Misplaced Pages

#435564

50-575: Domnica was the daughter of a soldier named Petronius, who was promoted to praetorian prefect by Valens after he became emperor. Petronius was deeply unpopular for his cruelty and greed, which was one reason why Procopius decided to revolt in 365. Petronius was probably a Pannonian . Her further ancestry is unknown. Various of her relatives held influentials positions. A possible relative is Domnicus, an officer of Valens mentioned in Oration II by Libanius . Procopius, prefect of Constantinople in 377,

100-488: A Greek family could have helped solidify Valens' rule over the Hellenized Eastern Roman Empire . She married Valens prior to his accession as emperor and had two daughters, Anastasia and Carosa, as well as a son, Valentinianus Galates . Both daughters were tutored by Marcian, a former palatinus ( paladin ). Marcian had become a Novatianist presbyter , and his continued service at court

150-566: A detailed account of their failure. Ammianus refers to a great number of Roman soldiers who had not been let into the city and who fought the besieging Goths below the walls. A third of the Roman army succeeded in retreating, but the losses were uncountable. Many officers, among them the general Sebastianus, were killed in the worst Roman defeat since the Battle of Edessa , the low point of the Crisis of

200-464: A few years allies, later semi or fully independent or often hostile. The long-term implications of the Battle of Adrianople for the art of war are disputed. Charles Oman in 1960 wrote that the battle represented a turning point in military history, with heavy cavalry triumphing over Roman infantry and ushering in the age of the medieval knight . T. S. Burns disputed this in a 1973 book, writing that

250-488: A force of around 30,000 men, Procopius and his subordinate, Sebastianus , were stationed to defend key positions along the Upper Tigris River , anticipating an advance from Shapur’s forces . Procopius was tasked with coordinating Roman defensive efforts in the east, specifically working with King Arsaces II of Armenia to secure the strategically vital Bitlis Pass . Procopius' efforts were vital in securing

300-503: A formidable force of 65,000 soldiers down the Euphrates River within just eight weeks. However, Julian was fatally injured in a skirmish on June 26, bringing an abrupt end to the ill-fated campaign. When Procopius reached the main Roman army near Thilsaphata , between Nisibis and Singara , he met the new emperor, Jovian . Though Julian had died without naming a successor, a rumor spread that he had ordered Procopius to take

350-635: A letter asking Valens to wait for his arrival with reinforcements before engaging in battle. Valens' officers also recommended that he wait for Gratian, but Valens decided to fight without waiting, ready to claim the ultimate prize. The Goths were also watching the Romans, and on 8 August, Fritigern sent an emissary to propose peace and an alliance in exchange for Roman territory. Sure that he would be victorious due to his supposed numerical superiority, Valens rejected these proposals. Valens' estimates of manpower, however, neglected to take into consideration part of

400-454: Is mentioned by Zosimus as a relative of Valens by marriage, meaning he was related to Domnica. According to Nicetas of Serra, Eusebius was her uncle and a praefectus urbi in the Diocese of Pontus . Nicetas was a commentator to the works of Gregory of Nazianzus and identified Eusebius with an otherwise unnamed figure mentioned in the works of Gregory. Eusebius is thus supposedly recorded in

450-437: Is unlikely that all three armies fought together. However, some modern historians estimated the real number of Roman troops to be as many as 15,000 men, 10,000 infantry and 5,000 cavalry. It is not possible to precisely list the units of the Roman army at Adrianople. The only sources are Ammianus, who describes the battle but mentions few units by name, and the eastern Notitia Dignitatum , which lists Roman army units in

500-558: The Avars . Ammianus records that the Roman scouts estimated 10,000 Gothic troops, but Ammianus dismissed this as an underestimate. This appears to be due to Alatheus and Saphrax's forces being away when the Roman scouts estimated the Goths' numbers before battle. Several modern historians have estimated the strength of the Gothic armies at 12,000–15,000. Ammianus notes the important role of

550-759: The Eastern Roman Empire after being displaced by the invasions of the Huns . Hoping that they would become farmers and soldiers, the Eastern Roman emperor Valens allowed them to establish themselves in the Empire as allies ( foederati ). Once across the Danube and into Roman territory, however, the dishonesty of the Roman provincial commanders Lupicinus and Maximus led the newcomers to revolt after suffering many hardships. Valens then asked Gratian ,

SECTION 10

#1732772680436

600-615: The Gothic War of 376–382 , the battle is often considered the start of the events which led to the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. A detailed contemporary account of the lead-up to the battle from the Roman perspective was written by Ammianus Marcellinus and forms the culminating point at the end of his history. In 376, the Goths , led by Alavivus and Fritigern , asked to be allowed to settle in

650-466: The funeral oration in honor of Basil of Caesarea . The names Anastasia , Domnicus, Eusebius, Petronius and Procopius used by various family members are thought to be Greek in origin. Various scholars have suggested this could indicate the descent of Domnica and her relatives from Greek -speaking families of Sirmium , the initial capital of the Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum . Marriage into

700-585: The Constantinian dynasty by appearing in public with Constantius II’s widow Faustina and their daughter Constantia , an act which Ammianus considered to have earned him greater support. Though Valens initially despaired of subduing the rebellion, and was inclined to come to terms with the usurper, he quickly rallied, guided by the counsels of Salutius and Arintheus , and the superior ability of his generals prevailed in two battles at Thyatira and Nacolia where Procopius's forces were defeated. He fled

750-669: The Danube. Fritigern led one army, largely recruited from the Therving exiles, while Alatheus and Saphrax led another army, largely recruited from the Greuthung exiles. Fritigern brought most if not all of his fighters to the battle and appears to have led the force the Romans first encountered. Alatheus and Saphrax brought their cavalry into action "descending like a thunderbolt" against the Romans. These forces included Alans. The Gothic armies were mostly infantry, with some cavalry, which

800-488: The Emperor himself was abandoned by his guards. Some tried to retrieve him, but the majority of the cavalry fled. Valens' final fate is unknown; he may have died anonymously on the field. His body was never found. An alternative story circulated after the battle that Valens had escaped the field with a bodyguard and some eunuchs and hid in a peasant's cottage. The enemy attempted to pillage the cottage, apparently unaware Valens

850-484: The Gothic cavalry that had gone extended distances to forage. Valens' army may have included troops from three Roman field armies: the Army of Thrace, based in the eastern Balkans, which may have sustained heavy losses in 376–377; the 1st Army in the Emperor's Presence; and the 2nd Army in the Emperor's Presence. Both armies in the Emperor's Presence were normally based at Constantinople in peacetime but had been committed to

900-425: The Gothic cavalry. Charles Oman , believing that the cavalry were the majority of the Gothic force, interpreted the Battle of Adrianople as the beginning of the dominance of cavalry over infantry for the next thousand years. Some other historians have taken the same view. T. S. Burns and other recent historians argue that the infantry were the vast majority of the Gothic force, and that the battle had little effect on

950-543: The Goths after two years of unchecked devastation throughout the Balkans. The imperial scholae of shield-archers under the command of the Iberian prince Bacurius attacked, but lacking support they were easily pushed back. Then the Roman left wing reached the circle of wagons , but it was too late. At that moment, the Gothic cavalry, returning from a foraging expedition, arrived to support the infantry. The cavalry surrounded

1000-594: The Goths and of Gratian's victory over the Lentienses, Valens was more than ready for a victory of his own. To link up with Sebastianus's forces before confronting the Goths, Valens moved his army from Melantias to Adrianople. On 6 August, reconnaissance informed Valens that approximately 10,000 Goths were advancing toward Adrianople from a position 25 kilometers to the north. In preparation at Adrianople, Valens fortified his camp with both ditches and ramparts. Richomeres, sent in advance to Adrianople by Gratian, carried

1050-723: The Goths assembled his forces at Nicopolis and Beroe (now Stara Zagora ) in order to deal with the Roman threat. At the time, much of Gratian's army was in Pannonia where they were in the interim attacked across the Rhine by the Lentienses (part of the Alamanni ). After the Romans regrouped and defeated the Lentienses near Argentaria (near modern-day Colmar , France), Gratian's army traveled east partly by sea and partly overland. Upon learning of Sebastianus's success against

SECTION 20

#1732772680436

1100-513: The Persian frontier in 376 and sent west in 377–378. Valens' army included units of veterans, men accustomed to war. The entire force consisted of seven legions – among which were the Legio I Maximiana and imperial auxiliaries – of 700 to 1000 men each. The cavalry was composed of mounted archers ( sagittarii ) and Scholae (the imperial guard). Ammianus Marcellinus makes references to

1150-500: The Roman Empire because the imperial military power was only temporarily crippled. The defeat at Adrianople signified that the barbarians, fighting for or against the Romans, had become powerful adversaries. The Goths, though partly tamed by Valens' successor Theodosius I (who accepted them once more as allied tribes ), were never expelled, exterminated, or assimilated; they remained as a distinct entity within its frontiers, for

1200-399: The Roman troops, who were already in disarray after the failure of the first assault. The Romans retreated to the base of the hill where they were unable to maneuver, encumbered by their heavy armor and long shields. The casualties, exhaustion, and psychological pressure led to a rout of the Roman army. The cavalry continued their attack, and the killing continued until nightfall. In the rout,

1250-652: The Sassanid capital Ctesiphon and force Shapur II into a battle or negotiations. Procopius entered Julian's retinue and took part in his campaign against the Sassanids in 363. After leaving Antioch on March 5, 363, Julian’s army quickly crossed the Euphrates river , gathering at Carrhae shortly thereafter. Meanwhile, Procopius was entrusted with fortifying Roman defenses in Mesopotamia . Tasked with leading

1300-475: The Sassanid court. His career granted him the opportunity to build many important connections, as well as to help him understand the structure of the imperial government. When Julian departed from Constantinople in the spring of 362, his objective was clear: to launch a swift, decisive campaign against the Sasanian Empire rather than engage in a prolonged war. His primary aim was to strike directly at

1350-577: The Third Century . The battle was a crushing blow for the late Empire, resulting in the destruction of the East Roman army 's core, the deaths of valuable administrators, and the destruction of nearly all armories on the Danubian provinces following the battle. The lack of reserves for the army worsened the recruitment crisis. Despite the losses, the Battle of Adrianople did not mark the end of

1400-435: The battlefield, and was for a while a fugitive in the wilds of Phrygia , but was soon betrayed to Valens due to the treachery of his two generals Agilonius and Gomoarius , he was captured. Valens had his rival executed on 27 May 366 through beheading. His head was then sent to Valens's elder brother and co-emperor Valentinian I. Battle of Adrianople The Battle of Adrianople also known as Battle of Hadrianopolis

1450-497: The eastern front and preparing for the Persian response to Julian's offensive. Procopius prepared for the possibility of advancing his troops southward to join with Emperor Julian’s soldiers in Assyria. This location was crucial for controlling access between the Roman and Persian spheres of influence, and its defense was integral to safeguarding the Roman presence in the region. In a display of military strategy, Emperor Julian led

1500-618: The following forces under Valens: He also refers to the following officers: Several modern historians have attempted to estimate the strength of Valens' army. Warren Treadgold estimates that, by 395, the Army of Thrace had 24,500 soldiers, while the 1st and 2nd Armies in Emperor's Presence had 21,000 each. However, all three armies include units either formed (several units of Theodosiani among them) or redeployed (various legions in Thrace) after Adrianople. Moreover, troops were needed to protect Marcianopolis and other threatened cities, so it

1550-456: The historical record. The date and circumstances of her death remain unknown. Procopius (usurper) Procopius ( Ancient Greek : Προκόπιος; 326 – 27 May 366) was a Roman usurper against Valens . Procopius was a native of Cilicia and born in Corycus around the year 326. On his mother's side, Procopius was a maternal cousin to Emperor Julian , since their maternal grandfather

Domnica - Misplaced Pages Continue

1600-603: The imperial city. Shortly after this he proclaimed himself Emperor on 28 September 365, and quickly took control of the provinces of Thrace , and later Bithynia . Procopius promoted himself as an educated philosopher, well versed in the Greek language of the Eastern Empire, and highlighted Valens's weakness in this area, to gain the support of the Hellenized Eastern aristocrats. He also emphasized his link to

1650-454: The late 4th to early 5th century, after Theodosius . Many units listed in the Balkans were formed after Adrianople; others were transferred from other parts of the Empire, before or after Adrianople; others are listed in two or more sectors. Some units at Adrianople may have been merged or disbanded due to their losses. The Roman forces consisted of heavy infantry, various archers and cavalry. There were probably two main Gothic armies south of

1700-673: The opportunity to flee with his family, first to the Black Sea and later to the Tauric Chersonese , where they hid. However, Procopius lived in constant fear of betrayal or exposure, and decided to go to Constantinople , the Empire's capital, to ask Strategius for help. Becoming aware of discontent caused by the policies of Valens's praetorian prefect and father-in-law, Petronius, Procopius decided to declare himself Emperor. He bribed two legions which were then resting at Constantinople to support his efforts, and took control of

1750-444: The philosophers guilty of a plot against his safety. Valens became enraged and killed the philosophers and, such was his fury, also killed other entirely innocent philosophers and even those dressed like philosophers. The young Valentinianus's early death was a great blow to his parents, surrounded by religious scandal and quarrels. According to Socrates, Domnica told her husband that she had been having visions that their son's illness

1800-430: The preceding days informed him of the location of the Gothic camp north of the city. Valens arrived there around noon after marching for eight miles over difficult terrain. The Roman troops arrived tired and dehydrated, facing the Gothic camp that had been set up on the top of a hill. The Goths, except for their cavalry, defended their wagon circle, inside of which were their families and possessions. Fritigern's objective

1850-518: The purple in case of his death. Fearing Jovian's wrath, which had caused the death of another army candidate to the throne (Jovianus), Procopius went into hiding, but later supervised the transport of Julian's body to Tarsus and its subsequent burial, and only later went to Caesarea with his family. After Jovian's death, the new emperors, Valentinian I and Valens , sent some soldiers to arrest Procopius. He surrendered, but asked to meet his family; he had his captors dine and drink, and then seized

1900-405: The relationship between infantry and cavalry. The battle took place within a few hours' march of the city of Adrianopolis , but its precise location is uncertain. Three possible locations of the battle have been discussed in modern historiography: On the morning of 9 August, Valens decamped from Adrianople, where he left the imperial treasury and administration under guard. The reconnaissance of

1950-578: The reserves of the Western Roman Empire in Gaul . Valens left Antioch for Constantinople , and arrived on 30 May. He appointed Sebastianus , newly arrived from Italy, to reorganize the Roman armies already in Thrace . Sebastianus picked 2,000 of his legionaries and marched towards Adrianople. Along the way, they came upon and ambushed small detachments of Goths. Fritigern as the leader of

2000-629: The three parts of the Trinity were materially separate from each other and that the Father created the Son. Domnica was already an Arian and is rumored to have persuaded her husband Valens to convert to the Arian sect. In about 367, according to Theodoret , Domnica convinced Valens to seek baptism from Eudoxius of Antioch , Archbishop of Constantinople . Eudoxius was one of the most influential Arians. Valens

2050-483: The western emperor, for reinforcements to fight the Goths. Gratian sent the general Frigeridus with reinforcements, as well as the leader of his guards, Richomeres . For the next two years preceding the Battle of Adrianople there were a series of running battles with no clear victories for either side. In 378, Valens decided to take control himself and assembled additional troops from his own resources in Syria and from

Domnica - Misplaced Pages Continue

2100-480: Was Julius Julianus . His first wife was probably Artemisia. The Roman general of the 5th century Procopius and his son, the Emperor Anthemius , were among his descendants, the first being the son of his son Procopius. During the reign of Constantius II , he served as tribunus et notarius for a long period of time. By 358, the emperor trusted him enough to send him with Lucillianus as an envoy to

2150-514: Was a punishment for ill treatment of the bishop Basil of Caesarea . Basil was a prominent orthodox leader who opposed the emperor's semi-Arian beliefs. When asked to pray for the child, known as Galates, Basil is said to have responded by giving Valens’ commitment to orthodoxy as the condition for the boy's survival. Valens refused to comply and baptize Galates Catholic. He instead gave his son an Arian baptism. Basil replied by saying that God's will would be done, and Galates died soon after. Valens

2200-630: Was attributed to Valens’ more tolerant stance regarding Novatianists. The history of the Christian Church in the early 4th century was marked by the Trinitarian controversy. The First Council of Nicaea in 325 had established the Nicene Creed , which declared that the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit were all equal to each other and of the same substance. The theologian Arius , founder of Arianism , disagreed with this and believed that

2250-618: Was fought between the Eastern Roman army led by the Roman emperor Valens and Gothic rebels (largely Thervings as well as Greutungs , non-Gothic Alans , and various local rebels) led by Fritigern . The battle took place in the vicinity of Adrianople , in the Roman province of Thracia (modern Edirne in European Turkey ). It ended with an overwhelming victory for the Goths and the death of Emperor Valens. As part of

2300-406: Was inside. Valens' men shot arrows from the second floor to defend the cottage and in response the Goths set the cottage on fire. The bodyguard leaped out the window and told the Goths who was inside, but it was too late. Valens perished in the flames. According to the historian Ammianus Marcellinus , the Goths immediately marched to the city of Adrianople and attempted to take it ; Ammianus gives

2350-405: Was killed at the Battle of Adrianople on August 9, 378. The Goths then continued to move east and attacked Constantinople . Because there was no emperor to lead the forces, the empress was forced to organize a counterattack. She paid soldiers’ wages out of the imperial treasury to any civilian volunteers who were willing to arm themselves against the invaders. After that, Domnica disappears from

2400-497: Was one of the few emperors of the century to favor the Arians. The empress is accused, with no proof, of having urged her husband to persecute the Trinitarian sect, including persecuting many prominent bishops. Persecution was common throughout his reign. A group of pagan philosophers engaged in divination and predicted that a certain philosopher named Theodore would be the next emperor. When Valens discovered this prophecy he considered

2450-427: Was significant in the Battle of Adrianople. Some older works attribute the Gothic victory to overwhelming Gothic numbers, to Gothic cavalry, and sometimes to Gothic use of stirrups . More recent scholarly works mostly agree that the armies were similarly sized, that the Gothic infantry was more decisive than their cavalry and that neither the Romans nor the Goths used stirrups until the 6th century, probably brought by

2500-499: Was to delay the Romans, in order to give enough time for the Gothic cavalry to return. The fields were burnt by the Goths to delay and harass the Romans with smoke, and negotiations began for an exchange of hostages. The negotiations exasperated the Roman soldiers who seemed to hold the stronger position, but they gained precious time for Fritigern. Some Roman units began the battle without orders to do so, believing they would have an easy victory, and perhaps over-eager to exact revenge on

#435564