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54-665: At the beginning of the Russo-Turkish War of 1768-1774 , the Don Military Flotilla was re-established and, under the command of Rear Admiral Alexei Senyavin , successfully interoperated with the ground forces in the Crimea, participated in the capturing of Kerch and Yenikale (1771), and rebuffed the attacks of the Turkish landing forces in the Crimea. In 1783, the Don Military Flotilla was disbanded due to

108-503: A European power into a state of anarchy. Only a few Sejms were able to meet during the reign of the House of Saxony in Poland (1696–1763), the last one in 1736. Only 8 out of the 18 Sejm sessions during the reign of Augustus II (1697–1733) passed legislation. For a period of 30 years around the reign of Augustus III, only one session was able to pass legislation (1734–1763). The government

162-558: A complex struggle within the European diplomatic system to maintain a balance of power that was acceptable to other European states and avoided direct Russian hegemony over Eastern Europe. Nonetheless, Russia was able to take advantage of the weakened Ottoman Empire, the end of the Seven Years' War , and the withdrawal of France from Polish affairs to assert itself as one of the continent's primary military powers. The war left

216-434: A majority against the will of a minority (even if only one sejmik) was considered a violation of the principle of political equality. At first, the dissenting deputies were often convinced or cowed back to withdraw their objections. Also, at first, the rule was used to strike down only individual laws, not to dissolve the chamber and throw out all measures passed. For example, as historian Władysław Czapliński describes in

270-534: A significant constraint on the powers of the monarch by making the "rule of law, religious tolerance and limited constitutional government... the norm in Poland in times when the rest of Europe was being devastated by religious hatred and despotism." It was seen as one of the key principles of the Commonwealth political system and culture, the Golden Liberty . At the same time, historians hold that

324-925: The Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire in the aftermath of World War I . The war followed internal tensions within Poland which indirectly challenged the security of the Ottoman Empire and its ally, the Crimean Khanate . The true power behind the Polish throne was the Russian ambassador Nicholas Repnin and the Imperial Russian Army , with King Stanisław August Poniatowski being elected due to his ties as former favourite to

378-581: The Ottoman Empire . Russia's victory brought the Yedisan between the rivers Bug and Dnieper , and Crimea into the Russian sphere of influence . Through a series of victories accrued by the Russian Empire led to substantial territorial conquests, including direct conquest over much of the Pontic–Caspian steppe , less Ottoman territory was directly annexed than might otherwise be expected due to

432-707: The Second Partition , anticipating the Third Partition , the final dissolution of the Polish-Lithuanian state, just two years later. Harvard political scientist Grzegorz Ekiert , assessing the history of the liberum veto in Poland–Lithuania, concludes: Political scientist Dalibor Roháč noted that the "principle of liberum veto played an important role in [the] emergence of the unique Polish form of constitutionalism " and acted as

486-454: The Sejm of 1611 context, some resolutions were struck down, but others passed. From the mid-17th century onward, however, an objection to any item of Sejm legislation from a deputy or senator automatically caused other, earlier adopted legislation to be rejected. That was because all legislation that was adopted by a given Sejm formed a whole. It is commonly and erroneously believed that a Sejm

540-590: The Seven Years' War . The Ottoman Navy capitalized on the inferiority of the Imperial Russian Navy , even though Russia employed British officers to resolve this weakness. The Ottomans dominated the Black Sea , giving it the advantage of shorter supply lines. The Ottomans were also able to levy troops from their vassal state, the Crimean Khanate , to fight the Russians, but their effectiveness

594-575: The liberum veto would not operate. The second half of the 18th century, marking the age of the Polish Enlightenment , also witnessed an increased trend aiming at the reform of the Commonwealth's inefficient governance. Reforms of 1764–1766 improved the Sejm's proceedings. Majority voting for non-crucial items, including most economic and tax matters, was introduced, with binding instructions from sejmiks being outlawed. The road to reform

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648-415: The liberum veto . The 18th century saw an institution known as a " confederated sejm " evolve. It was a parliament session that operated under the rules of a confederation. Its primary purpose was to avoid disruption by the liberum veto , unlike the national Sejm, which was being paralyzed by the veto. On some occasions, a confederated sejm was formed of the whole membership of the national Sejm so that

702-449: The partitions . Piotr Stefan Wandycz wrote that the " liberum veto had become the sinister symbol of old Polish anarchy". In the period of 1573–1763, about 150 sejms were held, about a third failing to pass any legislation, mostly because of the liberum veto . The expression Polish parliament in many European languages originated from the apparent paralysis. The rule evolved from the principle of unanimous consent, which derived from

756-545: The Austrian equivalent of Minister of Foreign affairs, informed the Sublime Porte that Austria no longer considered the treaty of 1771 binding. A ceasefire between Russia and the Ottoman Empire commenced on May 30, 1772, but real negotiations did not begin until August 8. The peace talks broke down almost immediately over the Crimea, but the truce was extended until March 20, 1773. Both parties had reasons to expand

810-572: The Black Sea. In Ottoman Greece , Orlov's arrival sparked a Maniot revolt against the Ottoman authorities. However, the Ottoman vizier Muhsinzade Mehmed Pasha  [ tr ] called on the provincial notables ( ayans ) of Ottoman Albania to mobilize irregular troops, which he used to crush the revolt in 1771. Just outside the city of Chesma on June 24, 1770, twelve Russian ships engaged twenty-two Turkish vessels and destroyed them with

864-469: The Caucasus. In 1769, as a diversion, the Russians sent Gottlieb Heinrich Totleben with a small expeditionary force south into Georgia. The Georgians defeated an Ottoman army at Aspindza in 1770. The Siege of Poti on the Black Sea coast by a joint Russo-Georgian force in 1771 failed and Russian troops were withdrawn in the spring of 1772. It was the first time Russian troops had crossed the Caucasus. On

918-613: The Don estuary from the German Army together with the 9th and 56th Armies . This article includes content derived from the Great Soviet Encyclopedia , 1969–1978, which is partially in the public domain . Russo-Turkish War (1768%E2%80%931774) 1770 1771 1772 1773 1774 The Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774 was a major armed conflict that saw Russian arms largely victorious against

972-680: The Empress Catherine II of Russia . Repnin had forcefully passed the Perpetual Treaty of 1768 between Poland and Russia, which was disadvantageous to Poland geopolitically, challenged the political supremacy of Poland's Catholic faith, prevented reform of the liberum veto , and allowed Warsaw 's occupation by Russian troops. Rising unrest led to the massive revolt of the Bar Confederation , which became an alliance of noble, Roman Catholic, and peasant rebels. In

1026-563: The European-wide trend of having a strong executive ( absolute monarchy ). Many historians hold that the liberum veto was a major cause of the deterioration of the Commonwealth political system, particularly in the 18th century, when foreign powers bribed Sejm members to paralyze its proceedings, causing foreign occupation, dominance and manipulation of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and its eventual destruction in

1080-571: The Ottoman Empire. In the summer of 1768, Mustafa III received reports that the town of Balta had been massacred by Russian paid Zaporozhian Cossacks . Russia denied the accusations, but it was reported that the Cossacks "certainly razed Balta and killed whomever they found". With the confederates of Poland and the French embassy pushing the sultan along, with many pro-war advisors, the sultan on October 6 imprisoned Aleksei Mikhailovich Obreskov and

1134-520: The Ottoman army near Kozludzha . Russia used the victory to force the Ottoman Empire to acquiesce to Russia's preferences in the treaty. On July 21, 1774, the Ottoman Empire had to sign perforce the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca . The treaty did not overtly take away vast territories from the Ottomans – Poland had already paid the price of alienated territory. According to the treaty: As a consequence of

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1188-478: The Ottoman army was three times the size of its Russian counterpart. However, the new Grand Vizier Mehmed Emin Pasha would prove himself to be incompetent militarily. The Russian army massed along the borders with Poland and the Ottoman Empire, which made it difficult for Ottomans troops to make inroads into Russian territory. Not content to let the Polish enemy flee over the border, Cossacks followed them into

1242-465: The Ottomans against Russia. Catherine II, wary of the proximity of the Austrian army to her own forces and fearing an all-out European war, accepted the loss of Poland and agreed to Frederick II 's plan to partition Poland . She secretly agreed to return the captured principalities back to the Ottomans, thereby removing Austria's fear of a powerful Russian Balkan neighbour. On April 8, 1772, Kaunitz ,

1296-481: The Russian Army captured the fortress of Bar but when one band of surviving confederates fled over to the Turkish border, pursuing troops including Zaporozhian Cossacks, clashed with janissary garrison troops. Polish revolts would dog Russia throughout the war and make it impossible for Catherine II to keep control of Poland. In the Ottoman Empire, revolts were widespread. Many noble factions had risen against

1350-709: The Russian Empire in a strengthened position to expand its territory and maintain hegemony over the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , eventually leading to the First Partition of Poland . Turkish losses included diplomatic defeats that saw its decline as a threat to Europe, loss over its exclusive control over the Orthodox millet , and the beginning of European bickering over the Eastern Question that would feature in European diplomacy until

1404-459: The Russians began their initial campaign over the Dniester into Moldavia . The elite Ottoman Janissaries took heavy casualties from the Russians at Khotyn but managed to hold on; the remainder of the Ottoman army panicked and abandoned the field, and the Russians claimed the fortress. With the Ottomans in disarray the Russians took the capital of Moldavia ( Jassy ) on October 7. They continued

1458-467: The Russians. The Russian squadron, under Captain Ivan Kozhukov, blockaded and bombarded Beirut while Zahir negotiated Jazzar's withdrawal. The latter then entered Zahir's service, only to rebel against him after a few months. In consequence, the Russians occupied Beirut for a second time, for four months, to force Yusuf to pay a ransom. Prussia , Austria , and Great Britain offered to mediate

1512-556: The advance south into Wallachia , occupying its capital Bucharest on November 17. From the capital of Bucharest, the Russians fanned out through the principality, only later being challenged by Grand Vizier Mehmed Emin Pasha at Kagul on Aug 1, 1770. The Russians routed the Grand Vizier's forces and allegedly one-third of the Ottoman troops drowned in the Danube trying to escape. By now, Russia had some troops spread out north of

1566-479: The area. In January 1769, a 70-thousand man Turkish-Tatar army led by Crimean Khan Qırım Giray invaded the lands of central Ukraine. Crimean Tatars , Turks and Nogais ravaged New Serbia , took a significant number of slaves . Their raid was repulsed by the garrison of the Fortress of St. Elizabeth , after which the movement to the Black Sea continued troops of General Rumyantsev . On September 17, 1769,

1620-559: The balance of power. In 1771, Ali Bey al-Kabir , the Mamluk usurper of Egypt , allied with Zahir al-Umar , the autonomous sheikh of Acre , against their Ottoman overlords. The Egyptian general Abu al-Dhahab marched on Damascus , but the Ottoman governor, Uthman Pasha al-Kurji , convinced him to turn on his erstwhile master. Abu al-Dhahab then marched on Egypt and forced Ali Bey to flee to Zahir. Now, Count Orlov, with Catherine's approval, intervened and established friendly relations with

1674-740: The construction and maintenance of its Navy ; Russia could provide all these. When the tide of the conflict turned in Russia's favour, Britain limited its support, now seeing Russia as a rising competitor in Far Eastern trade, rather than merely as a counterbalance to the French Navy in the Mediterranean . While Russia remained in a superior position in the Black Sea , the withdrawal of British support left Russia unable to do more than shorten its own supply lines and disrupt Turkish trade in

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1728-450: The dispute between Russia and the Ottomans to halt Russia's expansion. Austria managed to turn the situation to its advantage by gaining Bukovina District from the Ottomans with a treaty on July 6, 1771. The Austrians maintained their increased military presence on their border with Moldavia and Wallachia, and they increased a subsidy to the cash-starved Ottomans, who had been dabbling in tax farming ) and offered unsubstantiated support to

1782-414: The early 1990s, IBM had a decision-making process called "non-concur" in which any department head could veto a company-wide strategy if it did not fit in with their own department's outlook, the disagreements being then sent to the superiors in the hierarchy, often taking several months. This effectively turned IBM into several independent fiefdoms . "Non-concur" was eliminated by CEO Louis Gerstner , who

1836-436: The entire Russian embassy's staff, marking the Ottoman's declaration of war on Russia. After her victories in the war, Catherine II was depicted in portraits dressed in the military uniforms of Great Britain , initially a willing ally because of the trade between the two countries. Great Britain needed bar iron to fuel its nascent Industrial Revolution , as well as other products such as sailcloth , hemp , and timber for

1890-517: The entire Sejm was prematurely disrupted on the strength of the liberum veto before it had finished its deliberations by the Kyiv deputy, Adam Olizar . The practice spiraled out of control, and in 1688, the Sejm was dissolved even before the proceedings had begun or the Marshal of the Sejm was elected. During the reign of John III Sobieski (1674–1696), half of Sejm proceedings were scuttled by

1944-795: The establishment of the Black Sea Fleet . The Soviet Don Military Flotilla existed in March–August 1919, assisting the troops of the Southern Front in their struggle with the White Guards along the Don River . Pyotr Dello and then B.F.Korsak commanded the Soviet Don Military Flotilla. In 1941, a Separate Don Squadron was detailed from the Don Military Flotilla, which would take part in the defense of

1998-533: The fortified town called Bar , near the Ottoman border, the Bar Confederation was created on 29 February 1768, led by a landed Polish noble named Casimir Pulaski . While the Russian army heavily outnumbered the confederates and defeated them several times in direct battle in Podolia Ukraine, bands of rebels waged low scale guerrilla war throughout Ukraine and southern Poland. On 20 June 1768,

2052-406: The negotiations, primarily to do with both sides wanting to keep fighting on a single front. The Ottomans were now quelling rebellions from Egypt and Syria and also faced incursions from Persia . The Russians were facing a revival of a centralized Sweden , which had undergone a coup from King Gustav III . On June 20, 1774, the Russian army, under the command of Alexander Suvorov , managed to rout

2106-563: The power of Sultan Mustafa III and would proceed to break away from the Ottoman Empire. In addition to this decentralization of the Empire the Ottomans were also faced with the revival of a unified Persia , which rose to oppose the Turks in Iraq . Upon the outbreak of the war the Ottomans seemed to have the upper hand as Russia was suffering from financial strain as a consequence of involvement in

2160-429: The principle of liberum veto was a major cause of the deterioration of the Commonwealth political system and Commonwealth's eventual downfall. Deputies bribed by magnates or foreign powers, or simply content to believe they were living in some kind of "Golden Age", for over a century paralysed the Commonwealth's government, stemming any attempts at reform. Piotr Stefan Wandycz wrote that the " liberum veto had become

2214-506: The sinister symbol of old Polish anarchy." Wagner echoed him thus: "Certainly, there was no other institution of old Poland which has been more sharply criticized in more recent times than this one.". A 2004 Polish collectible card game , Veto , set in the background of a royal election during an election sejm , is named after this procedure. In the Netflix series 1670 , Jan Paweł uses liberum veto to "win" an assembly. Until

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2268-550: The steppes north of the mountains, the later-famous Matvei Platov and 2,000 men fought 25,000 Turks and Crimeans. The Cossack village of Naur was defended against 8,000 Turks and tribesmen. During the war, a Russian fleet, under Count Alexei Grigoryevich Orlov , entered the Mediterranean Sea for the first time in history. It was drawn from the Baltic Fleet and was intended to draw Ottoman naval forces out from

2322-548: The traditions of decision making in the Kingdom of Poland, and it developed under the federative character of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Each deputy represented a region in the Sejm , himself being elected at a sejmik (the local sejm of a region). He thus assumed responsibility to his sejmik for all decisions taken at the Sejm. Since all noblemen were considered equal, a decision taken by

2376-546: The treaty, the Ottomans ceded the northwestern part of Moldavia (later known as Bukovina ) to the Habsburg Empire . Russia quickly exploited Küçük Kaynarca for an easy excuse to go to war and take more territory from the Ottoman Empire. This war comprised but a small part of the continuous process of expansion of the Russian Empire southwards and westwards during the 18th and 19th centuries. Liberum veto The liberum veto ( Latin for "free veto " )

2430-545: The two anti-Ottoman rebels. The Russian fleet provided critical aid in the Battle of Sidon and it bombarded and occupied Beirut . The Russians surrendered Beirut to the pro-Ottoman emir of Mount Lebanon , Yusuf Shihab , only after being paid a large ransom. In 1773, Yusuf Shihab entrusted the strengthening of Beirut's defences to Ahmad al-Jazzar . When the latter began to act independently, Yusuf got into contact with Zahir al-Umar to remove him. Zahir suggested that they enlist

2484-421: The use of fire ships . The defeat at Chesma demoralized the Ottomans, and bolstered Russian morale. Catherine II used this and other victories over the Turks to consolidate her power domestically, commissioning medals in honour of the battle. Despite their naval success, though, the Russians were unable to capture Constantinople because of Ottoman fortifications, as well as European concerns that it would upset

2538-539: The veto. The practice also spread from the national Sejm to local sejmik proceedings. In the first half of the 18th century, it became increasingly common for Sejm sessions to be broken up by the liberum veto , as the Commonwealth's neighbours, chiefly Russia and Prussia , found it to be a useful tool to frustrate attempts at reforming and strengthening the Commonwealth. By bribing deputies to exercise their vetoes, Poland–Lithuania's neighbours could derail any measures not to their liking. The Commonwealth deteriorated from

2592-415: Was a parliamentary device in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . It was a form of unanimity voting rule that allowed any member of the Sejm (legislature) to force an immediate end to the current session and to nullify any legislation that had already been passed at the session by shouting either Sisto activitatem! (Latin: "I stop the activity!") or Nie pozwalam! ( Polish : "I do not allow!"). The rule

2646-601: Was brought in to revive the declining company. Dispositions of the European Union law requiring unanimity between states have been compared to the liberum veto by some commenters. Wallonia vetoing Belgium's signature of the Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (CETA) with Canada brought comparisons to this rule. Decisions made by the United Nations can be dropped if

2700-479: Was first disrupted by the liberum veto by a Trakai deputy, Władysław Siciński , in 1652. In reality, he vetoed only the continuation of the Sejm's deliberations beyond the statutory time limit. He had, however, set up a dangerous precedent. Over the proceedings of the next few sejms, the veto was still occasionally overruled, but it became gradually more accepted. Before 20 years had passed, in 1669 in Kraków ,

2754-481: Was in place from the mid-17th century to the late 18th century in the Sejm's parliamentary deliberations. It was based on the premise that since all of the Polish–Lithuanian noblemen were equal, every measure that came before the Sejm had to be passed unanimously. The liberum veto was a key part of the political system of the Commonwealth, strengthening democratic elements and checking royal power and went against

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2808-403: Was near collapse, giving rise to the term "Polish anarchy", and the country was managed by provincial assemblies and magnates. Disruption of the Commonwealth governance caused by the liberum veto was highly significant. From 1573 to 1763, about 150 Sejms were held, of which 53 failed to pass any legislation. Historian Jacek Jędruch notes that out of the 53 disrupted Sejms, 32 were disrupted by

2862-853: Was not easy, as conservatives, supported by foreign powers, opposed most of the changes and attempted to defend the liberum veto and other elements perpetuating the inefficient governance, most notably by the Cardinal Laws of 1768. The liberum veto was finally abolished by the Constitution of 3 May 1791 , adopted by a confederated sejm, which permanently established the principle of majority rule. The achievements of that constitution, however, which historian Norman Davies called "the first constitution of its kind in Europe", were undone by another confederated sejm, meeting at Grodno in 1793 . That Sejm, under duress from Russia and Prussia, ratified

2916-426: Was undermined by constant Russian destabilization of the area. In the years preceding the war the Ottoman Empire had enjoyed the longest period of peace with Europe in its history (1739–1768). Nevertheless, the Ottoman Empire faced internal division, rebellion and corruption compounded by the re-emergence of a unified Persian leadership, under Nader Shah . One clear advantage for the Ottomans was its superior numbers as

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