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95-1067: 9–14 (See text) Datura is a genus of nine species of highly poisonous , vespertine - flowering plants belonging to the nightshade family ( Solanaceae ). They are commonly known as thornapples or jimsonweeds , but are also known as devil's trumpets or mad apple (not to be confused with angel's trumpets, which are placed in the closely related genus Brugmansia ). Other English common names include moonflower , devil's weed , and hell's bells . All species of Datura are extremely poisonous and psychoactive , especially their seeds and flowers, which can cause respiratory depression , arrhythmias , fever , delirium , hallucinations , anticholinergic toxidrome, psychosis , and death if taken internally. Due to their effects and symptoms, Datura species have occasionally been used not only as poisons, but also as hallucinogens by various groups throughout history. Traditionally, their psychoactive administration has often been associated with witchcraft and sorcery or similar practices in many cultures, including

190-557: A species : see Botanical name and Specific name (zoology) . The rules for the scientific names of organisms are laid down in the nomenclature codes , which allow each species a single unique name that, for animals (including protists ), plants (also including algae and fungi ) and prokaryotes ( bacteria and archaea ), is Latin and binomial in form; this contrasts with common or vernacular names , which are non-standardized, can be non-unique, and typically also vary by country and language of usage. Except for viruses ,

285-473: A complete or relative inability to differentiate reality from fantasy ); bizarre thoughts , hyperthermia ; tachycardia ; bizarre, and possibly violent behavior; dry skin; dry mouth; illusions; and severe mydriasis (dilated pupils) with resultant painful photophobia that can last several days. Muscle stiffness, urinary retention , temporary paralysis, disrobing , emotional bluntness , dysphoria , and confusion are often reported, and pronounced amnesia

380-491: A different genus within Solanaceae . A comparison of the fruit shows that black nightshade berries are spherical, have a dull lustre and grow in clusters, whereas the berries of deadly nightshade are much glossier, twice as large, somewhat flattened and are borne singly. Another distinction is that black nightshade flowers are not tubular but white and star-shaped, bearing a central cone of yellow anthers. Atropa belladonna

475-569: A family of six who inadvertently ingested Datura used as an ingredient in stew. In some places around the world, such as India due to the Drug & Cosmetic Act 1940 & Rule 1995, buying, selling, or cultivating Datura plants is prohibited. Solanaceous tribes with a similar chemistry (i.e. a similar tropane alkaloid content), include the Hyoscyameae , containing such well-known toxic species as Hyoscyamus niger and Atropa belladonna ,

570-496: A few miniature leaves. Datura species are native to dry, temperate, and subtropical regions. Most species are native to Mexico, which is considered the center of origin of the genus. Several species are considered to have extra-American native ranges: D. ferox (native to China), D. metel (native to India and Southeast Asia), and D. leichardthii (native to Australia), however these may be early introductions from Central America. A group of South American species formerly placed in

665-562: A free black man who was kidnapped and sold into slavery in 1841, was poisoned using a combination of Atropa belladonna and laudanum . In the past, witches were believed to use a mixture of belladonna, opium poppy and other plants, typically poisonous (such as monkshood and hemlock ), in flying ointment , which they allegedly applied to help them fly to gatherings with other witches or to experience bacchanalian carousal. Carlo Ginzburg and others have argued that flying ointments were preparations meant to encourage hallucinatory dreaming;

760-658: A great deal of experience with and detailed knowledge of Datura was critical to minimize harm. Many tragic incidents result from modern users ingesting or smoking Datura . For example, in the 1990s and 2000s, the United States media reported stories of adolescents and young adults dying or becoming seriously ill from intentionally ingesting Datura . Deliberate or inadvertent poisoning resulting from smoking jimsonweed and other related species has been reported as well. Although most poisonings occur with more common species of Datura such as D. stramonium , several reports in

855-651: A great deal of experience with and detailed knowledge of Datura , have been known to use Datura spiritually (including the Navajo and especially the Havasupai ). Adequate knowledge of Datura 's properties is necessary to facilitate a safe experience. The ancient inhabitants of what became central and southern California used to ingest Datura to "commune with deities through visions ". The Southern Paiute believe Datura can help locate missing objects . In ancient Mexico, Datura also played an important role in

950-651: A later homonym of a validly published name is a nomen illegitimum or nom. illeg. ; for a full list refer to the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants and the work cited above by Hawksworth, 2010. In place of the "valid taxon" in zoology, the nearest equivalent in botany is " correct name " or "current name" which can, again, differ or change with alternative taxonomic treatments or new information that results in previously accepted genera being combined or split. Prokaryote and virus codes of nomenclature also exist which serve as

1045-466: A lobed or toothed margin. The flowers are erect or spreading (not pendulous like those of Brugmansia ), trumpet-shaped, 5–20 cm long, and 4–12 cm broad at the mouth; colours vary from white to yellow and pale purple. The fruit is a spiny capsule , 4–10 cm long and 2–6 cm broad, splitting open when ripe to release the numerous seeds . The seeds disperse freely over pastures, fields, and even wasteland locations. Datura belongs to

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1140-628: A long time and redescribed as new by a range of subsequent workers, or if a range of genera previously considered separate taxa have subsequently been consolidated into one. For example, the World Register of Marine Species presently lists 8 genus-level synonyms for the sperm whale genus Physeter Linnaeus, 1758, and 13 for the bivalve genus Pecten O.F. Müller, 1776. Within the same kingdom, one generic name can apply to one genus only. However, many names have been assigned (usually unintentionally) to two or more different genera. For example,

1235-480: A medical prescription in pharmacies throughout Germany. In the United States, drugs containing tropane alkaloids such as atropine are prescription-only , and the FDA regards any over-the-counter products claiming efficacy and safety as an anticholinergic drug, to be illegal. The common name belladonna originates from its historic use by women, as bella donna is Italian for "beautiful woman". Drops prepared from

1330-533: A medicine since ancient times. It features in rituals and prayers to Shiva and also in Ganesh Chaturthi , a festival devoted to the deity Ganesha . The larvae of some Lepidoptera ( butterfly and moth ) species, including Hypercompe indecisa , eat some Datura species. It has been observed that while insects may prefer to feed on Datura leaves, other animals such as cows will generally avoid consuming them. Classifying Datura as to its species

1425-457: A moderate dosage produces aphrodisiac effects, and high dosages are used for shamanic purposes". Wade Davis , an ethnobotanist , also lists it as an essential ingredient of Haitian zombie potion . In Western culture , the same species ( Datura stramonium ) has been said to have been commonly used by witches as an ingredient for their flying ointments and was regularly included in detailed recipes of magical ointments dating back as far as

1520-485: A possible explanation for the inclusion of belladonna and opium poppy in flying ointments concerns the known antagonism between tropane alkaloids of belladonna ( scopolamine ) and opiate alkaloids in the opium poppy, Papaver somniferum (to be specific, morphine ), which produces a dream-like waking state ( hypnagogia ) or potentiated dreams while the user is asleep. This antagonism was known in folk medicine and discussed in traditional medicine formularies. Belladonna

1615-409: A reference for designating currently accepted genus names as opposed to others which may be either reduced to synonymy, or, in the case of prokaryotes, relegated to a status of "names without standing in prokaryotic nomenclature". An available (zoological) or validly published (botanical) name that has been historically applied to a genus but is not regarded as the accepted (current/valid) name for

1710-559: A rule, they need warm, sunny places and soil that will keep their roots dry. When grown outdoors in good locations, the plants tend to reseed themselves and may become invasive. In containers, they should have porous, aerated potting soil with adequate drainage. The plants are susceptible to fungi in the root area, so anaerobic organic enrichment such as anaerobically composted organic matter or manure, should be avoided. All Datura plants contain tropane alkaloids such as scopolamine and atropine, primarily in their seeds and flowers, as well as

1805-453: A shiny black, and approximately 1.5 cm (0.6 in) in diameter. The berries are sweet and are consumed by animals that disperse the seeds in their droppings, even though they contain toxic alkaloids (see Toxicity ). There is a pale-yellow flowering form called Atropa belladonna var. lutea with pale yellow fruit. A. belladonna is sometimes confused with the much less poisonous black nightshade , Solanum nigrum , belonging to

1900-577: A single species. Furthermore, the Australian provenance of D. leichhardtii , the Chinese provenance of D. ferox , and the Afro-Asiatic provenance of D. metel have been cast into serious doubt, with the three species being almost certainly post-Columbian introductions to the regions to which they were originally thought native. The case of D. metel is unique in that not only is the plant not

1995-400: A species can be extreme. For example, Datura species can change size of plant, leaf, and flowers, all depending on location. The same species, when growing in a half-shady, damp location can develop into a flowering bush half as tall as an adult human of average height, but when growing in a very dry location, will only grow into a thin plant not much more than ankle high, with tiny flowers and

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2090-427: A taxon; however, the names published in suppressed works are made unavailable via the relevant Opinion dealing with the work in question. In botany, similar concepts exist but with different labels. The botanical equivalent of zoology's "available name" is a validly published name . An invalidly published name is a nomen invalidum or nom. inval. ; a rejected name is a nomen rejiciendum or nom. rej. ;

2185-455: A total of c. 520,000 published names (including synonyms) as at end 2019, increasing at some 2,500 published generic names per year. "Official" registers of taxon names at all ranks, including genera, exist for a few groups only such as viruses and prokaryotes, while for others there are compendia with no "official" standing such as Index Fungorum for fungi, Index Nominum Algarum and AlgaeBase for algae, Index Nominum Genericorum and

2280-592: A true species at all, but an assemblage of ancient pre-Columbian cultivars created from D. innoxia in the Greater Antilles, but evidence is mounting that it was introduced to the Indian subcontinent no later than the second century CE – whether by natural or human agency is, as yet, unknown – making it one of the most ancient plant introductions (if not the most ancient) from the New World to

2375-536: Is toloache . The Mexican common name toloache (also spelled tolguacha ) derives from the Nahuatl tolohuaxihuitl , meaning "the plant with the nodding head" (in reference to the nodding seed capsules of Datura species belonging to section Dutra of the genus). Datura species are herbaceous , leafy annuals and short-lived perennials , which can reach up to 2 m in height. The leaves are alternate, 10–20 cm long, and 5–18 cm broad, with

2470-432: Is a branching herbaceous perennial rhizomatous hemicryptophyte , often growing as a subshrub from a fleshy rootstock. Plants can reach a height of 2 m (7 ft) (more commonly 1.5 m (5 ft)), and have ovate leaves up to 18 cm (7 in) long. The bell-shaped flowers are dull purple tinged yellow-green toward the base and are faintly scented. The fruits are berries , which are green, ripening to

2565-407: Is administered in potions in order to cause harm to those who are objects of hatred. Those who eat it have visions of fearful things. Magicians or those who wish to harm someone administer it in food or drink. This herb is medicinal and its seed is used as a remedy for gout, ground up and applied to the part affected." Christian Rätsch has said, "A mild dosage produces medicinal and healing effects,

2660-588: Is also notable for the unpredictability of its toxic effects. Among the ancient folk traditions of the Romanian ( Moldavian ) / Ukrainian region of Bukovina in the Carpathians is the ritual for a Bukovinian girl to enhance her attractiveness by making an offering to deadly nightshade. She entered the fields on a Sunday in Shrovetide , clad in her Sunday best , accompanied by her mother and bringing

2755-579: Is another commonly reported effect. The psychoactive alkaloids scopolamine and atropine are also both known for their characteristic hyperactive effects and ability to cause stark and dream-like hallucinations. The onset of symptoms generally occurs around 30 to 60 minutes after ingesting the herb. These symptoms generally last from 24 to 48 hours, but have been reported in some cases to last two weeks or longer. Due to their agitated behavior and confused mental state, people with acute Datura poisoning or intoxication are typically hospitalized. Gastric lavage and

2850-623: Is considered extremely dangerous because of the high risk of unintentional fatal overdose . The main psychoactive ingredients are the alkaloids scopolamine and, to a lesser extent, hyoscyamine. The effects of atropine on the central nervous system include memory disruption, which may lead to severe confusion. The major effects of belladonna consumption last for three to four hours; visual hallucinations can last for three to four days, and some negative aftereffects are preserved for several days. The tropane alkaloids of A. belladonna were used as poisons, and early humans made poisonous arrows from

2945-473: Is derived from the name of the Greek goddess Atropos ('she who may not be turned aside' i.e. 'the inflexible' or 'the implacable')—one of the three Greek fates or destinies who would determine the course of a man's life by the weaving of threads that symbolized his birth, the events in his life, and finally his death, with Atropos cutting these threads to mark the last of these. The name "belladonna" comes from

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3040-656: Is designated in the 2004 edition of the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants as the official International Cultivar Registration Authority for Datura . This role was delegated to ABADS by the International Society for Horticultural Science in 2002. Datura species are usually sown annually from the seed produced in the spiny capsules , but, with care, the tuberous-rooted perennial species may be overwintered. Most species are suited to being planted outside or in containers. As

3135-400: Is difficult, and the descriptions of new species often are accepted prematurely. Later, these "new species" are found to be simply varieties that have evolved due to conditions at a specific location. They usually disappear in a few years. Contributing to the confusion is the fact that various species, such as D. wrightii and D. inoxia , are very similar in appearance, and the variation within

3230-544: Is discouraged by both the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature and the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants , there are some five thousand such names in use in more than one kingdom. For instance, A list of generic homonyms (with their authorities), including both available (validly published) and selected unavailable names, has been compiled by the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera (IRMNG). The type genus forms

3325-529: Is in the nightshade family ( Solanaceae ), which it shares with potatoes , tomatoes , eggplants , jimsonweed , tobacco , wolfberry , and chili peppers . The common names for this species include belladonna, deadly nightshade, divale, dwale, banewort, devil's berries, death cherries, beautiful death, devil's herb, great morel, and dwayberry. The name Atropa belladonna was published by Carl Linnaeus in Species Plantarum in 1753. Atropa

3420-571: Is insufficient scientific evidence justifying the use of belladonna for these or any other clinical disorders. In 2010 and 2016, the US Food and Drug Administration warned consumers against the use of homeopathic teething tablets and gels containing belladonna as used for infants and children, stating that the products may be toxic , causing "seizures, difficulty breathing, lethargy, excessive sleepiness, muscle weakness, skin flushing, constipation, difficulty urinating, or agitation" especially for

3515-669: Is native to Europe and Western Asia , including Turkey . Its distribution extends from Ireland in the west to western Ukraine and the Iranian province of Gilan in the east. It is also naturalised or introduced in some parts of Canada, North Africa and the United States. The foliage and berries are extremely toxic when ingested, containing tropane alkaloids . These toxins include atropine , scopolamine , and hyoscyamine , which cause delirium and hallucinations , and are also used as pharmaceutical anticholinergics . Tropane alkaloids are of common occurrence not only in

3610-525: Is native to temperate southern, Central and Eastern Europe, Turkey , Iran and the Caucasus , but has been cultivated and introduced outside its native range. In southern Sweden it was recorded in Flora of Skåne in 1870 as grown in apothecary gardens near Malmö. In Britain it is native only on calcareous soils, on disturbed ground, field margins, hedgerows and open woodland. More widespread as an alien, it

3705-411: Is often a relic of cultivation as a medicinal herb. Seed is spread mainly by birds. It is naturalised in parts of North America and North Africa , where it is often found in shady, moist locations with limestone -rich soils . It is considered a weed species in parts of the world, where it colonizes areas with disturbed soils. Atropa belladonna is rarely used in gardens, but, when grown, it

3800-460: Is somewhat arbitrary. Although all species within a genus are supposed to be "similar", there are no objective criteria for grouping species into genera. There is much debate among zoologists about whether enormous, species-rich genera should be maintained, as it is extremely difficult to come up with identification keys or even character sets that distinguish all species. Hence, many taxonomists argue in favor of breaking down large genera. For instance,

3895-744: Is taken from Hindi धतूरा dhatūra "thorn-apple", ultimately from Sanskrit धत्तूर dhattūra "white thorn-apple" (referring to Datura metel of Asia). In the Ayurvedic text Sushruta Samhita , different species of Datura are also referred to as kanaka and unmatta . Dhatura is offered to Shiva in Hinduism . Record of this name in English dates back to 1662. Nathaniel Hawthorne refers to one type in The Scarlet Letter as "apple-Peru". In Mexico, its common name

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3990-474: Is the type species , and the generic name is permanently associated with the type specimen of its type species. Should the specimen turn out to be assignable to another genus, the generic name linked to it becomes a junior synonym and the remaining taxa in the former genus need to be reassessed. In zoological usage, taxonomic names, including those of genera, are classified as "available" or "unavailable". Available names are those published in accordance with

4085-427: Is usually for its large upright habit and showy berries. Germination of the small seeds is often difficult, due to hard seed coats that cause seed dormancy . Germination takes several weeks under alternating temperature conditions, but can be sped up with the use of gibberellic acid . The seedlings need sterile soil to prevent damping off and resent root disturbance during transplanting. Atropa belladonna

4180-495: The Datura . In Pharmacology and Abuse of Cocaine, Amphetamines, Ecstasy and Related Designer Drugs , Freye asserts, "Few substances have received as many severely negative recreational experience reports as has Datura ." The overwhelming majority of those who describe their use of Datura find their experiences extremely unpleasant ─ both mentally and often physically. However, anthropologists have found that indigenous groups, with

4275-621: The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature ; the earliest such name for any taxon (for example, a genus) should then be selected as the " valid " (i.e., current or accepted) name for the taxon in question. Consequently, there will be more available names than valid names at any point in time; which names are currently in use depending on the judgement of taxonomists in either combining taxa described under multiple names, or splitting taxa which may bring available names previously treated as synonyms back into use. "Unavailable" names in zoology comprise names that either were not published according to

4370-824: The International Plant Names Index for plants in general, and ferns through angiosperms, respectively, and Nomenclator Zoologicus and the Index to Organism Names for zoological names. Totals for both "all names" and estimates for "accepted names" as held in the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera (IRMNG) are broken down further in the publication by Rees et al., 2020 cited above. The accepted names estimates are as follows, broken down by kingdom: The cited ranges of uncertainty arise because IRMNG lists "uncertain" names (not researched therein) in addition to known "accepted" names;

4465-486: The Old World (see Columbian Exchange ). D. arenicola is a remarkable new species, described only in 2013, of very restricted range, and so distinctive as to have merited the creation for it of the new section Discola [not to be confused with the species name D. discolor ] within the genus. The specific name arenicola means "loving (i.e. "thriving in") sand ". American Brugmansia and Datura Society, Inc. (ABADS)

4560-461: The Old World tribes Hyoscyameae (to which the genus Atropa belongs) and Mandragoreae , but also in the New World tribe Datureae —all of which belong to the subfamily Solanoideae of the plant family Solanaceae. Atropa belladonna has unpredictable effects. The antidote for belladonna poisoning is physostigmine or pilocarpine , the same as for atropine . The potentially deadly ripe fruit of Atropa belladonna can be distinguished from

4655-709: The Western world . Certain common Datura species have also been used ritualistically as entheogens by some Native American groups. Non-psychoactive use of plants in the genus is usually done for medicinal purposes, and the alkaloids present in some species have long been considered traditional medicines in both the New and Old Worlds due to the presence of the alkaloids scopolamine and atropine , which are also produced by plants associated with Old World medicine such as Hyoscyamus niger , Atropa belladonna , and Mandragora officinarum . The generic name Datura

4750-618: The early modern period , predominately in New England and Western Europe . During the anti-witchcraft hysteria of colonial times it was considered unlucky or inappropriate to grow D. stramonium in one's garden due to its supposed reputation for aiding in incantations . Genus The composition of a genus is determined by taxonomists . The standards for genus classification are not strictly codified, so different authorities often produce different classifications for genera. There are some general practices used, however, including

4845-404: The platypus belongs to the genus Ornithorhynchus although George Shaw named it Platypus in 1799 (these two names are thus synonyms ) . However, the name Platypus had already been given to a group of ambrosia beetles by Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Herbst in 1793. A name that means two different things is a homonym . Since beetles and platypuses are both members of the kingdom Animalia,

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4940-515: The religion of the Aztecs and the practices of their medicine men and necromancers . It was reportedly used by the Aztecs for ritual sacrifice and malevolent purposes as well. In modern-day Mexico , some datura species are still used for sorcery and other occult practices, mostly in the southern region of Veracruz , specifically in the city of Catemaco . Bernardino de Sahagún , in around 1569, called attention to Datura in these words: "It

5035-739: The Egyptian henbane plant (another nightshade) for the above-mentioned purpose of dilating the pupils of her eyes. The use of deadly nightshades as a poison was known in ancient Rome, as attested by the rumour that the Roman empress Livia Drusilla used the juice of Atropa belladonna berries to murder her husband, the emperor Augustus . In the first century AD, Dioscorides recognized wine of mandrake as an anaesthetic for treatment of pain or sleeplessness, to be given prior to surgery or cautery. The use of nightshade preparations for anaesthesia, often in combination with opium , persisted throughout

5130-576: The FDA and Donnatal labeling , it is possibly effective for use as adjunctive therapy in the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome (irritable colon, spastic colon, mucous colitis) and acute enterocolitis . Donnatal is not approved by the FDA as being either safe or effective. According to the FDA, Donnatal use has significant risks: it can cause harm to a fetus if administered to a pregnant woman, can lead to heat prostration if used in hot climates, may cause constipation, and may produce drowsiness or blurred vision. The Towns-Lambert or Bella Donna Cure

5225-473: The French botanist Joseph Pitton de Tournefort (1656–1708) is considered "the founder of the modern concept of genera". The scientific name (or the scientific epithet) of a genus is also called the generic name ; in modern style guides and science, it is always capitalised. It plays a fundamental role in binomial nomenclature , the system of naming organisms , where it is combined with the scientific name of

5320-644: The Hindu goddess Kali . They were alleged to employ Datura in many such poisonings, using it also to induce drowsiness or stupefaction, making strangulation easier. Datura toxins may be ingested accidentally by consumption of honey produced by several wasp species, including Brachygastra lecheguana , during the Datura blooming season. These semi-domesticated honey wasps apparently collect Datura nectar for honey production, which can lead to poisoning. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported accidental poisoning resulting in hospitalization for

5415-592: The Roman and Islamic empires and continued in Europe until superseded in the 19th century by modern anaesthetics. The modern pharmacological study of Atropa belladonna extracts was begun by the German chemist Friedlieb Ferdinand Runge (1795–1867). In 1831, the German pharmacist Heinrich F. G. Mein (1799–1864) succeeded in preparing a pure crystalline form of the active substance, named atropine . Atropa belladonna

5510-548: The Solandreae containing the genus Solandra ("chalice vines") and the Mandragoreae , named for the famous Mandragora officinarum , most of which are considered traditional witches' herbs and poisons. Datura is considered a deliriant . Due to the potent combination of anticholinergic substances it contains, Datura intoxication typically produces the effects of anticholinergic delirium (usually involving

5605-460: The administration of activated charcoal can be used to reduce the stomach's absorption of the ingested material, and the drug physostigmine is used to reverse the effect of the poisons. Benzodiazepines can be given to calm the patient's agitation , and supportive care with oxygen, hydration, and symptomatic treatment is often provided. Observation of the patient is indicated until the symptoms resolve, usually from 24 to 36 hours after ingestion of

5700-442: The base for higher taxonomic ranks, such as the family name Canidae ("Canids") based on Canis . However, this does not typically ascend more than one or two levels: the order to which dogs and wolves belong is Carnivora ("Carnivores"). The numbers of either accepted, or all published genus names is not known precisely; Rees et al., 2020 estimate that approximately 310,000 accepted names (valid taxa) may exist, out of

5795-441: The belladonna plant were used to dilate women's pupils , an effect considered to be attractive and seductive. Belladonna drops act as a muscarinic antagonist , blocking receptors in the muscles of the eye that constrict pupil size. Belladonna is currently rarely used cosmetically, as it carries the adverse effects of causing minor visual distortions, inability to focus on near objects, and increased heart rate. Prolonged usage

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5890-503: The classic "witches' weeds", along with deadly nightshade , henbane , and mandrake . All parts of the plants are toxic, and the genus has a long history of use for causing delirious states and death. It was well known as an essential ingredient of magical ointments, potions , and witches' brews, most notably Datura stramonium . In India, D. metel has long been regarded as a poison and aphrodisiac , having been used in Ayurveda as

5985-446: The form "author, year" in zoology, and "standard abbreviated author name" in botany. Thus in the examples above, the genus Canis would be cited in full as " Canis Linnaeus, 1758" (zoological usage), while Hibiscus , also first established by Linnaeus but in 1753, is simply " Hibiscus L." (botanical usage). Each genus should have a designated type , although in practice there is a backlog of older names without one. In zoology, this

6080-737: The generic name (or its abbreviated form) still forms the leading portion of the scientific name, for example, Canis lupus lupus for the Eurasian wolf subspecies, or as a botanical example, Hibiscus arnottianus ssp. immaculatus . Also, as visible in the above examples, the Latinised portions of the scientific names of genera and their included species (and infraspecies, where applicable) are, by convention, written in italics . The scientific names of virus species are descriptive, not binomial in form, and may or may not incorporate an indication of their containing genus; for example,

6175-621: The genus Iochroma . Datura specialists, the Preissels, accept only 9 species of Datura , but Kew's Plants of the World Online currently lists the following 14 (out of which the current edition of The Plant List does not list D. arenicola , D. lanosa , and D. pruinosa as accepted spp.): Of the above, D. leichhardtii is close enough to D. pruinosa to merit demotion to a subspecies and likewise D. ferox and D. quercifolia are close enough in morphology to merit being subsumed in

6270-457: The genus Datura are now placed in the distinct genus Brugmansia ( Brugmansia differs from Datura in that it is woody (the species being shrubs or small trees ) and has indehiscent fruits.) The solanaceous tribe Datureae , to which Datura and Brugmansia belong, has recently acquired a new, monotypic genus Trompettia J. Dupin , featuring the species Trompettia cardenasiana , which had hitherto been misclassified as belonging to

6365-607: The genus name Atropa because of the poisonous properties of these plants. Atropos (lit. "unturning one"), one of the Three Fates in Greek mythology, is said to have cut a person's thread of life after her sisters had spun and measured it. Linnaeus chose the species name belladonna ("beautiful woman" in Italian) in reference to the cosmetic use of the plant during the Renaissance , when women were believed to have used

6460-748: The greatest danger to children because they look attractive and have a somewhat sweet taste. The root of the plant is generally the most toxic part, though this can vary from one specimen to another. The active agents in belladonna, atropine , hyoscine (scopolamine), and hyoscyamine , have anticholinergic properties. The symptoms of belladonna poisoning include dilated pupils , sensitivity to light, blurred vision , tachycardia , loss of balance , staggering, headache, rash , flushing, severely dry mouth and throat, slurred speech, urinary retention , constipation , confusion , hallucinations , delirium, and convulsions. In 2009, A. belladonna berries were mistaken for blueberries by an adult woman;

6555-432: The idea that a newly defined genus should fulfill these three criteria to be descriptively useful: Moreover, genera should be composed of phylogenetic units of the same kind as other (analogous) genera. The term "genus" comes from Latin genus , a noun form cognate with gignere ('to bear; to give birth to'). The Swedish taxonomist Carl Linnaeus popularized its use in his 1753 Species Plantarum , but

6650-429: The juice of the berries in eyedrops intended to dilate the pupils and make the eyes appear more seductive. Extracts of plants in the deadly nightshade family have been in use since at least the 4th century BC, when Mandragora ( mandrake ) was recommended by Theophrastus for treatment of wounds, gout, and sleeplessness, and as a love potion . In the first century BC, Cleopatra used Atropine-rich extracts from

6745-633: The largest component, with 23,236 ± 5,379 accepted genus names, of which 20,845 ± 4,494 are angiosperms (superclass Angiospermae). By comparison, the 2018 annual edition of the Catalogue of Life (estimated >90% complete, for extant species in the main) contains currently 175,363 "accepted" genus names for 1,744,204 living and 59,284 extinct species, also including genus names only (no species) for some groups. The number of species in genera varies considerably among taxonomic groups. For instance, among (non-avian) reptiles , which have about 1180 genera,

6840-433: The lizard genus Anolis has been suggested to be broken down into 8 or so different genera which would bring its ~400 species to smaller, more manageable subsets. Deadly nightshade Atropa belladonna , commonly known as belladonna or deadly nightshade , is a toxic perennial herbaceous plant in the nightshade family Solanaceae , which also includes tomatoes , potatoes and aubergine (eggplant). It

6935-446: The lower potencies which are, counterintuitively, the ones that are more likely to include belladonna since they are less diluted. Atropa belladonna and related plants, such as Datura stramonium (commonly known as jimson weed), have occasionally been used as recreational drugs because of the vivid hallucinations and delirium they produce. These hallucinations are most commonly described as very unpleasant, and recreational use

7030-689: The medical literature indicate deaths from D. ferox intoxication . Children are especially vulnerable to atropine poisoning. In some parts of Europe and India , Datura has been a popular poison for suicide and murder . From 1950 to 1965, the State Chemical Laboratories in Agra , India, investigated 2,778 deaths caused by ingesting Datura. A group called Thugs (practicers of thuggee) were reportedly devotees of an Indian religious cult made up of robbers and assassins who strangled or poisoned their victims in rituals devoted to

7125-403: The most (>300) have only 1 species, ~360 have between 2 and 4 species, 260 have 5–10 species, ~200 have 11–50 species, and only 27 genera have more than 50 species. However, some insect genera such as the bee genera Lasioglossum and Andrena have over 1000 species each. The largest flowering plant genus, Astragalus , contains over 3,000 species. Which species are assigned to a genus

7220-428: The name could not be used for both. Johann Friedrich Blumenbach published the replacement name Ornithorhynchus in 1800. However, a genus in one kingdom is allowed to bear a scientific name that is in use as a generic name (or the name of a taxon in another rank) in a kingdom that is governed by a different nomenclature code. Names with the same form but applying to different taxa are called "homonyms". Although this

7315-417: The plant contain tropane alkaloids ; roots have up to 1.3%, leaves 1.2%, stalks 0.65%, flowers 0.6%, ripe berries 0.7%, and seeds 0.4% tropane alkaloids; leaves reach maximal alkaloid content when the plant is budding and flowering, roots are most poisonous in the end of the plant's vegetation period. Belladonna nectar is transformed by bees into honey that also contains tropane alkaloids. The berries pose

7410-590: The plant. In Ancient Rome , it was used as a poison by Agrippina the Younger , wife of Emperor Claudius , on the advice of Locusta , a woman who specialized in poisons, and Livia , who is rumored to have used it to kill her husband Emperor Augustus . The Scots used it during a truce to poison the troops of the invading Harold Harefoot , King of England, to the point that the English troops were unable to stand their ground and had to retreat to their ships. Medical historians also suspect that Solomon Northup ,

7505-541: The provisions of the ICZN Code, e.g., incorrect original or subsequent spellings, names published only in a thesis, and generic names published after 1930 with no type species indicated. According to "Glossary" section of the zoological Code, suppressed names (per published "Opinions" of the International Commission of Zoological Nomenclature) remain available but cannot be used as the valid name for

7600-403: The roots of certain species such as D. wrightii . Because of the presence of these substances, Datura has been used for centuries in some cultures as a poison . A given plant's toxicity depends on its age, where it is growing, and the local weather conditions. These variations make Datura exceptionally hazardous as a drug. Since datura directly causes the effects of anticholinergic syndrome,

7695-561: The same as an egg plant, but its flower looks a little bit different. This plant's flowers are very attractive, looking like a lily flower, and its fruits are ball-shaped. It is very dangerous to consume. Atropa belladonna has a long history of use as a medicine, cosmetic, and poison. Known originally under various folk names (such as "deadly nightshade" in English), the plant was named Atropa belladonna by Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) when he devised his classification system. Linnaeus chose

7790-545: The same as for atropine. Atropa belladonna is also toxic to many domestic animals, causing narcosis and paralysis . However, cattle and rabbits eat the plant seemingly without suffering harmful effects. In humans, its anticholinergic properties will cause the disruption of cognitive capacities, such as memory and learning. Belladonna cultivation is legal in Southern and Eastern Europe, Pakistan, North America, and Brazil. Belladonna leaves and roots can be bought with

7885-466: The similar Solanum nigrum by its larger berry size, its much larger calyx than S. nigrum that extends wider than the fruit (either encasing it or extending flat), and that A. belladonna has singular berries, whilst S. nigrum grows as a cluster of berries located on a descending stem, similar to tomatoes. Solanum nigrum has other potentially toxic look alikes and should be confidently identified before attempts at foraging. This plant's structure looks

7980-423: The six berries she ate were documented to result in severe anticholinergic syndrome . The plant's deadly symptoms are caused by atropine's disruption of the parasympathetic nervous system 's ability to regulate involuntary activities, such as sweating, breathing, and heart rate. The antidote for belladonna poisoning is an anticholinesterase (such as physostigmine ) or a cholinomimetic (such as pilocarpine ),

8075-497: The specific name particular to the wolf. A botanical example would be Hibiscus arnottianus , a particular species of the genus Hibiscus native to Hawaii. The specific name is written in lower-case and may be followed by subspecies names in zoology or a variety of infraspecific names in botany . When the generic name is already known from context, it may be shortened to its initial letter, for example, C. lupus in place of Canis lupus . Where species are further subdivided,

8170-412: The standard format for a species name comprises the generic name, indicating the genus to which the species belongs, followed by the specific epithet, which (within that genus) is unique to the species. For example, the gray wolf 's scientific name is Canis lupus , with Canis ( Latin for 'dog') being the generic name shared by the wolf's close relatives and lupus (Latin for 'wolf') being

8265-408: The symptoms of its toxicity are often cited by the traditional mnemonic: "Blind as a bat, mad as a hatter, red as a beet, hot as a hare, dry as a bone, the bowel and bladder lose their tone, and the heart runs alone". Datura , as well as long-term psychoactive/toxic usage of other anticholinergic drugs , also appear to significantly increase the risk of developing dementia . In traditional cultures,

8360-403: The taxon is termed a synonym ; some authors also include unavailable names in lists of synonyms as well as available names, such as misspellings, names previously published without fulfilling all of the requirements of the relevant nomenclatural code, and rejected or suppressed names. A particular genus name may have zero to many synonyms, the latter case generally if the genus has been known for

8455-586: The two words bella and donna in the Italian language , meaning 'beautiful' and 'woman', respectively, originating either from its usage as a cosmetic to beautify pallid skin, or more probably, from its usage to increase the pupil size in women. Belladonna is one of the most toxic plants known, and its use by mouth increases risk in numerous clinical conditions, such as complications of pregnancy , cardiovascular diseases , gastrointestinal disorders , and psychiatric disorders , among others. All parts of

8550-509: The use of A. belladonna in its natural form for any condition is insufficient, although some of its components, in particular l - atropine , which was purified from belladonna in the 1830s, have accepted medical uses. Donnatal is a prescription pharmaceutical , that combines natural belladonna alkaloids in a specific, fixed ratio with phenobarbital to provide peripheral anticholinergic or antispasmodic action and mild sedation. Donnatal contains 0.0194 mg of atropine. According to

8645-576: The values quoted are the mean of "accepted" names alone (all "uncertain" names treated as unaccepted) and "accepted + uncertain" names (all "uncertain" names treated as accepted), with the associated range of uncertainty indicating these two extremes. Within Animalia, the largest phylum is Arthropoda , with 151,697 ± 33,160 accepted genus names, of which 114,387 ± 27,654 are insects (class Insecta). Within Plantae, Tracheophyta (vascular plants) make up

8740-429: The virus species " Salmonid herpesvirus 1 ", " Salmonid herpesvirus 2 " and " Salmonid herpesvirus 3 " are all within the genus Salmonivirus ; however, the genus to which the species with the formal names " Everglades virus " and " Ross River virus " are assigned is Alphavirus . As with scientific names at other ranks, in all groups other than viruses, names of genera may be cited with their authorities, typically in

8835-458: Was a regimen for treating alcoholism in the early 20th century. Belladonna has been used in herbal medicine for centuries as a pain reliever, muscle relaxer, and anti-inflammatory, and to treat menstrual problems, peptic ulcer disease, histaminic reaction, and motion sickness. At least one 19th-century eclectic medicine journal explained how to prepare a belladonna tincture for direct administration. In homeopathic practices, belladonna

8930-399: Was prescribed by German physician Samuel Hahnemann as a topical medication for inflammation and pain diluted to such an extent that none of the plant was actually present in the preparation. In the form of Doktor Koster's Antigaspills , belladonna was a homeopathic medication for upset stomach and excessive flatulence , again with no actual belladonna present in the medication. There

9025-605: Was reputed to cause blindness . In the United States, belladonna is marketed as a dietary supplement , typically as an atropine ingredient in over-the-counter cold medicine products. Although such cold medicine products are probably safe for oral use at typical atropine dosages (0.2 milligram), there is inadequate scientific evidence to assure their effectiveness. By FDA guidelines for supplements, there are no regulated manufacturing standards for cold medicines containing atropine, with some belladona supplements found to contain contaminants. Scientific evidence to recommend

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