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38-592: The statutory framework implementing the plan was signed into law as the Donahoe Higher Education Act (honoring Assemblywoman Dorothy M. Donahoe , one of the plan's foremost advocates) by Brown on April 27, 1960. Prior to the Master Plan's development in the 1960s, California struggled for many years to reform and improve its social institutions. In response to the powerful railroad monopolies' stranglehold on state business and politics at

76-402: A "rational" planning process for the growth of the university systems. This displaced the state legislature's past tendency to introduce bills to establish new four-year universities in members' home districts, a kind of political pork . In his memoirs, Kerr highlighted the 1957 creation of California State University, Stanislaus as a particularly egregious example of this tendency. The plan

114-660: A campus of the University of California tuition-free. The top one-third (33.3%) would be able to enter the California State University system. Junior colleges (later renamed "community colleges" in 1967) would accept any students "capable of benefiting from instruction." These percentages are now enforced by sliding scales equating grade point average and scores on the SAT or ACT , which are recalculated every year. No actual ranking of students in high schools

152-557: A homely metaphor for any form of public spending to the citizenry; however, after the American Civil War , the term came to be used in a derogatory sense. The Oxford English Dictionary dates the modern sense of the term from 1873. Pork barrels originally came from storing meat. By the 1870s, references to "pork" were common in Congress, and the term was further popularized by a 1919 article by Chester Collins Maxey in

190-482: A lack of funding, the framers of the Master Plan limited eligibility admission to UC and CSU. The cost-cutting move diverted a large number of students to 2-year institutions, which would still allow them to finish their lower division work and then transfer to a 4-year institution. Dorothy Donohue Dorothy Margaret Donohue (February 20, 1911 – April 4, 1960) was a state legislator in California. She

228-525: A measure of the family's financial well-being. For example, in his 1845 novel The Chainbearer , James Fenimore Cooper wrote: "I hold a family to be in a desperate way when the mother can see the bottom of the pork barrel." An early example of pork barrel politics in the United States was the Bonus Bill of 1817 , which was introduced by Democrat John C. Calhoun to construct highways linking

266-400: A poor record of college completion and four-year baccalaureate degree attainment. Subgroups such as Latinos and African Americans (whose demographics are large and growing) show even worsening statistics of degree attainment. The Master Plan meant that essentially, "anyone from anywhere in California could, if they worked hard enough, get a bachelor’s degree from one of the best universities in

304-519: A serious problem in several other states which failed to impose and effectively enforce such boundaries. For example, as of January 2021, the U.S. Department of Education no longer recognized the Nevada System of Higher Education as having any public community colleges under federal standards, after Nevada allowed its purported community colleges to create too many four-year programs during the 2010s and thereby allowed them to deviate too far from

342-471: Is a metaphor for the appropriation of government spending for localized projects secured solely or primarily to direct expenditures to a representative's district . The usage originated in American English , and it indicates a negotiated way of political particularism . Scholars use it as a technical term regarding legislative control of local appropriations. In election campaigns, the term

380-399: Is more than a single statute. The 1960 Master Plan is embodied in several documents: Kerr stated that the goal of the Master Plan was to balance the "competing demands of fostering excellence and guaranteeing educational access for all." The Master Plan achieved the following: According to the plan, the top one-eighth (12.5%) of graduating high school seniors would be guaranteed a place at

418-502: Is used as many schools do not rank students. Graduates of the junior colleges would be guaranteed the right to transfer to the UC or CSU systems in order to complete bachelor's degrees. This practice was carried over from previous years before the plan was enacted; graduates from the junior colleges had traditionally been accepted as upper-division transfer students at the state colleges or UC campuses by virtue of their prior coursework. Finally,

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456-457: Is used in derogatory fashion to attack opponents. Typically, "pork" involves national funding for government programs whose economic or service benefits are concentrated in a particular area but whose costs are spread among all taxpayers. Public works projects, certain national defense spending projects, and agricultural subsidies are the most commonly cited examples. Citizens Against Government Waste outlines seven criteria by which spending in

494-530: The National Municipal Review , which reported on certain legislative acts known to members of Congress as "pork barrel bills". He claimed that the phrase originated in a pre-Civil War practice of giving enslaved people a barrel of salt pork as a reward and requiring them to compete among themselves to get their share of the handout. More generally, a barrel of salt pork was a common larder item in 19th-century households and could be used as

532-503: The 20th century, with the result that by 2009, only three of the state's universities had achieved the prestigious R1 classification assigned by the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education to the most advanced American research universities. It was only in 2009 that Texas belatedly enacted House Bill 51 to specifically promote the development of nationally competitive research universities by creating

570-669: The Big Dig tunnels was named, pushed to have the Big Dig funded by the federal government while he was the speaker of the United States House of Representatives . During the 2008 United States presidential election campaign, the Gravina Island Bridge (also known as the "Bridge to Nowhere") in Alaska was cited as an example of pork barrel spending. The bridge, pushed for by Republican Senator Ted Stevens ,

608-400: The California universities for the place the state holds in the world economy, as well as bolstering its own economic makeup with great investment in high technology areas, such as Silicon Valley , biotechnology , and pharmaceuticals . The plan has contributed to the massive economic contributions that the UC, CSU, and CCC systems have had to the state and its growth. According to a study by

646-605: The Eastern and Southern United States to its Western frontier using the earnings bonus from the Second Bank of the United States . Calhoun argued for it using general welfare and post-roads clauses of the United States Constitution . Although he approved of the economic development goal, President James Madison vetoed the bill as unconstitutional . One of the most famous alleged pork-barrel projects

684-639: The National Research University Fund and the Texas Research Incentive Program. By 2019, six more Texas universities had reached the R1 classification. By setting "rigid" boundaries for each segment of public higher education, the plan ensured the continued availability of a wide range of educational options for the types of students to be served by each segment. In contrast, mission creep continues to be

722-553: The Regents of California, the UC system is directly responsible for adding about $ 32.8 billion to the gross state product, which is about 1.8 percent of the total GSP, a key indicator of economic performance. In 1972, a review of the plan found that the basic structure was good, but that it should be changed slightly to accommodate the ideas of the time. For example, the review board suggested that weekend and evening programs should be expanded to serve “non-traditional” students, and that

760-527: The UC system, with the provision that the California State Universities could offer PhD degrees as "joint" degrees in combination with the University of California or an accredited private university. Under the provisions of SB 724, signed into law September 22, 2005, the campuses of the California State University were then able to directly offer a Doctor of Education degree (Ed.D) "focused on preparing administrative leaders". It

798-458: The United States can be classified as "pork": The term pork barrel politics originated in American English , and usually refers to spending intended to benefit constituents of a politician in return for their political support, either in the form of campaign contributions or votes. In the popular 1863 story "The Children of the Public", Edward Everett Hale used the term pork barrel as

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836-529: The appropriation committee member, often accommodating major campaign contributors. To a certain extent, a member of Congress is judged by their ability to deliver funds to their constituents. The Chairman and the ranking member of the United States Senate Committee on Appropriations are in a position to deliver significant benefits to their states. Researchers Anthony Fowler and Andrew B. Hall claim that this still does not account for

874-704: The bill into law on April 27, 1960. She had fought for the creation of the Master Plan to ensure that future generations of California schoolchildren would have the opportunity to enroll in higher education which she was cruelly denied by the Great Depression in the United States . She served with Pauline Davis in the California Assembly. She was "on the slate of delegates" to the 1960 Democratic Party Convention in Los Angeles. Pork barrel Pork barrel , or simply pork ,

912-418: The country (and, therefore, in the world), almost free of charge." The plan increased overall efficiency in the higher education system, as well as produced greater number of graduates at a lower per-student cost by removing redundancies. This was accomplished by clearly specifying the missions of each system segment, in addition to clarifying what "territory" belonged to each institution. The plan established

950-741: The face of growing demand. The underlying principles that they sought were: The original Master Plan was approved by the Regents and the State Board of Education and submitted to the Legislature in February 1960. In April of that year, the California Legislature passed the Donahoe Higher Education Act, which implemented several components of the plan as statutory law. However, California's Master Plan

988-478: The independent sector in the planning functions of the state's higher education system. It also established a policy to set the maximum award for Cal Grants in state law. In 2005, the demand for high school and community college administrators brought about a widely debated exception to the existing differentiation of function between the CSU and UC systems. The awarding of doctoral degrees had originally been exclusive to

1026-630: The plan established that the University of California would be the sole portion of the system charged with performing research, and would award master's and doctoral degrees in support of that mission. The Cal State system, in addition to awarding master's degrees, would be able to award joint doctorates with the UC. The "California Idea"—California's tripartite system of public research universities, comprehensive 4-year undergraduate campuses, and open-access community colleges—has been highly influential, and many other states and even nations have imitated this structure. However, California higher education has had

1064-614: The plan should take advantage of then-new technologies such as educational television . In 1978, Proposition 13 , the People's Initiative to Limit Property Taxation, was enacted, causing free public education to be eliminated. (Since tuition was still banned by the Donahoe Act, per-unit enrollment fees were charged instead.) The 1987 revision specifically recognized the contributions of the independent sector (i.e., private and nonprofit institutions) and made explicit provision to include

1102-450: The possibility of a state secular higher education institution and second, actually authorizing the creation of a state university controlled by a Board of Regents (which would become the University of California). In the 1950s, the state's legislators and academic administrators foresaw an approaching surge in university enrollment, due to the baby boom children coming of age. They needed a plan to be able to maintain educational quality in

1140-550: The research universities from which they had obtained their doctoral degrees. Therefore, the plan was intended to concentrate state resources at the top, rather than spreading them too thin among far too many would-be research universities. Most other states were unable to restrain the ambitions of their various colleges and universities to become research universities and suffered from "a proliferation of doctoral and costly [ sic ] research programs". For example, Texas promoted too many colleges to university status during

1178-531: The state to create permanent public schools that could effectively educate children from start to finish. Furthermore, California progressives encountered obstacles in the form of people who thought that education should remain the work of local and religious groups, as well as being opposed to paying taxes for social purposes. Another barrier that they needed to circumvent was the issue of appropriating land and money for universities. The 1st and 2nd Organic Acts (of 1866 and 1868, respectively) helped by first introducing

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1216-442: The traditional community college role. The result was that as of 2021, Nevada could not provide its workforce with enough technicians who traditionally earn two-year associate degrees at community colleges, and needed to import them from adjacent states like Arizona and California which still have actual community colleges. The plan was the basis for a substantial surge in development in California higher education. Today, many credit

1254-418: The turn of the 20th century, new Progressive reformers attempted to overthrow the economic and political corruption then prevailing in the state at the time. They hoped to create new institutions infused with public morality and purpose. However, in the early years of California's modern development the population had remained largely mobile, moving from opportunity to opportunity, making it almost impossible for

1292-574: Was a member of the California Assembly in from 1953 until her death in 1960. In 1960, she "spearheaded" the development of the California Master Plan for Higher Education . The legislative framework implementing the recommendations of the Master Plan was named the Donahoe Higher Education Act in her honor after her sudden death on April 4, 1960—which meant she did not live long enough to see Governor Pat Brown sign

1330-593: Was argued that this fulfilled the original purpose of many of the CSU campuses, which had been founded as normal schools to train teachers. In 2010, the CSU was also given the authority to exclusively offer two more doctoral degrees: the Doctorate in Nursing (DNP) and Doctor of Physical Therapy (DPT). When the Master Plan was first founded in 1960, post-secondary education enrollments were equally divided among 2-year and 4-year institutions. However, in 2010, due to

1368-444: Was inspired in part by Kerr's pragmatic realization that not all institutions of higher education can or should become research universities . As Kerr explained in his memoirs: "The state did not need a higher education system where every component was intent on being another Harvard or Berkeley or Stanford ." Faculty members at state colleges regarded them as "graveyards of disappointed expectations" and wished they were located at

1406-562: Was projected to cost $ 398 million and would connect the island's 50 residents and the Ketchikan International Airport to Revillagigedo Island and Ketchikan . Pork-barrel projects, which differ from earmarks , are added to the federal budget by members of the appropriation committees of the United States Congress . This allows the delivery of federal funds to the local district or state of

1444-615: Was the Big Dig in Boston , Massachusetts . The Big Dig was a project to relocate an existing 3.5-mile (5.6 km) section of the Interstate Highway System underground. The official planning phase started in 1982; the construction was done between 1991 and 2006, and the project concluded on December 31, 2007. It ended up costing US$ 14.6 billion , or over US$ 4 billion per mile. Tip O'Neill (D-Mass), after whom one of

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