Misplaced Pages

#102897

42-480: Chinese historians generally agreed that Dongxiang are the descendants of Central Asians migrated to Mongol-ruled China . They were converted to Islam in the 1340s by a missionary named Hamzeh (哈木則, Hāmùzé ). They spoke a different Central Asian language before shifting to their current mother tongue, Dongxiang language , a member of the Mongolic languages . The name Dongxiang is derived from them living in what

84-744: A Muslim puppet state under the Japanese, Ma responded through Zhou Baihuang, the Ningxia Secretary of the Nationalist Party to remind the Japanese military chief of staff Itagaki Seishiro that many of his relatives fought and died in battle against Eight Nation Alliance forces during the Battle of Peking, including his uncle Ma Fulu, and that Japanese troops made up the majority of the Alliance forces so there would be no cooperation with

126-675: A brigade, his brother Ma Fuxiang took over his position after his death. Ma Fuxiang inherited Ma Fulu's army. He had a son, Ma Hongbin , who later became a General in charge of the 84th Army Corps. Ma Fuxing , a Hui who played an important part in the history of Xinjiang, served under Ma Fulu during the Boxer Rebellion. In the Second Sino-Japanese War , when the Japanese asked the Muslim General Ma Hongkui to defect and become head of

168-452: A martial arts hall and military school. In 1895, he served under general Dong Fuxiang , leading loyalist Chinese Muslims to crush a revolt by rebel Muslims in the Dungan revolt (1895–1896) . His loyalist Muslim troops slaughtered and beheaded the rebel Muslims and his commanding officers received the heads of the rebels from Ma. In 1897, a military Jinshi degree was awarded to Ma Fulu. Ma

210-513: A medium heel. The Dongxiang speak the Dongxiang language , a member of the Mongolic family . The language has distinct features resembling Middle Mongolian and has up to 35% loan words borrowed from Mandarin Chinese . The negligible words of Persian, Turkic and Arabic origin are probably remnants of their original languages before language shift to Dongxiang. The Dongxiang people also have

252-505: A person's "class" was not a guarantee of their social standing, since there were rich Chinese of good social standing, while there were fewer rich Mongols and Semu than there were ill-treated Mongols and Semu living in poverty. The reason for the order of the classes and the reason why people were placed in a certain class was the date they surrendered to the Mongols, and had nothing to do with their ethnicity. The earlier they surrendered to

294-569: A problem aggravated by the lack of a written language. In 2004, the Ford Foundation provided US$ 30,000 in grant money for a pilot project to promote bilingual education in Mandarin and Dongxiang, in an effort to reduce school drop-out rates. The project is credited with the publication of a Dongxiang–Chinese bilingual dictionary as well as recent rises in test scores. Semu Semu ( Chinese : 色目 ; pinyin : sèmù )

336-723: A rich tradition of oral literature and use the Arabic alphabet. As a result of the language shift , some 20,000 people in several villages in the Northeastern Dongxiang County now speak the so-called " Tangwang language ": a creolized version of Mandarin Chinese with a strong Dongxiang influence, in particular in its grammar. Government statistics show that the Dongxiang are among the poorest and least literate of China's minorities, with most Dongxiang having completed only an average of 1.1 years of schooling,

378-409: A white shirt, trousers and a beret like cap makes up the rest of the traditional outfit. Seasonal clothing like sheepskin coats are also worn during the winter. Dongxiang women wear embroidered outfits which include wide sleeved shirts and trousers. Older women wear kerchiefs and younger women tend to wear bright decorated cotton caps and silk veils. On special occasions, women wear embroidered shoes with

420-847: Is close to East Asians as a whole. Physical anthropological analysis by Li et. al. (2011) shows that the closest relative of Dongxiang men among the Chinese populations are the Tajiks in Tashkurgan , Xinjiang. The next closest relative is the common ancestor of the Mongols in Bayingolin , Xinjiang, the Salars in Xinhua , Qinghai and the Mongols in Tongliao , Inner Mongolia. The physical anthropology of Dongxiang women show her closest relative are

462-614: Is only with Han and Hui, but not Tibetans. In 1900, Generals Ma Fulu and Ma Fuxiang brought a Chinese Muslim troop comprising Dongxiang, Hui and Bonan to fight the foreign troops in the Boxer Rebellion . They were killed while defending the Zhengyang Gate in Beijing. In 1937–1945, General Ma Biao brought a multiethnic troop, including Dongxiang, to fight the Second Sino-Japanese War . Some claimed Ma Fuxiang himself

SECTION 10

#1732764878103

504-538: Is the name of a caste established by the Yuan dynasty . The 31 Semu categories referred to people who came from Central and West Asia . They had come to serve the Yuan dynasty by enfranchising under the dominant Mongol caste. The Semu were not a self-defined and homogeneous ethnic group per se, but one of the four castes of the Yuan dynasty: the Mongols , Semu (or Semuren), the " Han " (Hanren in Chinese, or all subjects of

546-564: Is to reduce Semu's population since Semu was in the second class in Yuan and used to help the Mongols. Some Hui claim that the order was secretly done by the Ming Hongwu Emperor to protect them from attacks since they stood out while they thought Zhu was a Hui too. Indeed, Zhu was not a Hui while at that time only the Semu used this name. But in the middle period of Ming Dynasty, the royalties separated Semu into different groups while

588-565: The White Lotus sect. Nestorian Christianity and Manicheanism died out during the Ming dynasty while Islam and Judaism were protected. The Uyghurs of Taoyuan are the remnants of Uyghurs from Turpan from the Kingdom of Qocho . Ma Fulu Boxer Rebellion Ma Fulu ( Chinese : 马福禄 ; pinyin : Mǎ Fúlù , Xiao'erjing : ﻣَﺎ فُ‌لُ ; 1854 – 1900), a Chinese Muslim , was

630-645: The "Kansu Braves" and fought against the Eight Nation Alliance . Ma Fulu and Ma Fuxiang both participated in ambushing and driving back the Alliance forces at the Battle of Langfang during the Seymour Expedition , leading a force of Hui, Dongxiang, and Baoan Muslims to drive the Alliance back to Tianjin and personally leading a cavalry charge, cutting down enemy troops with his sword. Ma Fulu and four cousins of his were killed in action during

672-883: The Koreans at the court the Korean King objected, then the Mongol Emperor Kublai Khan rebuked the Korean King, saying that the King of Qocho was ranked higher than the Karluk Karakhanid khan, who in turn was ranked higher than the Korean king, who was ranked last, because the Uighurs surrendered to the Mongols first, the Karluks surrendered after the Uighurs, and the Koreans surrendered last, and that

714-708: The Mongols imported Central Asian Muslims to serve as administrators in China, the Mongols also sent ethnic Han and Khitans from China to serve as administrators over the Muslim population in Bukhara and Samarqand in Central Asia, using foreigners to curtail the power of the local peoples of both lands. The surname of Li was held by one of Yelu Ahai's staff of Han descent. There were various Han craftsmen. Tangut, Khitan and Han peoples took control over gardens and fields from

756-423: The Mongols, the higher they were placed, the more the held out, the lower they were ranked. The Northern Chinese were ranked higher and Southern Chinese were ranked lower because southern China withstood and fought to the last before caving in. Major commerce during this era gave rise to favorable conditions for private southern Chinese manufacturers and merchants. When the Mongols placed the Uighurs of Qocho over

798-535: The Muslims. Han people were moved to Central Asian areas like Besh Baliq, Almaliq, and Samarqand by the Mongols where they worked as artisans and farmers. After the Mongol conquest by Genghis Khan, foreigners were chosen as administrators and co-managers alongside Han and Khitans in the gardens and fields of Samarqand. Muslims were not allowed to manage without them. The Mongol-appointed Governor of Samarqand, Ahai,

840-545: The Northwest, who, though thoroughly Islamicized, still unto this day retain peculiar labels like "Black Cap/ Doppa Huihui", "Blue Cap Huihui"). The historian Frederick W. Mote wrote that the usage of the term "social classes" for this system was misleading and that the position of people within the four-class system was not an indication of their actual social power and wealth, but just entailed "degrees of privilege" to which they were entitled institutionally and legally. Thus

882-587: The Semu were Buddhist Turpan Uyghurs of Qocho , Tanguts and Tibetans ; Nestorian Christian tribes like the Ongud ; Alans ; Muslim Central Asian Persian and Turkic peoples including the Khwarazmians and Karakhanids ; West Asian Jewish and other minor groups who are from even further Europe . While administratively classified as Semu, many of these groups rather referred to themselves by their self-aware ethnic identities in everyday life, such as

SECTION 20

#1732764878103

924-406: The Uighurs surrendered peacefully without violently resisting. Koreans were ranked as Han people along with northern Chinese. Japanese historians like Uematsu, Sugiyama and Morita criticized the perception that a four class system existed under Mongol rule and Funada Yoshiyuki questioned the very existence of the Semu as a class. Bukhara and Samarqand were visited by Qiu Chuji . At the same time

966-551: The Uyghurs. Muslims, Persians, Karakhanids and Khwarazmians in particular, were actually mistaken to be Uyghurs or at least, "from the land of the Uyghurs". Therefore, they adopted the label conferred to them by the Chinese: " Huihui ", which was a corruption of the name Uyghur, but at the same time distinguishable from the name reserved for Buddhist Turpan Uyghurs proper, "Weiwuer". Of the many ethnic groups classified as "Semu" during

1008-435: The Yuan dynasty to areas of Lingbei Province ( 和宁路 益蘭州 謙州 ). Genghis Khan and the following Yuan emperors forbade Islamic practices like Halal butchering, forcing Mongol methods of butchering animals on Muslims, and other restrictive degrees continued. Muslims had to slaughter sheep in secret. Genghis Khan directly called Muslims and Jews "slaves", and demanded that they follow the Mongol method of eating rather than

1050-799: The Yuan, only the Muslim Hui managed to survive into the Ming period as a large collective identity with self-awareness of common identity spanning across the whole China. Other ethnic groups were either small and confined to limited localities (such as the Buddhist Turpan Uyghurs in Wuling , Hunan , and the Kaifeng Jews ), or were forced to assimilate into the Han Chinese or Muslim Huis (such as some Christian and Jewish Semu in

1092-532: The battle against the foreigners in Beijing, in 1900 during the Battle of Peking (1900) during a bloody battle at Zhengyang Gate . His paternal cousins Ma Fugui 馬福貴, Ma Fuquan 馬福全 and his paternal nephews Ma Yaotu 馬耀圖 and Ma Zhaotu 馬兆圖 died in the battle. 100 of his fellow Hui and Dongxiang soldiers from his home village were killed in action at the Zhengyang Gate in the Siege of Peking . He had commanded

1134-934: The common ancestor of the Bonans in Jishishan , Gansu and the Oroqens in Oroqen Banner , Inner Mongolia. Her next closest relative is the common ancestors of the Monguors in Huzhu , Qinghai, the Salars in Xinhua , Qinghai and the Tajiks in Tashkurgan , Xinjiang. Distribution of Y-chromosome haplogroups in Dongxiang: O =24.29( O2 =18.69, O1a =1.87, O1b =3.73) J =16.82 R1 =16.82( R1a =14.02, R1b =2.8) R2 =9.35 C =6.54 G =5.61 N =5.6 D =4.67 E =3.74 Others=6.56 In another study in 2010 found that

1176-791: The commons ancestors of the Uyghurs and Tajiks of Xinjiang, the Shughnis of Tajikistan, the Bartangi of Tajikistan and various Uzbeks of different Central Asian countries. STR loci analysis by Zhan et. al. (2018) shows that the closest relative of Dongxiang people among Chinese and Central Asians are the Buryats of Ewenki Banner , Inner Mongolia. The next closest relative are the Kazakhs of Xinjiang . All other Chinese and Central Asian populations are very distant. STR analysis excluding Kyrgyz, Tajiks and other Central Asians might conclude Dongxiang

1218-477: The dominant Mongol caste. The Semu were not a self-defined and homogeneous ethnic group per se , but one of the four castes of the Yuan dynasty: the Mongols, Semu (or Semuren), the "Han" ( Hanren in Chinese, or all subjects of the former Jin dynasty , Dali Kingdom and Koreans ) and the Southerners ( Nanren in Chinese, or all subjects of the former Southern Song dynasty ; sometimes called Manzi ). Among

1260-601: The former Jin dynasty , Dali Kingdom and Koreans) and the Southerners (Nanren in Chinese, or all subjects of the former Southern Song dynasty; sometimes called Manzi ). Among the Semu were Buddhist Turpan Uyghurs , Tanguts and Tibetans ; Nestorian Christian tribes like the Ongud ; Alans; Muslim Central Asian Turkic peoples including the Khwarazmians and Karakhanids; West Asian Arab, Jewish, Christians and other minor groups who are from even farther west. Contrary to popular belief among both non-Chinese and Chinese,

1302-808: The groups as Muslims and Tibetans were still many. The Islam and Tibetan religions have survived until today. But the minority groups such as Jews, most of their customs were no more, leaving them into the Han group. This separation continued until the establishment of the Republic of China . The new separation doesn't mean there are only 56 ethnic groups . This list doesn't include small populations like Jewish. Even if such ethnicities are so few in numbers, they still continue to exist in China. The Ming dynasty allowed Islam and Judaism to be practiced and issued edicts that said they conformed to Confucianism while it banned religions such as Nestorian Christianity, Manicheanism and

Dongxiang people - Misplaced Pages Continue

1344-419: The halal method. Circumcision was also forbidden. Jews were also affected, and forbidden by the Mongols to eat Kosher . Toward the end, corruption and the persecution became so severe that Muslim Generals joined Han Chinese in rebelling against the Mongols. The Ming founder Zhu Yuanzhang had Muslim Generals like Lan Yu who rebelled against the Mongols and defeated them in combat. Some Muslim communities had

1386-405: The majority of the Dongxiang belonged to Haplogroup R1a (R1a : 54%). The Dongxiang have Mongol , Han Chinese , Hui and Tibetan surnames. Dongxiang with Han Chinese surnames such as Wang, Kang, Zhang, Gao and Huang claim descent from Han Chinese. Surnames such as Ma and Mu are of Hui origin. Some Dongxiang have said that, in the rare instances that they do marry with other people , it

1428-530: The massacre, the remaining Jews and Muslims escaped. Some were back to their own country, but some like Jews escaped to Guangdong. After expelling the Mongols, the Ming dynasty was soon founded. Because of the Semu's help, some of them were being employed into the central government. However, the Ming dynasty enforced assimilation to Chinese customs, such as banning used their own languages, customs, names and instead switching to speaking Chinese and using Chinese names and intermarrying with Han people. The aim for it

1470-565: The name in Chinese which meant "barracks" and also mean "thanks"; many Hui Muslims claim it is because that they played an important role in overthrowing the Mongols and it was named in thanks by the Han Chinese for assisting them. The Muslims in the semu class also revolted against the Yuan dynasty in the Ispah Rebellion but the rebellion was crushed and the Muslims were massacred by the Yuan loyalist commander Chen Youding. After

1512-463: The son of General Ma Qianling and the brother of Ma Fucai, Ma Fushou and Ma Fuxiang . He was a middle born son. In 1880, Ma Fulu went to Beijing to take advanced military exams when he had an audience before the Emperor. He accidentally committed a faux pas since he did not know proper palace etiquette and subsequently served as a guard for the Emperor to make up for this incident. He studied at

1554-433: The term "Semu" (interpreted literally as "color-eye") did not imply that caste members had "colored eyes" and it was not a physical description of the people it labelled. It in fact meant "assorted categories" ( 各色名目 , gè sè míng mù ), emphasizing the ethnic diversity of Semu people. The 31 Semu categories referred to people who came from Central and West Asia. They had come to serve the Yuan dynasty by enfranchising under

1596-548: Was a Qara-Khitay (Khitan) who held the title Taishi. He was familiar with Han culture. Muslims viewed Chagatai Khan with negativity and hostility because Chagatai Khan strictly enforced Mongol Yasa law against Islamic Shariah law banning Halal animal slaughter and Islamic prayer ritual ablution as well as the Islamic legal system. The Uyghur steward Vajir was accused of poisoning Chagatai Khan to death in 1242 by his wife Yisulun. Ethnic Han officials and colonists were sent by

1638-529: Was called the eastern ( Dong ) part of Hezhou prefecture, present day Linxia. Haplogroup analysis by Wen et. al. (2013) shows that the closest relative of Dongxiang people are the common ancestors of the Kyrgyz of Kyrgyzstan and Xinjiang, the Tajiks of Khujand , Tajikistan, and the Ishkashimis of Tajikistan. The second closest relative is the Salars of Xinhua , Qinghai. The third closest relative are

1680-559: Was of a Dongxiang assimilated into the Hui Chinese. The base of the economy of Dongxiang is agriculture. The main products are potatoes, corn, barley, millet and wheat. They are also recognized craftsmen, specializing in the elaboration of traditional carpets. An early ethnography of Dongxiang was documented in 1940 by the American Asiatic Association. The author interviewed Ma Chuanyuan, a Muslim Mongol who

1722-501: Was the magistrate of five districts, on the origins of his people. The account described them as a community of one hundred thousand, Mongol by race, Islam by religion and Chinese by culture. Common Dongxiang cuisine includes the use of a potato mash that is used for noodles, snacks, alcoholic drinks and more. Traditional Dongxiang dress for men includes buttoned robes and a broad waistband. These waistbands are sometimes used to hang knives, snuff bottles, or small bags on them. A vest over

Dongxiang people - Misplaced Pages Continue

1764-460: Was transferred along with his brother Ma Fuxiang and several cousins to serve as officers under General Dong Fuxiang to Beijing in 1898. During the Hundred Days' Reform in 1898, Dong Fuxiang, Ma Anliang and Ma Haiyan were called to Beijing and helped put an end to the reform movement along with Ma Fulu and Ma Fuxiang . During the Boxer Rebellion , the Muslim troops came to be known as

#102897