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99-715: Data visualization is concerned with visually presenting sets of primarily quantitative raw data in a schematic form. The visual formats used in data visualization include tables , charts and graphs (e.g. pie charts , bar charts , line charts , area charts , cone charts , pyramid charts , donut charts , histograms , spectrograms , cohort charts , waterfall charts , funnel charts , bullet graphs , etc.), diagrams , plots (e.g. scatter plots , distribution plots , box-and-whisker plots ), geospatial maps (such as proportional symbol maps , choropleth maps , isopleth maps and heat maps ), figures, correlation matrices , percentage gauges , etc., which sometimes can be combined in

198-455: A dashboard . Information visualization , on the other hand, deals with multiple, large-scale and complicated datasets which contain quantitative (numerical) data as well as qualitative (non-numerical, i.e. verbal or graphical) and primarily abstract information and its goal is to add value to raw data, improve the viewers' comprehension, reinforce their cognition and help them derive insights and make decisions as they navigate and interact with

297-783: A stock exchange , or in multiple other ways. Major stock exchanges include the Shanghai Stock Exchange , Singapore Exchange , Hong Kong Stock Exchange , New York Stock Exchange and NASDAQ (the US), the London Stock Exchange (UK), the Tokyo Stock Exchange (Japan), and Bombay Stock Exchange (India). Most countries with capital markets have at least one. Businesses that have gone public are subject to regulations concerning their internal governance, such as how executive officers' compensation

396-399: A "process optimization process". It is argued that BPM enables organizations to be more efficient, effective and capable of change than a functionally focused, traditional hierarchical management approach. Most legal jurisdictions specify the forms of ownership that a business can take, creating a body of commercial law applicable to business. The major factors affecting how a business

495-406: A June 2014 presentation. These included: a) Knowing your audience; b) Designing graphics that can stand alone outside the report's context; and c) Designing graphics that communicate the key messages in the report. Author Stephen Few described eight types of quantitative messages that users may attempt to understand or communicate from a set of data and the associated graphs used to help communicate

594-477: A bar chart (which takes advantage of line length to show comparison) rather than pie charts (which use surface area to show comparison). Almost all data visualizations are created for human consumption. Knowledge of human perception and cognition is necessary when designing intuitive visualizations. Cognition refers to processes in human beings like perception, attention, learning, memory, thought, concept formation, reading, and problem solving. Human visual processing

693-479: A business. Some businesses are subject to ongoing special regulation, for example, public utilities , investment securities, banking, insurance, broadcasting , aviation , and health care providers. Environmental regulations are also very complex and can affect many businesses. When businesses need to raise money (called capital ), they sometimes offer securities for sale. Capital may be raised through private means, by an initial public offering or IPO on

792-496: A certain issue and storytelling are not as important. The field of data and information visualization is of interdisciplinary nature as it incorporates principles found in the disciplines of descriptive statistics (as early as the 18th century), visual communication , graphic design , cognitive science and, more recently, interactive computer graphics and human-computer interaction . Since effective visualization requires design skills, statistical skills and computing skills, it

891-498: A company-type management system. Many state institutions and enterprises in China and Russia have transformed into joint-stock companies, with part of their shares being listed on public stock markets. Business process management (BPM) is a holistic management approach focused on aligning all aspects of an organization with the wants and needs of clients . BPM attempts to improve processes continuously. It can, therefore, be described as

990-420: A decision or taking an action in order to create business value . This can be contrasted with the field of statistical graphics , where complex statistical data are communicated graphically in an accurate and precise manner among researchers and analysts with statistical expertise to help them perform exploratory data analysis or to convey the results of such analyses, where visual appeal, capturing attention to

1089-449: A function of the time. For this purpose, the zone of the zodiac was represented on a plane with a horizontal line divided into thirty parts as the time or longitudinal axis. The vertical axis designates the width of the zodiac. The horizontal scale appears to have been chosen for each planet individually for the periods cannot be reconciled. The accompanying text refers only to the amplitudes. The curves are apparently not related in time. By

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1188-431: A limited space and therefore they are popular in scientific literature in many fields of study. As a communication tool, a table allows a form of generalization of information from an unlimited number of different social or scientific contexts. It provides a familiar way to convey information that might otherwise not be obvious or readily understood. For example, in the following diagram, two alternate representations of

1287-419: A matter of custom or formal convention. Modern software applications give users the ability to generate, format, and edit tables and tabular data for a wide variety of uses, for example: Tables have uses in software development for both high-level specification and low-level implementation. Usage in software specification can encompass ad hoc inclusion of simple decision tables in textual documents through to

1386-777: A meaningful analysis or visualization: The distinction between quantitative and categorical variables is important because the two types require different methods of visualization. Two primary types of information displays are tables and graphs. Eppler and Lengler have developed the "Periodic Table of Visualization Methods," an interactive chart displaying various data visualization methods. It includes six types of data visualization methods: data, information, concept, strategy, metaphor and compound. In "Visualization Analysis and Design" Tamara Munzner writes "Computer-based visualization systems provide visual representations of datasets designed to help people carry out tasks more effectively." Munzner agues that visualization "is suitable when there

1485-508: A meaningful and non-distracting manner. The visuals are accompanied by supporting texts (labels and titles). These verbal and graphical components complement each other to ensure clear, quick and memorable understanding. Effective information visualization is aware of the needs and concerns and the level of expertise of the target audience, deliberately guiding them to the intended conclusion. Such effective visualization can be used not only for conveying specialized, complex, big data-driven ideas to

1584-475: A means of data exploration . Studies have shown individuals used on average 19% less cognitive resources, and 4.5% better able to recall details when comparing data visualization with text. The modern study of visualization started with computer graphics , which "has from its beginning been used to study scientific problems. However, in its early days the lack of graphics power often limited its usefulness. The recent emphasis on visualization started in 1987 with

1683-400: A more intuitive way. Yet designers often fail to achieve a balance between form and function, creating gorgeous data visualizations which fail to serve their main purpose — to communicate information". Indeed, Fernanda Viegas and Martin M. Wattenberg suggested that an ideal visualization should not only communicate clearly, but stimulate viewer engagement and attention. Data visualization

1782-524: A process known as an initial public offering (IPO) means that part of the business will be owned by members of the public. This requires the organization as a distinct entity, to disclose information to the public, and adhering to a tighter set of laws and procedures. Most public entities are corporations that have sold shares, but increasingly there are also public LLC's that sell units (sometimes also called shares), and other more exotic entities as well, such as, for example, real estate investment trusts in

1881-456: A quantitative message. Effective visualization helps users analyze and reason about data and evidence. It makes complex data more accessible, understandable, and usable, but can also be reductive. Users may have particular analytical tasks, such as making comparisons or understanding causality , and the design principle of the graphic (i.e., showing comparisons or showing causality) follows the task. Tables are generally used where users will look up

1980-564: A range of human activity, from handicraft to high tech , but is most commonly applied to industrial production, in which raw materials are transformed into finished goods on a large scale. Marketing is defined by the American Marketing Association as "the activity, set of institutions, and processes for creating, communicating, delivering, and exchanging offerings that have value for customers, clients, partners, and society at large." The term developed from

2079-448: A share capital), this will be the shareholders . In a company limited by guarantee, this will be the guarantors. Some offshore jurisdictions have created special forms of offshore company in a bid to attract business for their jurisdictions. Examples include " segregated portfolio companies " and restricted purpose companies. There are, however, many, many sub-categories of types of company that can be formed in various jurisdictions in

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2178-478: A specific measurement, while charts of various types are used to show patterns or relationships in the data for one or more variables. Data visualization refers to the techniques used to communicate data or information by encoding it as visual objects (e.g., points, lines, or bars) contained in graphics. The goal is to communicate information clearly and efficiently to users. It is one of the steps in data analysis or data science . According to Vitaly Friedman (2008)

2277-422: A two-dimensional surface tells a story that can be grasped immediately while identifying the source data to build credibility. Tufte wrote in 1983 that: "It may well be the best statistical graphic ever drawn." Not applying these principles may result in misleading graphs , distorting the message, or supporting an erroneous conclusion. According to Tufte, chartjunk refers to the extraneous interior decoration of

2376-591: A visualization of information regarding Late Bronze Age era trades in the Mediterranean. The idea of coordinates was used by ancient Egyptian surveyors in laying out towns, earthly and heavenly positions were located by something akin to latitude and longitude at least by 200 BC, and the map projection of a spherical Earth into latitude and longitude by Claudius Ptolemy [ c.  85 – c.  165 ] in Alexandria would serve as reference standards until

2475-430: A wider group of non-technical audience in a visually appealing, engaging and accessible manner, but also to domain experts and executives for making decisions, monitoring performance, generating new ideas and stimulating research. In addition, data scientists, data analysts and data mining specialists use data visualization to check the quality of data, find errors, unusual gaps and missing values in data, clean data, explore

2574-589: Is a field that deals with the study of money and investments . It includes the dynamics of assets and liabilities over time under conditions of different degrees of uncertainty and risk. In the context of business and management , finance deals with the problems of ensuring that the firm can safely and profitably carry out its operational and financial objectives; i.e. that it: (1) has sufficient cash flow for ongoing and upcoming operational expenses, and (2) can service both maturing short-term debt repayments, and scheduled long-term debt payments. Finance also deals with

2673-409: Is a need to augment human capabilities rather than replace people with computational decision-making methods." Variable-width ("variwide") bar chart Orthogonal (orthogonal composite) bar chart Interactive data visualization enables direct actions on a graphical plot to change elements and link between multiple plots. Interactive data visualization has been a pursuit of statisticians since

2772-447: Is a simplified description of the most basic kind of table. Certain considerations follow from this simplified description: The elements of a table may be grouped, segmented, or arranged in many different ways, and even nested recursively . Additionally, a table may include metadata , annotations , a header, a footer or other ancillary features. The following illustrates a simple table with four columns and nine rows. The first row

2871-401: Is also "any activity or enterprise entered into for profit." A business entity is not necessarily separate from the owner and the creditors can hold the owner liable for debts the business has acquired. The taxation system for businesses is different from that of the corporates. A business structure does not allow for corporate tax rates. The proprietor is personally taxed on all income from

2970-587: Is an organization of workers who have come together to achieve common goals such as protecting the integrity of its trade, improving safety standards, achieving higher pay and benefits such as health care and retirement, increasing the number of employees an employer assigns to complete the work, and better working conditions . The trade union, through its leadership, bargains with the employer on behalf of union members ( rank and file members) and negotiates labor contracts ( collective bargaining ) with employers. The most common purpose of these associations or unions

3069-485: Is argued by authors such as Gershon and Page that it is both an art and a science. The neighboring field of visual analytics marries statistical data analysis, data and information visualization and human analytical reasoning through interactive visual interfaces to help human users reach conclusions, gain actionable insights and make informed decisions which are otherwise difficult for computers to do. Research into how people read and misread various types of visualizations

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3168-405: Is closely related to information graphics , information visualization , scientific visualization , exploratory data analysis and statistical graphics . In the new millennium, data visualization has become an active area of research, teaching and development. According to Post et al. (2002), it has united scientific and information visualization. In the commercial environment data visualization

3267-419: Is crucial for all businesses to succeed as it helps companies adjust to a fast-moving business environment and the increasing demand for jobs. The term "Human Resource" was first coined by John R. Commons in his novel ' The Distribution of Wealth'. HR departments are relatively new as they began developing in the late 20th century. HR departments main goal is to maximize employee productivity and protecting

3366-648: Is determined, and when and how information is disclosed to shareholders and to the public. In the United States, these regulations are primarily implemented and enforced by the United States Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC). Other western nations have comparable regulatory bodies. The regulations are implemented and enforced by the China Securities Regulation Commission (CSRC) in China. In Singapore,

3465-521: Is efficient in detecting changes and making comparisons between quantities, sizes, shapes and variations in lightness. When properties of symbolic data are mapped to visual properties, humans can browse through large amounts of data efficiently. It is estimated that 2/3 of the brain's neurons can be involved in visual processing. Proper visualization provides a different approach to show potential connections, relationships, etc. which are not as obvious in non-visualized quantitative data. Visualization can become

3564-566: Is for those who prefer an administrative role as it involves oversight of the entirety of the company. HRIS involves the storage and organization of employee data including full names, addresses, means of contact, and anything else required by that certain company. Some careers of those involved in the Human Resource field include enrollment specialists, HR analyst, recruiter, employment relations manager, etc. Many businesses have an Information technology (IT) department, which supports

3663-515: Is helping to determine what types and features of visualizations are most understandable and effective in conveying information. On the other hand, unintentionally poor or intentionally misleading and deceptive visualizations ( misinformative visualization ) can function as powerful tools which disseminate misinformation , manipulate public perception and divert public opinion toward a certain agenda. Thus data visualization literacy has become an important component of data and information literacy in

3762-796: Is not a modern development. Since prehistory, stellar data, or information such as location of stars were visualized on the walls of caves (such as those found in Lascaux Cave in Southern France) since the Pleistocene era. Physical artefacts such as Mesopotamian clay tokens (5500 BC), Inca quipus (2600 BC) and Marshall Islands stick charts (n.d.) can also be considered as visualizing quantitative information. The first documented data visualization can be tracked back to 1160 B.C. with Turin Papyrus Map which accurately illustrates

3861-402: Is not counted, because it is only used to display the column names. This is called a "header row". The concept of dimension is also a part of basic terminology. Any "simple" table can be represented as a "multi-dimensional" table by normalizing the data values into ordered hierarchies . A common example of such a table is a multiplication table . In multi-dimensional tables, each cell in

3960-423: Is often referred to as dashboards . Infographics are another very common form of data visualization. The greatest value of a picture is when it forces us to notice what we never expected to see. John Tukey Edward Tufte has explained that users of information displays are executing particular analytical tasks such as making comparisons. The design principle of the information graphic should support

4059-484: Is organized are usually: Many businesses are operated through a separate entity such as a corporation or a partnership (either formed with or without limited liability). Most legal jurisdictions allow people to organize such an entity by filing certain charter documents with the relevant Secretary of State or equivalent and complying with certain other ongoing obligations. The relationships and legal rights of shareholders , limited partners, or members are governed partly by

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4158-717: Is the most reliant on the cognitive skills of human analysts, and allows the discovery of unstructured actionable insights that are limited only by human imagination and creativity. The analyst does not have to learn any sophisticated methods to be able to interpret the visualizations of the data. Information visualization is also a hypothesis generation scheme, which can be, and is typically followed by more analytical or formal analysis, such as statistical hypothesis testing. To communicate information clearly and efficiently, data visualization uses statistical graphics , plots , information graphics and other tools. Numerical data may be encoded using dots, lines, or bars, to visually communicate

4257-428: Is the process of exchanging goods and services. It is not just a single activity, but a set of activities that includes trade (buying and selling goods and services) and auxiliary services or aids to trade, that includes communication and marketing, logistics, finance, banking, insurance, and legal services related to trade. Business is also defined as engaging in commerce, as these are done in all businesses. Finance

4356-638: The information age akin to the roles played by textual , mathematical and visual literacy in the past. The field of data and information visualization has emerged "from research in human–computer interaction , computer science , graphics , visual design , psychology , and business methods . It is increasingly applied as a critical component in scientific research, digital libraries , data mining , financial data analysis, market studies, manufacturing production control , and drug discovery ". Data and information visualization presumes that "visual representations and interaction techniques take advantage of

4455-515: The long term objective of maximizing the value of the business, while also balancing risk and profitability; this includes the interrelated questions of (1) capital investment , which businesses and projects to invest in; (2) capital structure , deciding on the mix of funding to be used; and (3) dividend policy , what to do with "excess" capital. Human resources can be defined as division of business that involves finding, screening, recruiting , and training job applicants. Human resources, or HR,

4554-521: The tables were covered with a piece of checkered cloth, to count money. Exchequer is an archaic term for the English institution which accounted for money owed to the monarch . Thus the checkerboard tables of stacks of coins are a concrete realization of this information . Business Business is the practice of making one's living or making money by producing or buying and selling products (such as goods and services ). It

4653-825: The " canary in the coal mine " and reduce the cost to businesses of protecting their employees. Sales are activity related to selling or the number of goods or services sold in a given time period. Sales are often integrated with all lines of business and are key to a companies' success. The efficient and effective operation of a business , and study of this subject, is called management . The major branches of management are financial management , marketing management, human resource management , strategic management , production management , operations management , service management , and information technology management . Owners may manage their businesses themselves, or employ managers to do so for them. Whether they are owners or employees, managers administer three primary components of

4752-661: The "Data Visualization: Modern Approaches" (2007) article gives an overview of seven subjects of data visualization: All these subjects are closely related to graphic design and information representation. Table (information) A table is an arrangement of information or data , typically in rows and columns, or possibly in a more complex structure. Tables are widely used in communication , research , and data analysis . Tables appear in print media, handwritten notes, computer software, architectural ornamentation, traffic signs, and many other places. The precise conventions and terminology for describing tables vary depending on

4851-428: The "main goal of data visualization is to communicate information clearly and effectively through graphical means. It doesn't mean that data visualization needs to look boring to be functional or extremely sophisticated to look beautiful. To convey ideas effectively, both aesthetic form and functionality need to go hand in hand, providing insights into a rather sparse and complex data set by communicating its key aspects in

4950-402: The 14th century. The invention of paper and parchment allowed further development of visualizations throughout history. Figure shows a graph from the 10th or possibly 11th century that is intended to be an illustration of the planetary movement, used in an appendix of a textbook in monastery schools. The graph apparently was meant to represent a plot of the inclinations of the planetary orbits as

5049-419: The 16th century, techniques and instruments for precise observation and measurement of physical quantities, and geographic and celestial position were well-developed (for example, a "wall quadrant" constructed by Tycho Brahe [1546–1601], covering an entire wall in his observatory). Particularly important were the development of triangulation and other methods to determine mapping locations accurately. Very early,

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5148-475: The Internet, venture capital, bank loans, and debentures. Businesses often have important " intellectual property " that needs protection from competitors for the company to stay profitable. This could require patents , copyrights , trademarks , or preservation of trade secrets . Most businesses have names, logos, and similar branding techniques that could benefit from trademarking. Patents and copyrights in

5247-628: The Latin corpus , meaning body, and the Maurya Empire in Iron-Age India accorded legal rights to business entities. In many countries, it is difficult to compile all the laws that can affect a business into a single reference source. Laws can govern the treatment of labour and employee relations, worker protection and safety , discrimination on the basis of age, gender, disability, race, and in some jurisdictions, sexual orientation, and

5346-472: The Minard diagram shows the losses suffered by Napoleon's army in the 1812–1813 period. Six variables are plotted: the size of the army, its location on a two-dimensional surface (x and y), time, the direction of movement, and temperature. The line width illustrates a comparison (size of the army at points in time), while the temperature axis suggests a cause of the change in army size. This multivariate display on

5445-650: The US, and unit trusts in the UK. A general partnership cannot "go public". A very detailed and well-established body of rules that evolved over a very long period of time applies to commercial transactions. The need to regulate trade and commerce and resolve business disputes helped shape the creation of law and courts. The Code of Hammurabi dates back to about 1772 BC for example and contains provisions that relate, among other matters, to shipping costs and dealings between merchants and brokers . The word "corporation" derives from

5544-689: The United States are largely governed by federal law, while trade secrets and trademarking are mostly a matter of state law. Because of the nature of intellectual property, a business needs protection in every jurisdiction in which they are concerned about competitors. Many countries are signatories to international treaties concerning intellectual property, and thus companies registered in these countries are subject to national laws bound by these treaties. In order to protect trade secrets, companies may require employees to sign noncompete clauses which will impose limitations on an employee's interactions with stakeholders, and competitors. A trade union (or labor union)

5643-664: The analytical task. As William Cleveland and Robert McGill show, different graphical elements accomplish this more or less effectively. For example, dot plots and bar charts outperform pie charts. In his 1983 book The Visual Display of Quantitative Information , Edward Tufte defines 'graphical displays' and principles for effective graphical display in the following passage: "Excellence in statistical graphics consists of complex ideas communicated with clarity, precision, and efficiency. Graphical displays should: Graphics reveal data. Indeed, graphics can be more precise and revealing than conventional statistical computations." For example,

5742-474: The body of the table (and the value of that cell) relates to the values at the beginnings of the column (i.e. the header), the row, and other structures in more complex tables. This is an injective relation : each combination of the values of the headers row (row 0, for lack of a better term) and the headers column (column 0 for lack of a better term) is related to a unique cell in the table: The first column often presents information dimension description by which

5841-593: The bounds of data visualization; Tukey with his new statistical approach of exploratory data analysis and Tufte with his book "The Visual Display of Quantitative Information" paved the way for refining data visualization techniques for more than statisticians. With the progression of technology came the progression of data visualization; starting with hand-drawn visualizations and evolving into more technical applications – including interactive designs leading to software visualization. Programs like SAS , SOFA , R , Minitab , Cornerstone and more allow for data visualization in

5940-502: The business needs, an adviser can decide what kind is proprietorship will be most suitable. General partners in a partnership (other than a limited liability partnership), plus anyone who personally owns and operates a business without creating a separate legal entity, are personally liable for the debts and obligations of the business. Generally, corporations are required to pay tax just like "real" people. In some tax systems, this can give rise to so-called double taxation , because first

6039-455: The business's value: financial resources, capital (tangible resources), and human resources . These resources are administered in at least six functional areas: legal contracting, manufacturing or service production, marketing, accounting, financing, and human resources. In recent decades, states modeled some of their assets and enterprises after business enterprises. In 2003, for example, China modeled 80% of its state-owned enterprises on

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6138-511: The business. A distinction is made in law and public offices between the term business and a company such as a corporation or cooperative . Colloquially, the terms are used interchangeably. Corporations are distinct from with sole proprietors and partnerships . They are separate legal entities and provide limited liability for their owners and members. They are subject to corporate tax rates. They are also more complicated and expensive to set up, but offer more protection and benefits for

6237-408: The charter documents and partly by the law of the jurisdiction where the entity is organized. Generally speaking, shareholders in a corporation, limited partners in a limited partnership, and members in a limited liability company are shielded from personal liability for the debts and obligations of the entity, which is legally treated as a separate "person". This means that unless there is misconduct,

6336-487: The company from any issues that may arise in the future. Some of the most common activities conducted by those working in HR include increasing innovation and creativity within a company, applying new approaches to work projects, and efficient training and communication with employees . Two of the most popular subdivisions of HR are Human Resource Management , HRM, and Human Resource Information Systems , or HRIS. The HRM route

6435-517: The computer-supported graphical display. Visual tools used in information visualization include maps (such as tree maps ), animations , infographics , Sankey diagrams , flow charts , network diagrams , semantic networks , entity-relationship diagrams , venn diagrams , timelines , mind maps , etc. Emerging technologies like virtual , augmented and mixed reality have the potential to make information visualization more immersive, intuitive, interactive and easily manipulable and thus enhance

6534-425: The context. Further, tables differ significantly in variety, structure, flexibility, notation, representation and use. Information or data conveyed in table form is said to be in tabular format ( adjective ). In books and technical articles, tables are typically presented apart from the main text in numbered and captioned floating blocks . A table consists of an ordered arrangement of rows and columns . This

6633-579: The corporation pays tax on the profit, and then when the corporation distributes its profits to its owners, individuals have to include dividends in their income when they complete their personal tax returns, at which point a second layer of income tax is imposed. In most countries, there are laws that treat small corporations differently from large ones. They may be exempt from certain legal filing requirements or labor laws, have simplified procedures in specialized areas, and have simplified, advantageous, or slightly different tax treatment. "Going public" through

6732-548: The development of at least two tabular approaches. At a programming level, software may be implemented using constructs generally represented or understood as tabular, whether to store data (perhaps to memoize earlier results), for example, in arrays or hash tables , or control tables determining the flow of program execution in response to various events or inputs. Database systems often store data in structures called tables; in which columns are data fields and rows represent data records. In medieval counting houses ,

6831-623: The distribution of geological resources and provides information about quarrying of those resources. Such maps can be categorized as thematic cartography , which is a type of data visualization that presents and communicates specific data and information through a geographical illustration designed to show a particular theme connected with a specific geographic area. Earliest documented forms of data visualization were various thematic maps from different cultures and ideograms and hieroglyphs that provided and allowed interpretation of information illustrated. For example, Linear B tablets of Mycenae provided

6930-476: The field of statistics. Other data visualization applications, more focused and unique to individuals, programming languages such as D3 , Python and JavaScript help to make the visualization of quantitative data a possibility. Private schools have also developed programs to meet the demand for learning data visualization and associated programming libraries, including free programs like The Data Incubator or paid programs like General Assembly . Beginning with

7029-464: The first presentation graphics. There is no comprehensive 'history' of data visualization. There are no accounts that span the entire development of visual thinking and the visual representation of data, and which collate the contributions of disparate disciplines. Michael Friendly and Daniel J Denis of York University are engaged in a project that attempts to provide a comprehensive history of visualization. Contrary to general belief, data visualization

7128-671: The first stage of development of a potential new service or product. Research and development are very difficult to manage since the defining feature of the research is that the researchers do not know in advance exactly how to accomplish the desired result. Injuries cost businesses billions of dollars annually. Studies have shown how company acceptance and implementation of comprehensive safety and health management systems reduce incidents, insurance costs, and workers' compensation claims. New technologies, like wearable safety devices and available online safety training, continue to be developed to encourage employers to invest in protection beyond

7227-486: The goal is to render realistic images based on physical and spatial scientific data to confirm or reject hypotheses ( confirmatory visualization ). Effective data visualization is properly sourced, contextualized, simple and uncluttered. The underlying data is accurate and up-to-date to make sure that insights are reliable. Graphical items are well-chosen for the given datasets and aesthetically appealing, with shapes, colors and other visual elements used deliberately in

7326-455: The graphic that does not enhance the message or gratuitous three-dimensional or perspective effects. Needlessly separating the explanatory key from the image itself, requiring the eye to travel back and forth from the image to the key, is a form of "administrative debris." The ratio of "data to ink" should be maximized, erasing non-data ink where feasible. The Congressional Budget Office summarized several best practices for graphical displays in

7425-568: The groundwork for what we now conceptualize as data. According to the Interaction Design Foundation, these developments allowed and helped William Playfair , who saw potential for graphical communication of quantitative data, to generate and develop graphical methods of statistics. In the second half of the 20th century, Jacques Bertin used quantitative graphs to represent information "intuitively, clearly, accurately, and efficiently". John Tukey and Edward Tufte pushed

7524-778: The human eye's broad bandwidth pathway into the mind to allow users to see, explore, and understand large amounts of information at once. Information visualization focused on the creation of approaches for conveying abstract information in intuitive ways." Data analysis is an indispensable part of all applied research and problem solving in industry. The most fundamental data analysis approaches are visualization (histograms, scatter plots, surface plots, tree maps, parallel coordinate plots, etc.), statistics ( hypothesis test , regression , PCA , etc.), data mining ( association mining , etc.), and machine learning methods ( clustering , classification , decision trees , etc.). Among these approaches, information visualization, or visual data analysis,

7623-511: The late 1960s. Examples of the developments can be found on the American Statistical Association video lending library. Common interactions include: There are different approaches on the scope of data visualization. One common focus is on information presentation, such as Friedman (2008). Friendly (2008) presumes two main parts of data visualization: statistical graphics , and thematic cartography . In this line

7722-451: The measure of time led scholars to develop innovative way of visualizing the data (e.g. Lorenz Codomann in 1596, Johannes Temporarius in 1596). French philosopher and mathematician René Descartes and Pierre de Fermat developed analytic geometry and two-dimensional coordinate system which heavily influenced the practical methods of displaying and calculating values. Fermat and Blaise Pascal 's work on statistics and probability theory laid

7821-593: The message: Analysts reviewing a set of data may consider whether some or all of the messages and graphic types above are applicable to their task and audience. The process of trial and error to identify meaningful relationships and messages in the data is part of exploratory data analysis . A human can distinguish differences in line length, shape, orientation, distances, and color (hue) readily without significant processing effort; these are referred to as " pre-attentive attributes ". For example, it may require significant time and effort ("attentive processing") to identify

7920-566: The minimum wage, as well as unions , worker compensation, and working hours and leave. Some specialized businesses may also require licenses, either due to laws governing entry into certain trades, occupations or professions, that require special education or to raise revenue for local governments. Professions that require special licenses include law, medicine, piloting aircraft, selling liquor, radio broadcasting, selling investment securities, selling used cars, and roofing. Local jurisdictions may also require special licenses and taxes just to operate

8019-461: The number of times the digit "5" appears in a series of numbers; but if that digit is different in size, orientation, or color, instances of the digit can be noted quickly through pre-attentive processing. Compelling graphics take advantage of pre-attentive processing and attributes and the relative strength of these attributes. For example, since humans can more easily process differences in line length than surface area, it may be more effective to use

8118-488: The original meaning which referred literally to going to a market to buy or sell goods or services. Marketing tactics include advertising as well as determining product pricing . With the rise in technology, marketing is further divided into a class called digital marketing . It is marketing products and services using digital technologies. Research and development refer to activities in connection with corporate or government innovation. Research and development constitute

8217-399: The owner's own possessions are strongly protected in law if the business does not succeed. Where two or more individuals own a business together but have failed to organize a more specialized form of vehicle, they will be treated as a general partnership. The terms of a partnership are partly governed by a partnership agreement if one is created, and partly by the law of the jurisdiction where

8316-451: The owners and members. Forms of business ownership vary by jurisdiction , but several common entities exist: Less common types of companies are: "Ltd after the company's name signifies limited company, and PLC ( public limited company ) indicates that its shares are widely held." In legal parlance, the owners of a company are normally referred to as the "members". In a company limited or unlimited by shares (formed or incorporated with

8415-433: The partnership is located. No paperwork or filing is necessary to create a partnership, and without an agreement, the relationships and legal rights of the partners will be entirely governed by the law of the jurisdiction where the partnership is located. A single person who owns and runs a business is commonly known as a sole proprietor , whether that person owns it directly or through a formally organized entity. Depending on

8514-399: The program develops new interdisciplinary approaches to complex science problems, combining design thinking and the latest methods from computing, user-centered design, interaction design and 3D graphics. Data visualization involves specific terminology, some of which is derived from statistics. For example, author Stephen Few defines two types of data, which are used in combination to support

8613-944: The regulatory authority is the Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS), and in Hong Kong, it is the Securities and Futures Commission (SFC). The proliferation and increasing complexity of the laws governing business have forced increasing specialization in corporate law. It is not unheard of for certain kinds of corporate transactions to require a team of five to ten attorneys due to sprawling regulation. Commercial law spans general corporate law, employment and labor law , health-care law, securities law, mergers and acquisitions, tax law, employee benefit plans, food and drug regulation, intellectual property law on copyrights, patents, trademarks, telecommunications law, and financing. Other types of capital sourcing include crowdsourcing on

8712-420: The reputation of the exchange or particular market of exchange. Private companies do not have publicly traded shares, and often contain restrictions on transfers of shares. In some jurisdictions, private companies have maximum numbers of shareholders. A parent company is a company that owns enough voting stock in another firm to control management and operations by influencing or electing its board of directors;

8811-679: The rest of the table is navigated. This column is called "stub column". Tables may contain three or multiple dimensions and can be classified by the number of dimensions. Multi-dimensional tables may have super-rows - rows that describe additional dimensions for the rows that are presented below that row and are usually grouped in a tree-like structure. This structure is typically visually presented with an appropriate number of white spaces in front of each stub's label. In literature tables often present numerical values, cumulative statistics, categorical values, and at times parallel descriptions in form of text. They can condense large amount of information to

8910-683: The same information are presented side by side. On the left is the NFPA 704 standard " fire diamond " with example values indicated and on the right is a simple table displaying the same values, along with additional information. Both representations convey essentially the same information, but the tabular representation is arguably more comprehensible to someone who is not familiar with the NFPA 704 standard. The tabular representation may not, however, be ideal for every circumstance (for example because of space limitations, or safety reasons). There are several specific situations in which tables are routinely used as

9009-485: The second company being deemed as a subsidiary of the parent company. The subsidiary company can be allowed to maintain its own board of directors. The definition of a parent company differs by jurisdiction, with the definition normally being defined by way of laws dealing with companies in that jurisdiction. Accounting is the measurement, processing, and communication of financial information about economic entities such as businesses and corporations . The modern field

9108-575: The special issue of Computer Graphics on Visualization in Scientific Computing . Since then there have been several conferences and workshops, co-sponsored by the IEEE Computer Society and ACM SIGGRAPH ". They have been devoted to the general topics of data visualization , information visualization and scientific visualization , and more specific areas such as volume visualization . In 1786, William Playfair published

9207-418: The structures and features of data and assess outputs of data-driven models. In business , data and information visualization can constitute a part of data storytelling , where they are paired with a coherent narrative structure or storyline to contextualize the analyzed data and communicate the insights gained from analyzing the data clearly and memorably with the goal of convincing the audience into making

9306-657: The symposium "Data to Discovery" in 2013, ArtCenter College of Design, Caltech and JPL in Pasadena have run an annual program on interactive data visualization. The program asks: How can interactive data visualization help scientists and engineers explore their data more effectively? How can computing, design, and design thinking help maximize research results? What methodologies are most effective for leveraging knowledge from these fields? By encoding relational information with appropriate visual and interactive characteristics to help interrogate, and ultimately gain new insight into data,

9405-494: The use of information technology and computer systems in support of enterprise goals. The role of a chief information officer is to lead this department. For example, Ford Motor Company in the United States employs "more than 3,000 team members with advanced computing, analytical and technical skills". Manufacturing is the production of merchandise for use or sale using labour and machines , tools , chemical and biological processing, or formulation. The term may refer to

9504-407: The use of tabular specification methodologies, examples of which include Software Cost Reduction and Statestep. Proponents of tabular techniques, among whom David Parnas is prominent, emphasize their understandability, as well as the quality and cost advantages of a format allowing systematic inspection, while corresponding shortcomings experienced with a graphical notation were cited in motivating

9603-401: The user's visual perception and cognition . In data and information visualization, the goal is to graphically present and explore abstract, non-physical and non-spatial data collected from databases , information systems , file systems , documents , business data , etc. ( presentational and exploratory visualization ) which is different from the field of scientific visualization , where

9702-401: The world. Companies are also sometimes distinguished into public companies and private companies for legal and regulatory purposes. Public companies are companies whose shares can be publicly traded, often (although not always) on a stock exchange which imposes listing requirements / Listing Rules as to the issued shares, the trading of shares and a future issue of shares to help bolster

9801-515: Was established by the Italian mathematician Luca Pacioli in 1494. Accounting, which has been called the "language of business", measures the results of an organization's economic activities and conveys this information to a variety of users, including investors , creditors , management , and regulators . Practitioners of accounting are known as accountants . The terms "accounting" and "financial reporting" are often used as synonyms. Commerce

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