England. The Spanish General Rodil entered into Portugal while pursuing D. Carlos and his small force and at the same time the Duke of Terceira won the Battle of Asseiceira (16 May 1834) making D. Miguel's position critical. Miguel escaped Santarém and moved south-east in the direction of Elvas . While Miguel made for Évora , his generals voted in

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1212-570: A representative assembly or a constitution until the 1905 Revolution . However, the concept of absolutism was so ingrained in Russia that the Russian Constitution of 1906 still described the monarch as an autocrat. Russia became the last European country (excluding Vatican City ) to abolish absolutism, and it was the only one to do so as late as the 20th century (the Ottoman Empire drafted its first constitution in 1876). Russia

1313-517: A revolt in Lisbon. With Isabel Maria dangerously ill, Peter resolved to entrust his brother Miguel with the kingdom, which Miguel was only too eager to accept. A decree was promulgated on 3 July 1827 that granted Miguel his new role, and he departed from Vienna for Lisbon. On the trip back to Lisbon he stopped in England, arriving on 30 December 1827. He was met by the Duke of Clarence , heir-presumptive to

1414-401: A rowdy band of half-caste or Indian farm-hands. In general, Miguel was spoiled by the queen and her royal household, and clearly influenced by the base tendencies of others. The Duke of Palmela described him as: Miguel was an avowed conservative and admirer of Prince Metternich , who had referred to the liberal revolutions in the 1820s as unrealistic and without any historical roots: Miguel

1515-589: A small monthly allowance. Following the death of Pope Gregory and the election of Pius IX as Pope, D. Miguel moved to London, arriving on 2 February 1847. In 1851, he moved to the Grand Duchy of Baden in southern Germany and married Princess Adelaide of Löwenstein . They settled in the former Cistercian monastery of Bronnbach, and raised seven children. His widow succeeded in securing advantageous marriages for all their daughters. Miguel died while hunting at Bronnbach , Grand Duchy of Baden on 14 November 1866. He

1616-460: Is a form of monarchy in which the sovereign is the sole source of political power, unconstrained by constitutions , legislatures or other checks on their authority. The absolutist system of government saw its high point in Europe during the 16th and 17th century , associated with a form of rule unconstrained by the former checks of feudalism , embodied by figures such as Louis XIV of France,

1717-446: Is also unclear whether he actually swore the oath, since there was no distinct enunciation of the words; nor did any one actually see him kiss the missal (since the Duke of Cadaval obscured the prince during this part of the ceremony). Lord Carnarvon , in Lisbon at the time of the ceremony, wrote of the conclusion of the scene: On 1 March some citizens of Lisbon gathered at the palace to acclaim Miguel "Absolute King", infuriating many of

1818-534: Is granted on jus officii , namely on the grounds of appointment to work in a certain capacity in the service of the Holy See. It usually ceases upon cessation of the appointment. Citizenship is also extended to the spouse and children of a citizen, provided they are living together in the city. Saudi Arabia is an absolute monarchy, and according to the Basic Law of Saudi Arabia adopted by Royal Decree in 1992,

1919-511: Is said to have proclaimed L'état, c'est moi ! , 'I am the State!'. Although often criticized for his extravagances, such as the Palace of Versailles , he reigned over France for a long period, some historians consider him an absolute monarch, while some other historians have questioned whether Louis' reign should be considered 'absolute', given the reality of the balance of power between

2020-525: Is the absolute monarch of Vatican City, and is elected by a papal conclave with a two-thirds supermajority. As governed by the Holy See, Vatican City State is an sacerdotal - monarchical state ruled by the Pope, who is the bishop of Rome and head of the Catholic Church . Unlike citizenship of other states, which is based either on jus sanguinis or jus soli , citizenship of Vatican City

2121-468: Is the world's most authoritarian regime in 2023 measured by the electoral democracy score of the V-Dem Democracy indices . There is a considerable variety of opinion by historians on the extent of absolutism among European monarchs. Some, such as Perry Anderson , argue that quite a few monarchs achieved levels of absolutist control over their states, while historians such as Roger Mettam dispute

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2222-635: The Age of Enlightenment , the concept of the divine right to power and democratic ideals were given serious merit. The Revolutions of 1848 , known in some countries as the Springtime of the Peoples or the Springtime of Nations , were a series of political upheavals throughout Europe in 1848. It remains the most widespread revolutionary wave in European history . By the 19th century, divine right

2323-709: The Church of Scotland led to rebellion by the Covenanters and the Bishops' Wars , then fears that Charles I was attempting to establish absolutist government along European lines was a major cause of the English Civil War , although he did rule this way for 11 years starting in 1629, after dissolving the Parliament of England for a time. Absolutism was underpinned by a written constitution for

2424-701: The Crimean War . Chancellor Otto von Bismarck managed to reunite the Holy Alliance, as League of the Three Emperors , following the unification of Germany in 1871; the alliance again faltered by the 1880s over Austrian and Russian conflicts of interest over the decline of the Ottoman Empire . Ostensibly, the alliance was formed to instil the divine right of kings and Christian values in European political life, as pursued by Alexander I under

2525-636: The Grand Alliance , was a coalition linking the absolute monarchist great powers of Austria , Prussia , and Russia , which was created after the final defeat of Napoleon at the behest of Emperor (Tsar) Alexander I of Russia and signed in Paris on 26 September 1815. The alliance aimed to restrain liberalism in Europe in the wake of the devastating French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars ; it nominally succeeded in this until

2626-722: The Mandate of Heaven . In pre-Columbian America , the Inca Empire was ruled by a Sapa Inca , who was considered the son of Inti , the sun god and absolute ruler over the people and nation. Korea under the Joseon dynasty and short-lived empire was also an absolute monarchy. Throughout much of European history, the divine right of kings was the theological justification for absolute monarchy. Many European monarchs claimed supreme autocratic power by divine right, and that their subjects had no rights to limit their power. Throughout

2727-552: The Palace of Westminster where he was met by a throng of people. While in London he stayed at the palace of Lord Dudley , on Arlington Street where he entertained his new friends; he was received by the ministers, ambassadors and municipal officials of King George IV , and was generally feted by English nobility, attending concerts and pheasant hunts, and visiting public works (such as the Thames Tunnel on 8 January 1828 which

2828-732: The Papal States , and the Ottoman Empire . Lord Castlereagh , the British Foreign Secretary, called it "a piece of sublime mysticism and nonsense". Nonetheless, Britain participated in the Concert of Europe . In practice, the Austrian state chancellor and foreign minister, Prince Klemens von Metternich made it a bastion against democracy and citizen-nationalism. It also allowed coordinating suppression of Polish efforts to restore an independent state, by Austria in

2929-590: The Portuguese Cortes banished Miguel and all his descendants from Portugal upon pain of immediate death. The Constitution of 1838 (article 98) categorically excluded the collateral Miguelist line from the throne (although with the return to the Constitutional Charter in 1842, this ceased to have force). The 1834 banishment law remained in effect until repealed in May 1950. During his exile, he

3030-559: The Tagus , captured eight Portuguese ships and forcibly imposed a treaty (14 July 1831). But, Miguelist reprisals on liberals continued; most sentences were carried out within 24 hours. The 4th Infantry, in Lisbon, registered 29 executions on 22 and 23 August 1831 alone. Only the island of Terceira in the Azores remained loyal to Queen Maria II ; the constitutional government continued to function there in exile. At first João Carlos Saldanha

3131-691: The Tagus . Miguel was assisted by the French General Bourmont , who, after the fall of Charles X of France came with many of his legitimist officers to the aid of the king of Portugal (that is, Miguel). He was later replaced by the Scottish General Ranald MacDonnell who withdrew the Miguelist army besieging Lisbond to the almost impregnable heights of Santarém , where Miguel established his base of operations. The battles continued in earnest. In Alcácer

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3232-604: The class struggle as the underlying dynamic of human historical development generally and absolute monarchy in particular. In the 17th century, French legal theorist Jean Domat defended the concept of absolute monarchy in works such as "On Social Order and Absolute Monarchy" , citing absolute monarchy as preserving natural order as God intended. Other intellectual figures who supported absolute monarchy include Thomas Hobbes and Charles Maurras . Holy Alliance The Holy Alliance ( German : Heilige Allianz ; Russian : Священный союз , Svjaščennyj sojuz ), also called

3333-600: The king had majority control of the Legislative Assembly until 2010. Liechtenstein has moved towards expanding the power of the monarch — the Prince of Liechtenstein was given vast expanded powers after a referendum to amend the Constitution of Liechtenstein in 2003, which led BBC News to describe the prince as an "absolute monarch again". The referendum granted the monarch the powers to dismiss

3434-483: The "Sun King" . Attempting to establish an absolutist government along continental lines, Charles I of England viewed Parliament as unnecessary, which would ultimately lead to the English Civil War (1642–1651) and his execution . Absolutism declined substantially, first following the French Revolution , and later after World War I , both of which led to the popularization of modes of government based on

3535-772: The Bishop of Viseu proposed that Miguel should assume the crown since "...the hand of the Almighty led Your Majesty from the banks of the Danube to the shore of the Tagus to save his people...". On 7 July Miguel was acclaimed as absolute ruler, and on 11 July the Three Estate Cortes closed. Shortly afterwards the military garrison in Oporto revolted, formed a provisional governmental junta , and marched on Coimbra to defend

3636-630: The British ship Belfast in order to lead constitutional forces, quickly re-embarked, judging the liberal cause lost. The liberal army escaped to deplorable conditions in Galicia where they awaited the next move. In the former regency's court there were few strong supporters of a constitutional monarchy; Princess Isabella Maria was supported by weak-willed ministers or incompetents and was personally too timid to stand up to Miguel. The liberals and their supporters escaped into exile. All of Portugal recognised

3737-631: The British throne, and by other upper members of the English Court who had gathered at the dock to meet him. Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington , then leading an unpopular Tory government , hoped that they could mold Miguel into accepting the constitutional framework that Peter IV had devised, and used this visit to facilitate the transition. After lunching at the Hospital Governor's home, he travelled to London with his entourage in regal carriages and, escorted by cavalry officers, to

3838-652: The Congress of Vienna. On 29 September 1818, Alexander, Emperor Francis I of Austria and King Frederick William III of Prussia met with the Duke of Wellington , Viscount Castlereagh and the Duc de Richelieu at the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle to demand stern measures against university " demagogues ", which would be realized in the Carlsbad Decrees of the following year. At the Congress of Troppau in 1820 and

3939-612: The Count of Lousã. Within a week numerous moderate army officers had been dismissed and the military governors of the provinces replaced, as the Prince and Queen Dowager "cleaned house" of their old enemies and liberalist sympathisers. On 13 March 1828 Miguel dissolved the Cortes without calling new elections, as stipulated in the Constitutional Charter. Some municipal councils, many nobles and clergy, and several important citizens requested that

4040-502: The Final Act of the Congress of Vienna , the monarchs of Catholic (Austria), Protestant (Prussia), and Orthodox (Russia) confession promised to act on the basis of "justice, love, and peace", both in internal and foreign affairs, for "consolidating human institutions and remedying their imperfections". The Alliance was quickly rejected by the United Kingdom (though George IV declared consent in his capacity as King of Hanover ),

4141-660: The House of Habsburg-Lorraine to rule over the Holy Roman Empire was Joseph II , a sovereign raised during the Enlightenment. Joseph II extended full legal freedom to serfs in 1781. Franz Joseph I of Austria was Emperor of Austria from 1848 until his death in 1916 and was succeeded by Charles I of Austria . Charles I was the last Emperor of Austria and abdicated on 12 November 1918 due to Austria-Hungary losing World War I . Louis XIV of France (1638–1715)

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4242-678: The King must comply with Sharia (Islamic law) and the Quran . The Quran and the body of the Sunnah (traditions of the Islamic prophet , Muhammad ) are declared to be the Kingdom's Constitution, but no written modern constitution has ever been promulgated for Saudi Arabia, which remains the only Arab nation where no national elections have ever taken place since its founding. No political parties or national elections are permitted. The Saudi government

4343-533: The Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria , by Russia in its Congress Poland and by Prussia in the Grand Duchy of Posen and in West Prussia . The Alliance is usually associated with the later Quadruple and Quintuple Alliances, which included the United Kingdom and (from 1818) France with the aim of upholding the European peace settlement and balance of power in the Concert of Europe concluded at

4444-456: The Miguelist forces captured some ground but this was quickly lost to General Saldanha in Pernes and Almoster . The latter action (18 February 1834) was the most violent and bloody of the civil war. In the end, politics sealed Miguel's fate: his alliance with Carlos of Spain alienated the sympathies of Ferdinand VII of Spain , who recognised Maria's claim to the Portuguese throne, and concluded

4545-542: The Portuguese Royal Family on their transfer to Brazil in order to escape from the first Napoleonic invasion of Portugal; he returned in 1821 with John VI and his mother, while his brother Peter remained behind as regent of Brazil. Miguel was a mischievous child, sometimes seen in the miniature uniform of a general. At sixteen he was seen galloping around Mata-Cavalos, knocking off the hats of passers-by with his riding crop. He spent most of his time with

4646-588: The Queen Dowager), the investiture began. At one o'clock Miguel, along with his sister, Isabel Maria, entered the chamber to formally hand over the Regency. After the spectacle of both of them in the same chair, the princess delivered the transitional oath and then left gracefully. Miguel was presented with the written oath to defend the Constitutional Charter along with a Bible, which caused him "...confusion and [he] seemed unable or unwilling to read it." It

4747-617: The Riksdag in order to carry out the Great Reduction which would have been made impossible by the privy council which comprised the high nobility. After the death of Charles XII in 1718, the system of absolute rule was largely blamed for the ruination of the realm in the Great Northern War , and the reaction tipped the balance of power to the other extreme end of the spectrum, ushering in the Age of Liberty . After half

4848-404: The Swedish monarch was never absolute in the sense of wielding arbitrary power . The monarch still ruled under the law and could only legislate in agreement with the Riksdag of the Estates ; rather, the absolutism introduced was the monarch's ability to run the government unfettered by the privy council , contrary to earlier practice. The absolute rule of Charles XI was instituted by the crown and

4949-444: The Terrible was known for his reign of terror through oprichnina . Peter I the Great reduced the power of the Russian nobility and strengthened the central power of the monarch, establishing a bureaucracy. This tradition of absolutism, known as Tsarist autocracy , was expanded by Catherine II the Great and her descendants. Although Alexander II made some reforms and established an independent judicial system, Russia did not have

5050-431: The concept of absolute monarch took a notable turn from the above with its emphasis on the monarch as the "first servant of the state", but it also echoed many of the important characteristics of absolutism. Prussia was ruled by the House of Hohenzollern as a feudal monarchy from 1525 to 1701 and an absolute monarchy from 1701 to 1848, after which it became a federal semi-constitutional monarchy from 1848 to 1918 until

5151-428: The country and move his assets out of Liechtenstein if voters had chosen to restrict his powers. Vatican City continues to be an absolute monarchy, but is unique because it is also a microstate , ecclesiastical jurisdiction , and elective monarchy . As of 2023, Vatican City has a population of 764 residents (regardless of citizenship). It is the smallest state in the world both by area and by population . The Pope

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5252-560: The country home of the Duke of Wellington , he travelled to Plymouth en route to Lisbon. Due to bad weather, he was only able to transfer to the Portuguese frigate Pérola on 9 February, which arrived in England accompanied by two British ships. On 22 January the Gazeta de Lisboa (English: Lisbon Gazette ) published an open letter from the Ministério da Justiça (English: Ministry of Justice ) which permitted any general demonstrations of jubilation (unless otherwise prohibited by law). The prince's ship arrived in Lisbon on 22 February and

5353-422: The divisions between liberals and absolutists. Because of the independence of Brazil, Miguel's supporters considered Miguel to be the legitimate heir to the crown of Portugal. If, to liberals, the name of Miguel was despised, to the legitimists (the absolutists) it was venerated. But Miguel's reign was immediately marked by cruel, almost tyrannical, governance which some attribute to him personally; however some blame

5454-458: The events of the Vilafrancada , Miguel was made Count of Samora Correia and appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Army. But the queen could not tolerate the king's continuing benevolence towards liberals and moderates, nor that he continued to be influenced by and to support ministers such as Palmela and Pamplona, who were more moderate in their outlook. The mysterious death of the Marquis de Loulé in Salvaterra on 28 February 1824, in which it

5555-419: The first time in Europe in 1665 Kongeloven , ' King's Law ' of Denmark–Norway , which ordered that the Monarch: ...shall from this day forth be revered and considered the most perfect and supreme person on the Earth by all his subjects, standing above all human laws and having no judge above his person, neither in spiritual nor temporal matters, except God alone. This law consequently authorized

5656-515: The following. Posthumously, or during his reign, Miguel was known by various epithets : In 1851, at the age of 48, he married Princess Adelaide of Löwenstein , by whom he had a son and six daughters. Patrilineal descent is the principle behind membership in royal houses, as it can be traced back through the generations. Miguel's patriline is the line from which he is descended father to son. Absolute monarchy Philosophers Works List of forms of government Absolute monarchy

5757-456: The government moved from absolute monarchy to constitutional monarchy following planned parliamentary elections to the Tshogdu in 2003, and the election of a National Assembly in 2008 . In Nepal , there were several swings between constitutional rule and direct rule related to the Nepalese Civil War , the Maoist insurgency , and the 2001 Nepalese royal massacre , with the Nepalese monarchy being abolished on 28 May 2008. In Tonga ,

5858-420: The government, nominate judges and veto legislation, among others. Just prior to the referendum, the Venice Commission of the Council of Europe published a comprehensive report analysing the amendments, opining that they were not compatible with the European standards of democracy, effectively making Liechtenstein a de facto absolute monarchy. Prince Hans-Adam II had also previously threatened to leave

5959-477: The head of the Liberal Army (1831) and from the Azores launched an invasion of northern Portugal, Landing at Mindelo , near Oporto which he quickly occupied. But Miguel's army was formidable, composed of the best troops, with dedicated volunteers and enthusiastic militiamen (although not, perhaps, the best senior officers). They easily encircled the city and lay siege to it. As the defence of Oporto persisted, Miguel resolved to visit his troops in April 1833. But in

6060-403: The individual emirates composing the United Arab Emirates , which itself is a federation of such monarchies – a federal monarchy . Though absolute monarchies are sometimes supported by legal documents, they are distinct from constitutional monarchies , in which the authority of the monarch is restricted (e.g. by legislature or unwritten customs) or balanced by that of other officials, such as

6161-424: The influence of his spiritual adviser Baroness Barbara von Krüdener . It was written by the Tsar and edited by Ioannis Kapodistrias and Alexandru Sturdza . Under the treaty European rulers would agree to govern as "branches" of the Christian community and offer mutual service. In the first draft Tsar Alexander I made appeals to mysticism through a proposed unified Christian empire that was seen as disconcerting by

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6262-418: The injustices on his subordinates, while others attribute them to the malevolence of Queen Charlotte. On 3 May 1828, the very nobles who had been nominated by Peter to the new Chamber of Peers met in the Palace of the Duke of Lafões, and invited Miguel to convoke new Cortes consisting of the Three Estates with the purpose to decide the legitimate succession to the throne. The Cortes met in June at Ajuda , where

6363-443: The king to abolish all other centers of power. Most important was the abolition of the Council of the Realm in Denmark. Absolute monarchy lasted until 1814 in Norway , and 1848 in Denmark . The House of Habsburg is currently extinct in its male line, due to the death of the childless Charles II of Spain in 1700. However, the House of Habsburg-Lorraine still carries the female line of the House of Habsburg. The first member of

6464-483: The liberal cause. But the general in command of these troops was indecisive, and Miguel was able to raise his own troops, create a battalion of volunteers and blockade Oporto . In Lagos a similar revolt was attempted, but immediately quashed when the liberal General Saraiva was shot by the Miguelist General Póvoas. On this occasion, João Carlos Saldanha (later Duke of Saldanha) and Pedro de Sousa Holstein (later 1st Duke of Palmela) , who had arrived from England on board

6565-408: The liberal politicians and residents. Invested in his new title of regent, he presented his Ministers of State in the evening: Nuno III Álvares Pereira de Melo ( Duke of Cadaval ), José António de Oliveira Leite de Barros (later Count of Basto ), Furtado do Rio de Mendonça (7th Viscount of Barbacena & 2nd Count of Barbacena), José Luis de Sousa Botelho Mourão e Vasconcelos ( Count of Vila Real ) and

6666-479: The limits of royal power as the fact that governments were perennially in financial trouble, unable to tap the wealth of those ablest to pay, and likely to stir up a costly revolt whenever they attempted to develop an adequate income. Anthropology , sociology , and ethology as well as various other disciplines such as political science attempt to explain the rise of absolute monarchy ranging from extrapolation generally, to certain Marxist explanations in terms of

6767-418: The meantime Lisbon fell into the hands of the Duke of Terceira , who had left Oporto earlier in the Liberal fleet commanded by Charles John Napier , disembarked in the Algarve and marched across the Alentejo to defeat the Miguelist General Teles Jordão (seizing the city on 24 July). Napier, after defeating a Miguelist fleet off Cape St. Vincent , joined the Duke of Terceira in the north, taking control of

6868-404: The members of the rebel garrison of Oporto who had revolted were also executed. In some cases, the local population contributed to these horrors and reprisals, as in Vila Franca da Xira where they assassinated 70 people believed to have liberal sympathies. Although these actions were disapproved of by many of Miguel's ministers, the Count of Basto was not one of them. Even the Viscount of Queluz ,

6969-400: The moment that Pedro had made war on Portugal and become the sovereign of a foreign state ( Brazilian Empire ). This led to a difficult political situation, during which many people were killed, imprisoned, persecuted or sent into exile, and which culminated in the Portuguese Liberal Wars between authoritarian absolutists and progressive constitutionalists. In the end Miguel was forced out from

7070-438: The monarch and the nobility, as well as parliaments. The king of France concentrated legislative, executive, and judicial powers in his person. He was the supreme judicial authority. He could condemn people to death without the right of appeal. It was both his duty to punish offenses and stop them from being committed. From his judicial authority followed his power both to make laws and to annul them. In Brandenburg-Prussia ,

7171-440: The monarchy was abolished during the German Revolution . Frederick I was the first King in Prussia , beginning his reign on 18 January 1701. King Frederick the Great adopted the title King of Prussia in 1772, the same year he annexed most of Royal Prussia in the First Partition of Poland , and practiced enlightened absolutism until his death in 1786. He introduced a general civil code, abolished torture and established

7272-409: The notion of popular sovereignty . Nonetheless, it provided an ideological foundation for the newer political theories and movements that emerged to oppose liberal democracy, such as Legitimism and Carlism in the early 19th century, or " integral nationalism " in the early 20th century. Absolute monarchies include Afghanistan , Brunei , Eswatini , Oman , Saudi Arabia , Vatican City , and

7373-500: The other monarchies. Following revision, a more pragmatic version of the alliance was adopted by Russia, Prussia, and Austria. The document was called "an apocalypse of diplomacy" by French diplomat Dominique-Georges-Frédéric Dufour de Pradt . The agreement was at first secret, and mistrusted by liberals though liberalism was effectively restrained in this political culture until the Revolutions of 1848 . About three months after

7474-529: The parliamentary system and, inspired by the return of the absolutist monarchy in Spain (where the Holy Alliance and French Army had intervened to destroy the liberal forces there) they exploited factionalism and plotted with outside reactionaries to overthrow the liberal Cortes . But General Pampluna was loyal to the king, and made it perfectly clear that he would do nothing to defy the monarch, and advised

7575-642: The politics of Portugal. While Spain, the Holy See , and the United States recognised Miguel as king, in England and France there was little public support for the regime. The imprudence that the Miguelist government showed in harassing English and French foreign nationals provoked them to protest. Eventually Admiral Albin Roussin , was ordered by Louis Philippe I (who, like England, could not obtain any diplomatic satisfaction), to take action; he sailed up

7676-476: The prince and with a message to see her upon arriving in Lisbon, in order to tell her where his loyalties lay. On shore the local population acclaimed their regent with cheers, while bells rang from some church towers and cheerful hymns were sung in the streets. There was a triumphal march to the Ajuda Palace , along streets adorned with silk banners, while the ladies of the city threw flowers. Everywhere there

7777-466: The prince to obey his father's summons. The king himself marched on Vila Franca where he received the submission of the troops and his son. But he also took advantage of the situation to abolish the 1822 Constitution and dismiss the Cortes. Many liberals went into exile. Although Miguel returned to Lisbon in triumph, the king was able to maintain complete control of power and did not succumb to the ultra-reactionary forces that supported his abdication. After

7878-539: The principle that the Crown would not interfere in matters of justice. He also promoted an advanced secondary education, the forerunner of today's German gymnasium (grammar school) system, which prepares the brightest pupils for university studies. The Prussian education system was emulated in various countries, including the United States. Until 1905, the Tsars and Emperors of Russia governed as absolute monarchs. Ivan

7979-410: The proposal from his brother, swore to uphold the Constitutional Charter and, since the young Queen was only nine years old, waited until she would reach the age of marriage. The regency under Isabel Maria was extremely unstable; discord reigned in the government, there were divisions within the municipal councils, rivalries between ministers and at one point, after the resignation of General Saldanha ,

8080-483: The regent revoke the Constitutional Charter and reign as king. Blood was first spilled by the liberals, when delegates from the University of Coimbra (who ostensibly travelled to Lisbon to present their compliments to Miguel) were murdered on 18 March by hot-headed Coimbran students. On 25 April the senate (of the university), issued a proclamation in which they requested that Miguel assume the throne. This only fueled

8181-521: The rest of his life in exile and, removed from Portuguese politics, his character altered radically; in his later years he was a portly heavily bearded patriarch and lacked the cowboy persona of his early life. He refused to accede to the terms of the Concession of Evoramonte and thereby forfeited his generous pension from the Portuguese government. He lived for a time as a destitute refugee in Rome, in apartments provided by Pope Gregory XVI , who also gave him

8282-570: The right to self-determination , and the Eastern Question . The Alliance is conventionally taken to have become defunct with Alexander's death in 1825. France ultimately went her separate way following the July Revolution of 1830, leaving the core of Austria, Prussia, and Russia as a Central - Eastern European block which once again congregated to suppress the Revolutions of 1848 . The Austro-Russian alliance finally broke up in

8383-476: The sovereignty of the monarch, except the islands of Madeira and Terceira ; Madeira was easily subjugated, but Terceira remained faithful to the liberal cause. The excess zeal of his supporters to prosecute the liberals would blacken the reputation of Miguel's regime. During the liberal insurrection on 6 March 1829 in Cais do Sodré , Brigadier Moreira, his officers and their supporters were all bayoneted. On 7 May

8484-704: The succeeding Congress of Laibach in 1821, Metternich tried to align his allies in the suppression of the Carbonari revolt against King Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies . The Quintuple Alliance met for the last time at the Congress of Verona in 1822 to advise against the Greek Revolution and to resolve upon the French invasion of Spain . The last meetings had revealed the rising antagonism between Britain and France, especially on Italian unification ,

8585-591: The throne and lived the last 32 years of his life in exile. In order to counter the Republican opposition from the Portuguese Freemasons, the dynastic order known as Order of Saint Michael of the Wing was revived in 1848, with statutes issued by King Miguel I of Portugal. Miguel Maria do Patrocinio de Bragança e Bourbon, the third (second surviving) son of King John VI and Carlota Joaquina ,

8686-519: The very concept of absolutism. In general, historians who disagree with the appellation of absolutism argue that most monarchs labeled as absolutist exerted no greater power over their subjects than any other non-absolutist rulers, and these historians tend to emphasize the differences between the absolutist rhetoric of monarchs and the realities of the effective use of power by these absolute monarchs. Renaissance historian William Bouwsma summed up this contradiction: Nothing so clearly indicates

8787-416: The writings of pro-liberal propagandists or royalists who wanted to denigrate the queen and undermine the claims of Miguel and of his descendants to the Portuguese throne. What is clear is that Miguel was the queen's favourite child. After the death of her firstborn, it was Miguel who received most of her attention, rather than Pedro, who was closer to his father. In 1807, at the age of 5, Miguel accompanied

8888-746: Was 20 years old when he first challenged the liberal institutions established after the 1820 revolution , which may have been part of a wider strategy by the queen. He was at the head of the counter-revolution of 1823, known as the Vilafrancada , which erupted on 27 May 1823 in Vila Franca de Xira . Early in the day, Miguel joined the 23rd Infantry Regiment, commanded by Brigadier Ferreira Sampaio (later Viscount of Santa Mónica) in Vila Franca, where he declared his support for an absolutist monarchy. He immediately called on General Pampluna (later Marquis of Subserra) to join him and his cause. The general, not

8989-496: Was a guest and friend of the Prince Metternich . Meanwhile, on 10 March 1826, his father, King John VI, died and his brother Peter, the heir-apparent to the throne, became king as Peter IV. Peter, however, was committed to continuing as Emperor of Brazil and therefore abdicated the crown of Portugal after two months (on 2 May) in favour of his daughter, Maria II . Since the young sovereign was not yet of age, he instituted

9090-600: Was a multitude of citizenry yelling "Viva o Senhor D. Miguel I nosso rei absoluto" ( English: Long live the Lord D. Miguel, our Absolute King ), while some interjecting cries of "death to D. Pedro" and "death to the liberal constitution" . But Miguel's role was clearly delineated by his first night in Lisbon: he would govern as regent in the name of the rightful sovereign of Portugal, Queen Maria II. On her reaching marriageable age, Miguel would be her consort. Furthermore, Miguel

9191-539: Was born in the Queluz Royal Palace , Lisbon , and was created by his father Duke of Beja . Some sources have suggested that Miguel I could be the biological son from an adulterous affair between his mother, Queen Carlota, and one of her alleged lovers, possibly D. Pedro José Joaquim Vito de Meneses Coutinho, Marquis of Marialva. Apparently sources close to King John VI confirmed as much by asserting that he had not had sexual relations with his wife for two and

9292-751: Was buried in his wife's family's vault in the Franciscan monastery of Engelberg at Grossheubach , Bavaria . In 1967 his body and that of his wife (then resting in Ryde on the Isle of Wight in England) were transferred to the Braganza pantheon in the old Monastery of São Vicente de Fora in Lisbon . In addition to his hereditary titles, over the course of his career Miguel received many awards and honours, including

9393-810: Was known as Duke of Braganza , as well as Marquis of Vila Viçosa , Count of Arraiolos , Count of Barcelos , Count of Neiva and Count of Ourém . On 15 January 1837 the Spanish Cortes, then in midst of the First Carlist War (1833–39), excluded Miguel from the Spanish succession, on the grounds that he was in rebellion along with his maternal uncle Carlos, the first Carlist pretender of Spain. Miguel's eldest sister Teresa, Princess of Beira , and his nephews (the three sons of late Infanta Maria Francisca of Portugal , and Sebastian , son of Teresa, Princess of Beira) were also excluded. Miguel lived

9494-624: Was met by cannon salvos from ships along the Tagus River and from the hilltops, beginning at two in the afternoon. The river was filled with ships when the Pérola arrived. Although it was expected that the new regent would disembark at the Praça do Comércio , where a stage had been constructed, Miguel preferred to disembark in Belém . It is believed that Miguel's mother had sent a boatman to pick up

9595-502: Was obliged to govern in conformity with Peter's Constitutional Charter, something he accepted as a condition of the regency (even if he did not agree with its principles and favoured an absolute monarchy instead). On 26 February, in the main hall of the Ajuda Palace in the presence of both Chambers of the Cortes, the Royal Court and the diplomatic corp, as well as some of the Prince's colleagues from Brazil (carefully orchestrated by

9696-571: Was one of the four continental empires which collapsed after World War I , along with Germany , Austria–Hungary , and the Ottoman Empire . In 1918, the Bolsheviks executed the Romanov family , ending three centuries of Romanov rule. The form of government instituted in Sweden under King Charles XI and passed on to his son, Charles XII is commonly referred to as absolute monarchy; however,

9797-610: Was regarded as an obsolete theory in most countries in the Western world , except in Russia where it was still given credence as the official justification for the Tsar's power until February Revolution in 1917 and in the Vatican City where it remains today. James VI and I and his son Charles I tried to import the principle of divine right into Scotland and England. Charles I's attempt to enforce episcopal polity on

9898-591: Was suspected that Miguel or his friends were involved, was a symptom of the instability of the period. Prince Miguel was always influenced by his mother; and two months later, on 30 April 1824, as Commander-in-Chief of the Army he gathered his troops and ordered them to arrest ministers and other important people under pretext that a masonic conspiracy to assassinate the king existed, and placed his father in protective custody and incommunicado at Bemposta , where Miguel could "defend and secure his life". The Abrilada , as this

9999-535: Was then under construction and, ironically, collapsed a few days after his visit). On New Year's Eve he visited the King at Windsor Castle and was honoured with a magnificent banquet. Later at Rutland House, Miguel received members of the Portuguese diaspora living in England, who presented him with a commemorative medallion. Throughout his visit he was generally well received. On 13 January 1828 Miguel departed London; after spending some time at Stratfield Saye ,

10100-593: Was to be known, worried many of the foreign powers. The foreign diplomatic corp (and in particular Marshal Beresford ), realising that the king was a prisoner of his son, travelled to Bemposta and was able to ferry the king away and on board a British warship, the Windsor Castle . On board, the king summoned his son, whom he dismissed as Commander-in-Chief of the Army, and immediately exiling him to Vienna , where he remained for over three years. While in Vienna, he

10201-548: Was unable to reach the island, owing to the hostility of an English cruiser, but the Count of Vila Flor (later Duke of Terceira) was more successful; he arrived on the island, rebuilt the defences and quickly beat back Miguel's forces (on 11 August 1829) as they were attempting to invade the island. By 1831 the liberals had taken over all the islands of the Azores. Peter, after abdicating the imperial crown of Brazil, placed himself at

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