201-550: The Davidian Revolution is a name given by many scholars to the changes which took place in the Kingdom of Scotland during the reign of David I (1124–1153). These included his foundation of burghs , implementation of the ideals of Gregorian Reform , foundation of monasteries , Normanisation of the Scottish government, and the introduction of feudalism through immigrant Norman and Anglo-Norman knights. King David I
402-410: A Protestant Reformation that created a predominately Calvinist national kirk . There were a series of religious controversies that resulted in divisions and persecutions. The Scottish Crown developed naval forces at various points in its history, but often relied on privateers and fought a guerre de course . Land forces centred around the large common army , but adopted European innovations from
603-456: A "three-tier system, with Gaelic at the bottom and English at the top". The Pictish and Scottish kingdoms that would form the basis of the Kingdom of Alba were largely converted by Irish-Scots missions associated with figures such as St Columba , from the 5th to the 7th centuries. These missions tended to found monastic institutions and collegiate churches that served large areas. Partly as
804-511: A circumscribed form, from the time of Henri Pirenne , a century ago. Commerce generated by and the economic privileges granted to merchant towns across northern Europe in the eleventh and twelfth centuries paid for, in new revenues, the increasing diversification of society and ensured that further growth would occur. What was of great importance for the future of Scotland was the creation by David of perhaps seven such jurisdictionally licensed communities at ancient royal centres and even at new sites,
1005-509: A combination of kirk funds, contributions from local heritors or burgh councils and parents that could pay. They were inspected by kirk sessions, who checked for the quality of teaching and doctrinal purity. There were also large number of unregulated "adventure schools", which sometimes fulfilled a local needs and sometimes took pupils away from the official schools. Outside of the established burgh schools, masters often combined their position with other employment, particularly minor posts within
1206-601: A context in the Gaelic-speaking world. This is particularly true in understanding David's enthusiasm for the Gregorian Reform . The latter was a revolutionary movement within the western church spearheaded vigorously in the papacy of Pope Gregory VII which sought renewed spiritual rigour, ecclesiastical discipline and doctrinal obedience to the papacy and its sponsored theologians. The Normans who came to England adopted this ideology, and soon began attacking
1407-668: A daughter house, Lesmahagow Priory . David also continued his predecessor Alexander's patronage of the Augustinians , founding Holyrood Abbey with monks from Merton Priory . David and Bishop John, moreover, established Jedburgh Abbey with canons from Beauvais in 1138. Other Augustinian foundations included St Andrew's Cathedral Priory , established by David and Bishop Robert of St Andrews in 1140, which in turn founded an establishment at Loch Leven (1150x1153); an Augustinian abbey, whose canons were taken from Arrouaise in France,
1608-534: A desire, intensified after the Reformation, for women to take personal moral responsibility, particularly as wives and mothers. In Protestantism this necessitated an ability to learn and understand the catechism and even to be able to independently read the Bible, but most commentators, even those that tended to encourage the education of girls, thought they should not receive the same academic education as boys. In
1809-521: A great deal of tension with the English church, where both the Archbishop of Canterbury and the Archbishop of York claimed overlordship. It was once held that Scotland's episcopal sees and entire parochial system owed their origins to the innovations of David I. Today, scholars have moderated this view. Although David moved the bishopric of Mortlach east to his new burgh of Aberdeen, and arranged
2010-445: A large degree on disposable income; consumption of foreign and exotic commodities broadened; men of ability and ambition found their way to court and entered the service of the king. What is more, no less than the written word, the coin acted upon the culture and mental categories of people who made use of it. Like a seal displaying the king in majesty, the coin broadcast the image of the ruler to his people and, more fundamentally, altered
2211-630: A larger force than his first Irish Sea campaign, possibly with the intention of invading Ireland. Magnus had earlier raided Inis Cathaigh (Scattery Island) at the Shannon estuary in 1101, possibly testing the situation and defenses of Ireland. Magnus agreed to provide military support for the High King in his war against the men of Ulster. They forged an alliance, cemented by the marriage of Muirchertach's daughter, Bjaðmunjo , to Magnus's son, Sigurd . The treaty also saved Ireland from Norse raids, but
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#17327653023512412-630: A major conflict between Protesters and Resolutioners , which became a long term divide in the Kirk. At the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660, legislation was revoked back to 1633, removing the Covenanter gains of the Bishops' Wars, but the discipline of kirk sessions, presbyteries and synods were renewed. The reintroduction of episcopacy was a source of particular trouble in the south-west of
2613-467: A major influence on late medieval religious thought. The Wars of Independence largely closed English universities to Scots, and consequently continental universities became more significant. This situation was transformed by the founding of the University of St Andrews in 1413, the University of Glasgow in 1451 and the University of Aberdeen in 1495. Initially these institutions were designed for
2814-487: A major legal institution, gaining an oversight of taxation and policy. By the end of the Middle Ages it was sitting almost every year, partly because of the frequent royal minorities and regencies of the period, which may have prevented it from being sidelined by the monarchy. In the early modern era, Parliament was also vital to the running of the country, providing laws and taxation, but it had fluctuating fortunes and
3015-599: A matter when available and to fill in any gaps with provisions from the common law embodied in Civil and Canon law , which had the advantage of being written. Under James IV the legal functions of the council were rationalised, with a royal Court of Session meeting daily in Edinburgh to deal with civil cases. In 1514, the office of justice-general was created for the Earl of Argyll (and held by his family until 1628). In 1532,
3216-554: A million by the end of the 15th century. Compared with the situation after the redistribution of population in the later Highland Clearances and the Industrial Revolution , these numbers would have been relatively evenly spread over the kingdom, with roughly half living north of the River Tay . Perhaps ten per cent of the population lived in one of many burghs that grew up in the later medieval period, mainly in
3417-468: A national diocesan system. As for the development of the parochial system, David's traditional role as its creator can not be sustained. Scotland already had an ancient system of parish churches dating to the Early Middle Ages , and the kind of system introduced by David's Normanising tendencies can more accurately be seen as mild refashioning, rather than creation; he made the Scottish system as
3618-654: A political marriage into Manx Royalty, who had requested a king from the Irish royal bloodline. This time, the alliance was made through his nephew Diarmuit , Tadc's son, who married a Manx princess. By gaining overlordship of the Isles, Muirchertach was able to access the manpower and large naval fleets of the Isles, and he had a base from which to launch assaults on Ulster in the Hebrides , which would prove useful in his war against Domnall Ua Lochlainn . However, this attracted
3819-441: A powerful landowner in both Galloway and Ireland and was known to Francesco Pegolotti as Scotland's richest abbey. Not only were such monasteries an expression of David's undoubted piety, but they also functioned to transform Scottish society. Monasteries became centres of foreign influence, being founded by French or English monks. They provided sources of literate men, able to serve the crown's growing administrative needs. This
4020-498: A priory by 1149. David's activities were paralleled by other "Scottish" magnates. For instance, the Premonstratensian house of Dryburgh Abbey was founded in 1150 by monks from Alnwick Abbey with the patronage of Hugh de Morville, Lord of Lauderdale . Moreover, six years after the foundation of Melrose Abbey, King Fergus of Galloway likewise founded a Cistercian abbey from Rievaulx, Dundrennan Abbey , which would become
4221-553: A process of religious and legal reforms. Until the 13th century, the border with England was very fluid, with Northumbria being annexed to Scotland by David I, but lost under his grandson and successor Malcolm IV in 1157. The Treaty of York (1237) fixed the boundaries with England close to the modern border. By the reign of Alexander III , the Scots had annexed the remainder of the Norwegian-held western seaboard after
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#17327653023514422-495: A profound impact on the development of Scottish law, establishing feudal land tenure over many parts of the south and east that eventually spread northward. Sheriffs, originally appointed by the King as royal administrators and tax collectors, developed legal functions. Feudal lords also held courts to adjudicate disputes between their tenants. By the 14th century, some of these feudal courts had developed into "petty kingdoms" where
4623-406: A result of these factors, some scholars have identified a distinctive form of Celtic Christianity , in which abbots were more significant than bishops , attitudes to clerical celibacy were more relaxed and there were some significant differences in practice with Roman Christianity, particularly the form of tonsure and the method of calculating Easter . Most of these issues had been resolved by
4824-531: A ring of close friends and supporters, bound to him and his heirs by feudal obligation and capable of rendering him military service of the most up-to-date kind and filling administrative offices at the highest level". Since Robert Bartlett 's The Making of Europe: Conquest, Colonization and Cultural Change, 950–1350 (1993), reinforced by Moore's The First European Revolution, c.970–1215 (2000), it has become increasingly apparent that better understanding of David's "revolution" can be achieved by placing it in
5025-488: A scholarly and written language. Monasteries served as repositories of knowledge and education, often running schools and providing a small educated elite, who were essential to create and read documents in a largely illiterate society. In the High Middle Ages, new sources of education arose, with song and grammar schools . These were usually attached to cathedrals or a collegiate church and were most common in
5226-561: A schoolhouse and pay a schoolmaster, while ministers and local presbyteries oversaw the quality of the education. In many Scottish towns, burgh schools were operated by local councils. By the late 17th century, there was a largely complete network of parish schools in the Lowlands, but in the Highlands basic education was still lacking in many areas. The widespread belief in the limited intellectual and moral capacity of women, vied with
5427-530: A single merchant town, as well as the essential castle-building cavalry elite. After David's reign, it had gained all of these. During the reign of king David I, then, comparatively straightforward evidence of "Europeanisation" was produced in Scotland – that adoption of the homogenised political, economic, social and cultural modes of medieval civilisation, suitably modified for the distinctive Scottish milieu, which in tandem with similar adoptions elsewhere led to
5628-543: A source from Munster, Muirchertach avenged himself by attacking the Kingdoms of Meath and Leinster , the latter presumably having fallen into enemy hands since the time Muirchertach had been governor of Dublin. He gained the submission of both provinces, killing the King of Leinster in the process. He also fought around Dublin, burning a building in Lusk , Fingal killing over 160 people inside. He then headed west and cut down
5829-665: A virtually independent Presbyterian Covenanter state in Scotland. It also helped precipitate the Wars of the Three Kingdoms , during which the Scots carried out major military interventions. After Charles I's defeat, the Scots backed the king in the Second English Civil War ; after his execution, they proclaimed his son Charles II king, resulting in the Anglo-Scottish War of 1650-1652 against
6030-416: A whole more like that of France and England, but he did not create it. Kingdom of Scotland The Kingdom of Scotland ( Scottish Gaelic : Rìoghachd na h-Alba ; Scots : Kinrick o Scotland , Norn : Kongungdum Skotland ) was a sovereign state in northwest Europe , traditionally said to have been founded in 843. Its territories expanded and shrank, but it came to occupy the northern third of
6231-577: Is not mentioned in any of the annals of Ireland until the year 1075 when he was defeated by the Kingdom of Airgíalla in battle near modern Ardee in County Louth , taking heavy losses. This was part of a series of campaigns undertaken by his father Toirdelbach against rebellious lesser kings in the north of the country. He was later appointed as king or governor of the city-state of Dublin by his father. Background: Importance of Dublin Despite
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6432-511: Is possible Henry would have executed Arnulf otherwise. Although Arnulf was pardoned, the de Belleme family was never really forgiven by Henry for the rebellion. Following the death of Magnus Barefoot in 1103 and the withdrawal of Norwegian military forces from the Irish Sea area, Muirchertach successfully resumed his attempts to expand Irish power in the region at the expense of the Norse. He
6633-573: Is still widely regarded as one of the most significant rulers in Scotland's history. The reason is what Barrow and Lynch both call the "Davidian Revolution". David's "revolution" is held to underpin the development of later medieval Scotland, whereby the changes that he inaugurated grew into most of the central non-native institutions of the later medieval kingdom. Barrow summarises the many and varied goals of David I, all of which began and ended with his determination "to surround his fortified royal residence and its mercantile and ecclesiastical satellites with
6834-408: Is to David's reign that the beginnings of Scottish feudalism and seignorialism are generally assigned. Geoffrey Barrow wrote that David's reign witnessed "a revolution in Scots dynastic law" as well as "fundamental innovations in military organization" and "in the composition and dominant characteristics of its ruling class". This is defined as "castle-building, the regular use of professional cavalry,
7035-582: The Archbishop of Dublin , Patrick. Patrick had previously held various positions within the Catholic Church in England and would have been very familiar with the politics of England following the Norman Conquest in 1066 . Patrick possibly influenced Muirchertach's great interest in affairs outside Ireland later in his career. On 19 October 1084, Muirchertach led a large army consisting of
7236-479: The Bank of Scotland . The bank issued pound notes from 1704, which had the face value of £12 Scots. Scottish currency was abolished after the 1707 Act of Unions, with Scottish coins in circulation being drawn in to be re-minted according to English standards. At its borders in 1707, the Kingdom of Scotland was half the size of England and Wales in area, but with its many inlets, islands and inland lochs , it had roughly
7437-624: The College of Justice was founded, leading to the training and professionalisation of lawyers. David I is the first Scottish king known to have produced his own coinage. After the union of the Scottish and English crowns in 1603, the Pound Scots was reformed to closely match sterling coin . The Bank of Scotland issued pound notes from 1704. Scottish currency was abolished by the Acts of Union 1707; however, Scotland has retained unique banknotes to
7638-695: The Glorious Revolution of 1688–1689, in which James VII was deposed by his daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange in England, Scotland accepted them under the Claim of Right Act 1689 , but the deposed main hereditary line of the Stuarts became a focus for political discontent known as Jacobitism , leading to a series of invasions and rebellions mainly focused on the Scottish Highlands. After severe economic dislocation in
7839-559: The King of Leinster . The forces of Diarmuit and Leinster met with the forces of Muirchertach at Raith Etair, possibly the promontory fort on Howth Head in northern County Dublin . The forces of Muirchertach were victorious, and Muirchertach's claim to the Kingship was no longer under any threat. In 1088, Muirchertach led a number of naval campaigns against Ruadhrí na Saide Buide Ua Conchobhair , King of Connacht . The first fleet sailed up
8040-591: The Kingdom of Dublin had fallen to the Irish of Leinster in the year 1052, Irish influence in the Irish Sea , particularly the Kingdom of Man and the Isles , had greatly increased. Diarmuit mac Maíl na mBó , King of Leinster and High King of Ireland, was also King of the Isles through capturing Dublin as Dublin was part of this Kingdom. Having ousted the Norse–Gael king, he was in a very powerful position. After Diarmuit's death, Muirchertach's father, Toirdelbach , became High King of Ireland and had control of Dublin. He
8241-709: The Kingdom of Munster in 1118. Muirchertach died in 1119 and the Annals of Ulster call him 'king of Ireland and tower of the honour and dignity of the western world." Munster was divided into three Kingdoms: the Kingdom of Thomond under the O'Brien dynasty, the Kingdom of Desmond under the MacCarthy Mór dynasty, and the Kingdom of Airgíalla under the Kennedys, although the last was short-lived. Muirchertach apparently went into retirement having lost his High Kingship, and died at Lismore , modern County Waterford ,
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8442-542: The Kingdoms of Ulaid and the Northern Uí Néill . At the turn of the century, Muirchertach led annual campaigns against Domhnall Ua Lochlainn and the other northern kings, with mixed success. Muirchertach's armies consisted of soldiers from every Irish Kingdom apart from Ulster. The fighting was often heavily concentrated in what is now modern southern County Armagh , but Muirchertach would often be halted by
8643-540: The Late Middle Ages , Early Scots , then called English, became the dominant spoken language of the kingdom, aside from in the Highlands and Islands and Galloway . It was derived largely from Old English, with the addition of elements from Gaelic and French. Although resembling the language spoken in northern England, it became a distinct dialect from the late 14th century onwards. It began to be adopted by
8844-498: The Northern Uí Néill , who later in 1088 invaded Connacht and successfully gained the submission of Ruadhrí na Saide. Ruadhrí and Domnall formed an alliance and together they attacked Munster. At the time, Muirchertach was away campaigning in Leinster. They burned and looted Limerick , Killaloe and Emly , and took over 160 hostages. Muirchertach was forced to buy back these hostages with gold, silver, cattle and meat. According to
9045-704: The River Erne at Assaroe, then to the Inis Eoin Peninsula , burning Ardstraw and Fahan on the way. The offensive culminated with the destruction of Grianan an Aileach , an important fort of the Northern Uí Néill, in revenge for Ua Lochlainn's earlier burning of towns in Munster. Muirchertach famously ordered his men to bring back one stone from the walls of the fort for every sack of provisions they had. They marched home to Munster along
9246-777: The Synod of Cashel , and was able to influence reforms in the Church, notably relating to marriage. He also enacted more laws, and reformed aspects of the justice system. He presented more gifts to the Church. Like many rulers, not only in Ireland but throughout Europe , he seemed to realise having the Catholic Church on his side was important to a successful reign. However, conflict with Ua Lochlainn flared again in 1112 when Domnall defied Muirchertach by marching south to Dublin , where he burned Fingal and carried away many captives and herds of cattle. This led Muirchertach to return once more to
9447-529: The river Forth and Scotland south of the Forth and east of Galloway . Although this institution had Anglo-Norman origins, in Scotland north of the Forth at least it represented some form of continuity with an older office. For instance, Mormaer Causantín of Fife is styled judex magnus (i.e. great Brehon); the Justiciarship of Scotia hence was just as much a Gaelic office modified by Normanisation as it
9648-472: The "English" income secured for him by his marriage to Matilda de Senlis in order to finance the construction of the first true towns in Scotland, and these, in turn, allowed the establishment of several more. As Prince of the Cumbrians, David founded the first two burghs of "Scotland", at Roxburgh and Berwick . These were settlements with defined boundaries and guaranteed trading rights, locations where
9849-492: The 10th century until before the Black Death arrived in 1349, estimates based on the amount of farmable land suggest that population may have grown from half a million to a million. Although there is no reliable documentation on the impact of the plague, there are many anecdotal references to abandoned land in the following decades. If the pattern followed that in England, then the population may have fallen to as low as half
10050-588: The 11th century is largely speculative, but it was probably a mixture of legal traditions representing the different cultures inhabiting the land at the time, including Celtic , Britonnic , Irish and Anglo-Saxon customs. The legal tract, the Leges inter Brettos et Scottos , set out a system of compensation for injury and death based on ranks and the solidarity of kin groups. There were popular courts or comhdhails , indicated by dozens of place names in eastern Scotland. In Scandinavian-held areas, Udal law formed
10251-513: The 12th century, the writer Adam of Dryburgh described lowland Lothian as "the Land of the English in the Kingdom of the Scots". At least from the accession of David I, Gaelic ceased to be the main language of the royal court and was probably replaced by French, as evidenced by reports from contemporary chronicles, literature and translations of administrative documents into the French language. In
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#173276530235110452-643: The 1380s. They were almost exclusively aimed at boys, but by the end of the 15th century, Edinburgh also had schools for girls, sometimes described as "sewing schools", and probably taught by lay women or nuns. There was also the development of private tuition in the families of lords and wealthy burghers. The growing emphasis on education cumulated with the passing of the Education Act 1496 , which decreed that all sons of barons and freeholders of substance should attend grammar schools to learn "perfyct Latyne". All this resulted in an increase in literacy, but which
10653-525: The 1690s, there were moves that led to political union with England as the Kingdom of Great Britain , which came into force on 1 May 1707. The English and Scottish parliaments were replaced by a combined Parliament of Great Britain , which sat in Westminster and largely continued English traditions without interruption. Forty-five Scots were added to the 513 members of the House of Commons and 16 Scots to
10854-461: The 1690s. Significant languages in the medieval kingdom included Gaelic , Old English , Norse and French ; but by the early modern era Middle Scots had begun to dominate. Christianity was introduced into Scotland from the 6th century. In the Norman period the Scottish church underwent a series of changes that led to new monastic orders and organisation. During the 16th century, Scotland underwent
11055-561: The 16th century emerged as a major centre of display and artistic patronage, until it was effectively dissolved with the Union of the Crowns in 1603. The Scottish Crown adopted the conventional offices of western European courts, including High Steward , Chamberlain , Lord High Constable , Earl Marischal and Lord Chancellor . The King's Council emerged as a full-time body in the 15th century, increasingly dominated by laymen and critical to
11256-411: The 16th century emerged as a major centre of display and artistic patronage, until it was effectively dissolved with the 1603 Union of Crowns. The Scottish Crown adopted the conventional offices of western European monarchical states of the time and developed a Privy Council and great offices of state. Parliament also emerged as a major legal institution, gaining an oversight of taxation and policy, but
11457-672: The 16th century; and many Scots took service as mercenaries and as soldiers for the English Crown. From the 5th century on, north Britain was divided into a series of petty kingdoms. Of these, the four most important were those of the Picts in the north-east, the Scots of Dál Riata in the west, the Britons of Strathclyde in the south-west and the Anglian kingdom of Bernicia (which united with Deira to form Northumbria in 653) in
11658-452: The 190 members of the House of Lords . It was also a full economic union, replacing the Scottish systems of currency, taxation and laws regulating trade. The unified kingdom of Alba retained some of the ritual aspects of Pictish and Scottish kingship. These can be seen in the elaborate ritual coronation at the Stone of Scone at Scone Abbey . While the Scottish monarchy in the Middle Ages
11859-543: The British Isles. There are several possible explanations for this gift, but this period of Scottish history is not very well-documented in comparison with other areas of the British Isles . Even the details of Edgar's reign are relatively unknown. It has been noted that there would have been many Irish clerics in the court of Edgar, so it is likely he was in contact with the King of Scotland . Furthermore,
12060-686: The Church in Scotland remained relatively stable before the 16th century. During the 16th century, Scotland underwent a Protestant Reformation that created a predominately Calvinist national church, the Church of Scotland (also known as 'the Kirk' ), which was strongly Presbyterian in outlook, severely reducing the powers of bishops, although not abolishing them. The teachings of first Martin Luther and then John Calvin began to influence Scotland, particularly through Scottish scholars who had visited continental and English universities. Particularly important
12261-623: The Church. He commissioned the piece of propaganda, Cogad Gaédal re Galliab , "the War of the Irish with the Foreigners" between 1103 and 1113. The work was intended to romanticize the accounts from the annals, in a bid by Muirchertach to secure the O'Brien Dynasty 's claim to the High Kingship, in a time when the throne was fiercely contested by the Northern Uí Néill in Ulster and later,
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#173276530235112462-428: The College of Justice as a supreme court of appeal. David I is the first Scottish king known to have produced his own coinage. There were soon mints at Edinburgh, Berwick and Roxburgh . Early Scottish coins were similar to English ones, but with the king's head in profile instead of full face. The number of coins struck was small and English coins probably remained more significant in this period. The first gold coin
12663-414: The Crown gained greater political control at the expense of independent lords and regained most of its lost territory to around the modern borders of the country. The dowry of the Orkney and Shetland Islands, by the Norwegian crown, in 1468 was the last great land acquisition for the kingdom. In 1482 the border fortress of Berwick—the largest port in medieval Scotland—fell to the English once again; this
12864-427: The English and French. In the mid-16th century, the Scottish Reformation was strongly influenced by Calvinism , leading to widespread iconoclasm and the introduction of a Presbyterian system of organisation and discipline that would have a major impact on Scottish life. In the late 16th century, James VI emerged as a major intellectual figure with considerable authority over the kingdom. In 1603, he inherited
13065-513: The English rate. The Scottish penny became a base metal coin by c. 1484 and virtually disappeared as a separate coin from c. 1513 onwards. In 1356, an English proclamation banned the lower quality Scottish coins from being circulated in England. After the union of the Scottish and English crowns in 1603, the Pound Scots was reformed to closely match coins of the pound sterling , with £12 Scots equal to £1 sterling. The Parliament of Scotland enacted proposals in 1695 to set up
13266-466: The English), while also again demonstrating his skill in diplomacy. However, it does seem unlikely that Muirchertach would have turned against the Normans. It is possible Arnulf was not even in Ireland at the time of Magnus's death. The marriage between Muirchertach's daughter and Arnulf went ahead regardless, and later, the High King wrote to the English bishop Anselm of Canterbury , thanking him for intervening with Henry on behalf of his son-in-law. It
13467-423: The French and martyrs for the Protestant cause. Limited toleration and the influence of exiled Scots and Protestants in other countries, led to the expansion of Protestantism, with a group of lairds declaring themselves Lords of the Congregation in 1557. By 1560, a relatively small group of Protestants were in a position to impose reform on the Scottish church. A confession of faith, rejecting papal jurisdiction and
13668-410: The Gaelic context as much as the Anglo-Norman one. Indeed, the Gaelic world had never been closed off from its neighbours in England or continental Europe. Gaelic warriors and holy men had been travelling regularly through England and the continent for centuries. David's predecessor Macbeth (King, 1040–57) had employed Norman mercenaries even before the conquest of England, and English exiles after
13869-528: The Highlands and Islands in the north and west and the Lowlands in the south and east. The highlands are further divided into the Northwest Highlands and the Grampian Mountains by the fault line of the Great Glen . The Lowlands are divided into the fertile belt of the Central Lowlands and the higher terrain of the Southern Uplands , which included the Cheviot Hills , over which the border with England ran. The Central Lowland belt averages about 50 miles (80 kilometres) in width and, because it contains most of
14070-498: The Highlands and to create a cultural gulf with the Lowlands. From the mid-16th century, written Scots was increasingly influenced by the developing Standard English of Southern England due to developments in royal and political interactions with England. With the increasing influence and availability of books printed in England, most writing in Scotland came to be done in the English fashion. Unlike many of his predecessors, James VI generally despised Gaelic culture. Having extolled
14271-411: The Irish lost most of their control in the Isles to the Norwegians. Muirchertach also recognised Norwegian control over Dublin and Fingal , with the western lands of the Kingdom of Norway under the control of Sigurd, who was announced as co-king alongside Magnus on the day of his wedding. Muirchertach and Magnus campaigned together in Ulster throughout late 1102 and early the next year. Contrary to
14472-523: The Irish. However, after the Norwegian King 's death at the hands of the Ulaid , Muirchertach turned against the English rebels and forced them out of Ireland, possibly in an attempt to make amends with Henry. Indeed, Henry had imposed sanctions on Irish trade for their assistance in helping the rebels, but Muirchertach was able to negotiate the lifting of the embargo (possibly by handing Arnulf over to
14673-466: The Isles. He went with his army to Dublin and banished Gofraid, and brought about the killing of Domnall Ua Maíl Shechnaill. He asserted supremacy over the Southern Uí Néill of the Kingdom of Meath , dividing the province between two rival clans, applying a policy of divide and rule , which had been used very effectively by his father before him. The Irish Sea and Magnus Barefoot Since
14874-418: The King of Dublin, Echmarchach mac Ragnaill, was removed by the King of Laigin (Leinster), Diarmuit mac Maíl ma mBó . Echmarchach was replaced by Diarmuit's son, Murchad. As a prince of Leinster, Murchad acted as a sort of governor of the city on behalf of his father, the King. Diarmuit seemed to appreciate the importance of Dublin which, even back then, was recognised as a sort of national capital city and
15075-407: The King of Strathclyde before inheriting the throne of Alba; he is credited with later annexing parts of Lothian, including Edinburgh, from the Kingdom of Northumbria. The reign of David I has been characterised as a " Davidian Revolution ", in which he introduced a system of feudal land tenure, established the first royal burghs in Scotland and the first recorded Scottish coinage, and continued
15276-466: The King's courts did not have authority except for cases of treason. Burghs also had their local laws dealing mostly with commercial and trade matters and may have become similar in function to sheriff's courts. Ecclesiastical courts had exclusive jurisdiction over matters such as marriage, contracts made on oath, inheritance and legitimacy. Judices were often royal officials who supervised baronial, abbatial and other lower-ranking "courts". However,
15477-529: The Kingdom of Alba/Scotland, and he was later credited with bringing Scottish Christianity into conformity with the Catholic Church. Máel Coluim I (Malcolm I) ( r. c. 943–954) is believed to have annexed the Kingdom of Strathclyde , over which the kings of Alba had probably exercised some authority since the later 9th century. His successor, Indulf the Aggressor , was described as
15678-626: The Lion , describing the persecution of English-speakers in Scotland, "the towns and burghs of the Scottish realm are known to be inhabited by English" and the failure of these towns to go native would in the long term undermine the position of the Gaelic language and give birth to the idea of the Scottish Lowlands . The thesis that the "rise of towns" was indirectly responsible for the medieval flourishing of Europe has been accepted, at least in
15879-570: The Meathmen and Connachtmen sailed southward on the Shannon and plundered the plains around Cashel. Four kings now battled for supremacy in Ireland: Muirchertach Ua Briain of the Kingdom of Munster , Domnall Ua Maél Sechnaill of the Kingdom of Mide , Ruadhrí na Saide Buide Ua Conchobhair of the Kingdom of Connacht , and Domnall Mac Lochlainn of the Northern Uí Néill . The four kings met in 1090, where Mac Lochlainn
16080-643: The Norse sagas, the Irish Annals describe the campaigns as largely unsuccessful. Norse sources say Magnus spent the winter in the High King's palace at Kincora in Killaloe with Muirchertach, but it is also possible that he wintered in Dublin. In the summer of 1103, Muirchertach launched an offensive against Domnall Ua Lochlainn , but was defeated on 5 August at the Battle of Mag Coba. After this, with enemies to
16281-867: The North to deal with Domnall, but a peace was again organised by the abbot of Armagh . After a month-long stand-off, matters were settled, and Muirchertach returned home to Munster. In 1114, the King became " sick to the point of a living skeleton ", and his brother Diarmuit took advantage of the High King's misfortune to steal the Kingship and banish Muirchertach. However, the next year, Muirchertach miraculously regained his strength and returned to his home, from whence he launched campaigns against Diarmuit. He finally managed to capture his rebellious brother in 1115, but his High Kingship seemed to be disintegrating. The young Toirdelbach Ua Conchobhair , King of Connacht, son of Muirchertach's old rival Ruadhrí na Saide Buide , and Muirchertach's nephew, at only twenty-seven years of age,
16482-658: The River Shannon as far as Clonfert , but the crews were slaughtered by the Connachtmen. Another fleet was sent around the western coast of Ireland on the Atlantic Ocean , but this fleet was also defeated by the forces of Connacht. Ruadhrí then attacked Munster when he invaded northern County Clare , near the homeland of the Dál gCáis . However, a new rival emerged in the form of Domnall Mac Lochlainn , King of
16683-536: The Royal College of Justice was founded, leading to the training and professionalisation of an emerging group of career lawyers. The Court of Session placed increasing emphasis on its independence from influence, including from the king, and superior jurisdiction over local justice. Its judges were increasingly able to control entry to their own ranks. In 1672, the High Court of Justiciary was founded from
16884-514: The Scotland proper-based bishop of St Andrews . David was responsible for assigning to Glasgow enough lands directly to make the bishopric self-sufficient and for ensuring that in the longer term Glasgow would become the second most important bishopric in the Kingdom of Scotland. By the 1120s, work also began on building a proper cathedral for the diocese. David would also try to ensure that his reinvigorated episcopal see would retain independence from other bishoprics, an aspiration which would generate
17085-540: The Scottish and Irish Gaelic world as spiritually backward – a mindset which even underlay the hagiography of David's mother Margaret, written by her confessor Thurgot at the instigation of the English royal court. Yet up until this period, Gaelic monks (often called Céli Dé ) from Ireland and Scotland had been pioneering their own kind of ascetic reform both in Great Britain and in continental Europe, where they founded many of their own monastic houses. Since
17286-464: The Scottish church established its independence from England, developed a clearer diocesan structure, becoming a "special daughter of the see of Rome", but lacking leadership in the form of Archbishops. In the late Middle Ages, the problems of schism in the Catholic Church allowed the Scottish Crown to gain greater influence over senior appointments and two archbishoprics had been established by
17487-446: The Scottish coast, and Edgar wanted to make peace, or some lesser Irish Kings from Ulster were raiding the coast of Scotland and Edgar requested Muirchertach's assistance in stopping them. Either way, it is evident Muirchertach's influence reached as far as Scotland, that Edgar viewed the High King as either a valuable ally or a serious threat, and that peace with him was the best option. By 1100, Muirchertach controlled almost all of
17688-488: The Ua Conchobhairs of Connacht . An Sligeadh Timcheall In 1101, officially High King of Ireland and with the Church on his side, Muirchertach planned his largest and most ambitious campaign yet, called An Sligeadh Timcheall ("The Circular Hosting"). He gathered the armies of the various kingdoms, save those of Ulster , and marched northwards. The six-week long campaign began with his army marching north to
17889-729: The Ulaid now under his control, however, he had another angle from which to attack the Uí Néill from in the Northeast, and easier access to the Hebrides and other areas of the Isles , and parts of Scotland . Like many of the High Kings of Ireland from the South had found, including Muirchertach's great-grandfather Brian Boru , the last place to recognise their authority was Ulster , namely
18090-476: The University of Glasgow in 1574. He placed an emphasis on simplified logic and elevated languages and sciences to the same status as philosophy, allowing accepted ideas in all areas to be challenged. He introduced new specialist teaching staff, replacing the system of "regenting", where one tutor took the students through the entire arts curriculum. Metaphysics were abandoned and Greek became compulsory in
18291-725: The Welsh fight the Normans who were encroaching on their territory on the island of Anglesey . However, the Normans were able to buy off the Irish ships to their side, and the Welsh were defeated. The Norman victory celebrations were interrupted by Magnus, however, who landed and routed the Norman army, reputedly shooting Hugh de Montgomery, brother of Arnulf , through the eye. Later, when the Irish fleet returned home, they were punished by Muirchertach for their treachery. After this event, Anglesey
18492-579: The administration of justice. The Privy Council , which developed in the mid-16th century, and the great offices of state, including the chancellor, secretary and treasurer , remained central to the administration of the government, even after the departure of the Stuart monarchs to rule in England from 1603. However, it was often sidelined and was abolished after the Acts of Union 1707 , with rule direct from London. The Parliament of Scotland also emerged as
18693-521: The aggrandisement associated with the New Monarchs elsewhere in Europe. Theories of constitutional monarchy and resistance were articulated by Scots, particularly George Buchanan , in the 16th century, but James VI of Scotland advanced the theory of the divine right of kings , and these debates were restated in subsequent reigns and crises. The court remained at the centre of political life, and in
18894-409: The ancient route of Slige Midluachra. For the first time during his reign, he had successfully subdued the Ulaid . The Northern Uí Néill had been severely weakened, but did not capitulate. Muirchertach would lead several campaigns against Ua Lochlainn over the next few years, but was unable to gain their submission, with the campaign almost always ending in stalemate in southern County Armagh . With
19095-611: The armies of the Kingdoms of Dublin , Leinster , Osraige and Munster against the forces of Donchad ua Ruairc of Breifne , in a battle at Moin Croinnioce, near modern Leixlip in County Kildare . Over 4,000 men were killed in the battle, with Muirchertach heavily defeating the forces of Ua Ruairc. After the battle, Muirchertach cut off Ua Ruairc's head and brought it to his father's palace in Kincora. In 1086, following
19296-535: The attention of the King of Norway , Magnus III, better known as Magnus Barefoot , who wanted to retain Norwegian power in the area and bring the Norse Kingdoms such as Orkney , the Isles and Dublin. With a fleet of around sixty ships and several thousand men, he re-established Norse power in the area, garrisoning the islands of Orkney and Man. Although some sources say he did want to conquer Ireland, there
19497-574: The basis of the legal system and it is known that the Hebrides were taxed using the Ounceland measure. Althings were open-air governmental assemblies that met in the presence of the Jarl and the meetings were open to virtually all "free men". At these sessions decisions were made, laws passed and complaints adjudicated. The introduction of feudalism in the reign of David I of Scotland would have
19698-522: The capture of Berwick by England in 1482, the territory of the Kingdom of Scotland corresponded to that of modern-day Scotland , bounded by the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the southwest. In 1603, James VI of Scotland became King of England , joining Scotland with England in a personal union . In 1707, during
19899-401: The conquest fled to the courts of both Máel Coluim III , King of Scotland, and Toirdelbach Ua Briain , High King of Ireland . The widespread infeftment of foreign knights and the processes by which land ownership was converted from a matter of customary tenure into a matter of feudal or otherwise legally-defined relationships revolutionised the way the Kingdom of Scotland was governed, as did
20100-408: The context of a wider European "revolution". The central idea is that from the late 10th century onwards the culture and institutions of the old Carolingian heartlands in northern France and western Germany spread to outlying areas, creating a more recognisable "Europe". In this model, the old Carolingian Empire formed a "core" and the outlying areas a "periphery". The Norman conquest of England in
20301-593: The country, an area with strong Presbyterian sympathies. Abandoning the official church, many of the people here began to attend illegal field assemblies led by excluded ministers, known as conventicles . In the early 1680s, a more intense phase of persecution began, in what was later to be known in Protestant historiography as " the Killing Time ". After the Glorious Revolution, Presbyterianism
20502-418: The creation of "Europe" as an identifiable entity for the first time. This is not to say that the Gaelic matrix into which these additions were disseminated was somehow destroyed or swept away; that was not the way in which the paradigm or "blueprint" of medieval Europe functioned – it was only a guide, one that specialised in amelioration, and not (usually) demolition. Yet, David's life as a "reformer" also has
20703-573: The creation of the diocese of Caithness, no other bishoprics can be safely called David's creation. The bishopric of Glasgow was restored rather than resurrected. In the case of the Bishop of Whithorn , the resurrection of that see was the work of Thurstan , Archbishop of York , with King Fergus of Galloway and the cleric Gille Aldan . That aside, Ailred of Rievaulx wrote in David's eulogy that when David came to power, "he found three or four bishops in
20904-567: The day before, according to one source—Magnus gathered his army and landed on the coast of northeastern Ireland. It is possible he made an incautious cattle raid, and the Ulaid mistook the Norwegians for cattle-raiding Hebrideans. Alternatively, it is possible that Muirchertach ordered the Ulaid to bring Magnus supplies, but the Ulaid took this is an order to ambush him. It is also possible that powerful men in Norway wanted Magnus removed from
21105-485: The day he would become king of Connacht. These events left Muirchertach in the south and Mac Lochlainn in the north the most powerful kings in Ireland. He continued expanding his power with further campaigns in Mide, more or less gaining the overlordship of the region, and he reconciled with his brother Diarmuit at Cashel in 1093. In 1094, Muirchertach fought the kings of Leth Cuinn and Gofraid Crobán , King of Dublin and
21306-466: The de Bellemes. However, Robert and Arnulf were defeated by Henry before the fleet could arrive to assist them. According to a Welsh chronicle, Arnulf " thought to make peace with the Irish and to obtain help from them. And he sent messengers to Ireland, that is Gerald the Steward (Gerald of Windsor) and many others, to ask for the daughter of King Murtart for his wife. And that he easily obtained; and
21507-475: The death of his father Toirdelbach, Muirchertach claimed the Kingship of Munster . Initially, Toirdelbach had divided the Kingdom among his three sons Muirchertach, Diarmuit and Tadc. However, Tadc died the following year and Muirchertach banished Diarmuit, claiming the entire province for himself. Diarmuit, however, was evidently not going to let Muirchertach take the Kingship so easily and made an alliance with
21708-467: The developing burghs. By the end of the Middle Ages grammar schools could be found in all the main burghs and some small towns. There were also petty schools, more common in rural areas and providing an elementary education. Some monasteries, like the Cistercian abbey at Kinloss , opened their doors to a wider range of students. The number and size of these schools seems to have expanded rapidly from
21909-413: The dispersal and installation of royal agents in the new mottes that were proliferating throughout the realm to staff newly created sheriffdoms and judiciaries for the twin purposes of law enforcement and taxation, bringing Scotland further into the "European" model. During this period, Scotland experienced innovations in governmental practices and the importation of foreign, generally French, knights. It
22110-459: The early 17th century. Calculations based on hearth tax returns for 1691 indicate a population of 1,234,575, but this figure may have been seriously effected by the subsequent famines of the late 1690s. By 1750, with its suburbs, Edinburgh reached 57,000. The only other towns above 10,000 by the same time were Glasgow with 32,000, Aberdeen with around 16,000 and Dundee with 12,000. Historical sources, as well as place name evidence, indicate
22311-509: The east and south. They would have had a mean population of about 2000, but many would have been much smaller than 1000 and the largest, Edinburgh, probably had a population of over 10,000 by the end of the Medieval era. Price inflation, which generally reflects growing demand for food, suggests that the population probably expanded in the first half of the 16th century, levelling off after the famine of 1595, as prices were relatively stable in
22512-401: The effectiveness of local government. The continued existence of courts baron and the introduction of kirk sessions helped consolidate the power of local lairds . Scots law developed in the Middle Ages and was reformed and codified in the 16th and 17th centuries. Under James IV the legal functions of the council were rationalised, with Court of Session meeting daily in Edinburgh. In 1532,
22713-523: The emerging republican regime of Parliamentarians in England led by Oliver Cromwell . The results were a series of defeats and the short-lived incorporation of Scotland into the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland (1653–1660) . After the 1660 restoration of the monarchy , Scotland regained its separate status and institutions, while the centre of political power remained in London. After
22914-546: The end of the 11th century various Gaelic princes had themselves been attempting to accommodate Gregorian reform, examples being Muirchertach Ua Briain , Toirdelbach Ua Conchobair , and Edgar and Alexander I of Scotland . Benjamin Hudson stresses the cultural unity of Scotland and Ireland in this period, and uses the example of cooperation between David I, the Scottish reformer, and his Irish counterpart St Malachy , to show at least partly that David's actions can be understood in
23115-440: The end of the 15th century. While some historians have discerned a decline of monasticism in the late Middle Ages, the mendicant orders of friars grew, particularly in the expanding burghs , to meet the spiritual needs of the population. New saints and cults of devotion also proliferated. Despite problems over the number and quality of clergy after the Black Death in the 14th century, and some evidence of heresy in this period,
23316-526: The excise, allowing the completion of buildings including the college in the High Street in Glasgow. They were still largely seen as a training school for clergy, and came under the control of the hard line Protestors . After the Restoration there was a purge of the universities, but much of the intellectual advances of the preceding period was preserved. The universities recovered from the upheavals of
23517-471: The extreme case of the upper Grampians an ice free season of four months or less and for much of the Highlands and Uplands of seven months or less. The early modern era also saw the impact of the Little Ice Age , with 1564 seeing thirty-three days of continual frost, where rivers and lochs froze, leading to a series of subsistence crises until the 1690s. From the formation of the Kingdom of Alba in
23718-534: The first time during his participation in Henry's conquest of Normandy after 1106. John himself was closely associated with the Tironensian Order , and presumably committed to the new Gregorian ideas regarding episcopal organisation. David carried out an inquest , afterwards assigned to the bishopric all the lands of his principality, except those in the east of his principality which were already governed by
23919-532: The first year followed by Aramaic , Syriac and Hebrew , launching a new fashion for ancient and biblical languages. Glasgow had probably been declining as a university before his arrival, but students now began to arrive in large numbers. He assisted in the reconstruction of Marischal College , Aberdeen , and in order to do for St Andrews what he had done for Glasgow, he was appointed Principal of St Mary's College, St Andrews , in 1580. The University of Edinburgh developed out of public lectures were established in
24120-489: The good quality agricultural land and has easier communications, could support most of the urbanisation and elements of conventional government. However, the Southern Uplands, and particularly the Highlands were economically less productive and much more difficult to govern. Its east Atlantic position means that Scotland has very heavy rainfall: today about 700 mm per year in the east and over 1000 mm in
24321-488: The government of Anglo-Norman England. New sheriffdoms enabled the King to effectively administer royal demesne land. During David I's reign, royal sheriffs had been established in the king's core personal territories; namely, in rough chronological order, at Roxburgh , Scone , Berwick-upon-Tweed , Stirling and Perth . The Justiciarship too was created in David's reign. Two Justiciarships were created, one for Scotland-proper and one for Lothian , i.e. for Scotland north of
24522-465: The humanist and historian Hector Boece , born in Dundee, returned from Paris to become the first principal at the new university of Aberdeen. These international contacts helped integrate Scotland into a wider European scholarly world and would be one of the most important ways in which the new ideas of humanism were brought into Scottish intellectual life. The humanist concern with widening education
24723-475: The intervention of the comrade Patraic, the abbot of Armagh, who would organise truces between the two kings. Muirchertach attempted a campaign against the Cenél Chonaill , with naval support from the fleet of Dublin , but he was forced to retreat following the destruction of the Dublin fleet. Around the same time, Muirchertach was also under threat from Magnus Barefoot of Norway, who had returned with
24924-537: The island of Great Britain , sharing a land border to the south with the Kingdom of England . During the Middle Ages , Scotland engaged in intermittent conflict with England, most prominently the Wars of Scottish Independence , which saw the Scots assert their independence from the English. Following the annexation of the Hebrides and the Northern Isles from Norway in 1266 and 1472 respectively, and
25125-427: The island, apart from the north-western territory of the Northern Uí Néill who, under the leadership of King Domnall Ua Lochlainn continued to remain defiant. However, as the conflict between Muirchertach and Domnall was reduced to a stalemate, Muirchertach became less committed to war and began focusing on other aspects of his rule. In the period of 1101–1112, he, like his father Toirdelbach Ua Briain, presided over
25326-555: The king could collect and sell the products of his cain and conveth (a payment made in lieu of providing the king hospitality ) rendered to him. These burghs were essentially Scotland's first towns. David would found more of these burghs when he became King of Scots. Before 1135, David laid the foundations of four more burghs, this time in the new territory he had acquired as King of Scots; burghs were founded at Stirling , Dunfermline and Edinburgh , three of David's favoured residences. Around 15 burghs have their foundations traced to
25527-493: The kingship for himself, Muirchertach "took his daughter away from Arnulf and gave the wanton girl in an unlawful marriage to one of his cousins. He resolved to kill Arnulf himself as a reward for his alliance, but the latter ... fled to his own people and lived for twenty years afterwards with no fixed abode." According to Orderic Vitalis , Muirchertach only allowed the Normans to stay in case he needed their support to fight Magnus if he were to violate their treaty and attack
25728-566: The kirk, such as clerk. At their best, the curriculum included catechism , Latin , French , Classical literature and sports. In 1616, an act in Privy council commanded every parish to establish a school "where convenient means may be had", and when the Parliament of Scotland ratified this with the Education Act 1633 , a tax on local landowners was introduced to provide the necessary endowment. A loophole which allowed evasion of this tax
25929-639: The knight's fee" as well as "homage and fealty". David established large scale feudal lordships in the west of his Cumbrian principality for the leading members of the French military entourage who kept him in power. Additionally, many smaller-scale feudal lordships were created. One example would be Freskin . The latter's name occurs in a charter by David's grandson King William to Freskin's son, William, granting Strathbrock in West Lothian and Duffus , Kintrae, and other lands in Moray, "which his father held in
26130-654: The land. From the 14th century, there are surviving examples of early Scottish legal literature, such as the Regiam Majestatem (on procedure at the royal courts) and the Quoniam Attachiamenta (on procedure at the barons court), which drew on both common and Roman law . Customary laws, such as the Law of Clan MacDuff , came under attack from the Stewart Dynasty which consequently extended
26331-540: The lands of the Scottish lords dispossessed by Robert I and his successors in the 14th century in the Wars of Independence (1296–1357). The king of France attempted to thwart the exercise, under the terms of what became known as the Auld Alliance , which provided for mutual aid against the English. In the 15th and early 16th centuries, under the Stewart Dynasty , despite a turbulent political history,
26532-422: The late 17th to the early 18th centuries and perhaps 85 percent for women of all ranks by 1750, compared with 35 per cent for men. Among the nobility there were many educated and cultured women, of which Mary, Queen of Scots is the most obvious example. After the Reformation, Scotland's universities underwent a series of reforms associated with Andrew Melville , who returned from Geneva to become principal of
26733-409: The latter (matters were complicated as Magnus had killed Robert's brother, Hugh, which Magnus apparently later regretted). Arnulf meanwhile sought assistance from Muirchertach. Arnulf sent his steward, Gerald of Windsor , to negotiate with the High King. As part of their agreement, Arnulf was to marry Muirchertach's daughter. The High King agreed, and he dispatched his daughter with a fleet to assist
26934-413: The latter mainly along his eastern seaboard. While this could not, at first, have amounted to much more than the nucleus of an immigrant merchant class making use of the established marketplace for the purpose of disposing of the purely local harvest, in both crop and chattels, there is a sense of profound expectation inherent in such foundations. Regional trade and international trade never lagged far behind
27135-473: The local Norn , which lingered until the end of the 18th century, and Norse may also have survived as a spoken language until the 16th century in the Outer Hebrides . French , Flemish and particularly English became the main languages of Scottish burghs, most of which were located in the south and east, an area to which Anglian settlers had already brought a form of Old English. In the later part of
27336-413: The locality, his position was dependent entirely on the king, thus bringing the territory more firmly under royal control. Freskin's land acquisition does not appear to be unique, and may have been part of a royal policy in the aftermath of the defeat of king Óengus of Moray . Steps were taken during David's reigns to make the government of Scotland, or that part of Scotland that he administered, more like
27537-403: The lower ranks of society, they benefited from the expansion of the parish schools system that took place after the Reformation, but were usually outnumbered by boys, often taught separately, for a shorter time and to a lower level. They were frequently taught reading, sewing and knitting, but not writing. Female illiteracy rates based on signatures among female servants were around 90 percent, from
27738-462: The main official of law in the post-Davidian Kingdom of the Scots was the Justiciar who held courts and reported to the king personally. Normally, there were two Justiciarships, organised by linguistic boundaries: the Justiciar of Scotia and the Justiciar of Lothian , but sometimes Galloway also had its own Justiciar. Scottish common law , the jus commune , began to take shape at the end of
27939-429: The majority of the population was probably still Catholic in persuasion and the Kirk would find it difficult to penetrate the Highlands and Islands, but began a gradual process of conversion and consolidation that, compared with reformations elsewhere, was conducted with relatively little persecution. In 1635, Charles I authorised a book of canons that made him head of the Church, ordained an unpopular ritual and enforced
28140-425: The mass, was adopted by Parliament in 1560 . The Calvinism of the reformers led by Knox resulted in a settlement that adopted a Presbyterian system and rejected most of the elaborate trappings of the Medieval church. This gave considerable power within the new Kirk to local lairds, who often had control over the appointment of the clergy, and resulting in widespread, but generally orderly, iconoclasm . At this point
28341-479: The messengers came joyfully to their land. And Murtart sent his daughter and many armed ships along with her to his aid. And when the earls had exalted themselves with pride because of those events, they refused to accept any peace from the king ." De Montgomery and his brother Robert were defeated by Henry, however, and fled to Ireland. The Montgomery brothers fought under Muirchertach during his campaign with Magnus Barefoot , but when de Montgomery attempted to seize
28542-488: The mid-7th century. After the reconversion of Scandinavian Scotland from the 10th century, Christianity under papal authority was the dominant religion of the kingdom. In the Norman period, the Scottish church underwent a series of reforms and transformations. With royal and lay patronage, a clearer parochial structure based around local churches was developed. Large numbers of new foundations, which followed continental forms of reformed monasticism, began to predominate and
28743-536: The mid-century with a lecture-based curriculum that was able to embrace economics and science, offering a high quality liberal education to the sons of the nobility and gentry. Muircheartach Ua Briain Muirchertach Ua Briain (anglicised as Murtaugh O'Brien ; c. 1050 – c. 10 March 1119), son of Toirdelbach Ua Briain and great-grandson of Brian Boru , was King of Munster and later self-declared High King of Ireland . Muirchertach Ua Briain
28944-413: The north and Magnus threatening his throne, it is possible Muirchertach wanted Magnus out of the way. There is confusion surrounding the death of Magnus. Norwegian sources say Muirchertach was supposed to bring Magnus provisions for his return to Norway. When Muirchertach did not show up at the agreed time, Magnus became suspicious the Irish were going to attack. On 24 August 1103, St. Bartholomew's Day—or
29145-449: The north in defeating Ua Maél Sechnaill. Ruadhrí na Saide again invaded Munster two years later in 1091, but he was blinded the following year in 1092 by Flaithbertaigh Ua Flaithbertaigh , throwing the Kingdom of Connacht into a state of political turmoil. Muirchertach took advantage of this situation by invading the province and gaining the kingship, in the process possibly taking in and grooming his nephew Tairrdelbach Ua Conchobhair for
29346-625: The opening of the royal burgh to the world, and that most such burghs were kept in royal demesne meant that the king reserved the right to an excise on all transactions occurring within their bounds and to charge custom dues on those vessels taking berth in their harbours. The changes that David was most noted for at the time, however, were his religious changes. The reason for this is that practically all our sources were Reform-minded monks or clerics, grateful to David for his efforts. David's changes, or alleged changes, can be divided into two parts: monastic patronage and ecclesiastical restructuring. David
29547-462: The peace and the Commissioner of Supply helped to increase the effectiveness of local government. The continued existence of courts baron and introduction of kirk sessions helped consolidate the power of local lairds . Scots law developed into a distinctive system in the Middle Ages and was reformed and codified in the 16th and 17th centuries. Knowledge of the nature of Scots law before
29748-613: The period, assimilating Gaelic and Britonnic law with practices from Anglo-Norman England and the Continent. There is some evidence that, during the period of English control over Scotland, Edward I of England attempted to abolish Scottish laws in opposition to English law as he had done in Wales . Under Robert I in 1318, a parliament at Scone enacted a code of law that drew upon older practices. It codified procedures for criminal trials and protections for vassals from ejection from
29949-437: The possibility has been raised that Edgar sent the gift as either a reward or thanks, or in an effort to make peace. Muirchertach's fleets were documented to be active in the area at the time. It is possible Muirchertach supported rebels fighting against the King, or the other way around, supporting Edgar as he fought against rebellious subjects. Other potential reasons for this gift are that Muirchertach's fleets were plundering
30150-484: The present day. Geographically, Scotland is divided between the Highlands and Islands and the Lowlands . The Highlands had a relatively short growing season, which was even shorter during the Little Ice Age . Scotland's population at the start of the Black Death was about 1 million; by the end of the plague, it was only half a million. It expanded in the first half of the 16th century, reaching roughly 1.2 million by
30351-635: The reach of Scots common law. From the reign of King James I a legal profession began to develop and the administration of criminal and civil justice was centralised. The growing activity of the parliament and the centralisation of administration in Scotland called for the better dissemination of Acts of the parliament to the courts and other enforcers of the law. In the late 15th century, unsuccessful attempts were made to form commissions of experts to codify, update or define Scots law. The general practice during this period, as evidenced from records of cases, seems to have been to defer to specific Scottish laws on
30552-576: The region for another 150 years after the death of Magnus, which was during the Scottish–Norwegian War of 1266. Following the death of William II of England in the year 1100, the throne was seized by Henry I of England . However, the crown was also claimed by William's older brother, Robert, the Duke of Normandy . Some of Robert's supporters included the de Belleme family, "one of the most powerful non-royal families in Europe." Robert de Belleme
30753-428: The reign of Queen Anne , the two kingdoms were united to form the Kingdom of Great Britain under the terms of the Acts of Union . The Crown was the most important element of Scotland's government. The Scottish monarchy in the Middle Ages was a largely itinerant institution, before Edinburgh developed as a capital city in the second half of the 15th century. The Crown remained at the centre of political life and in
30954-421: The reign of David I, although because of the sparsity of some of the evidence, this exact number is uncertain. Perhaps nothing in David's reign compares in importance to this. No institution would do more to reshape the long-term economic and ethnic shape of Scotland than the burgh. These planned towns were or became English in culture and language; as William of Newburgh would write in the reign of King William
31155-455: The religious life of the kingdom". Cistercians equated spiritual health with economic achievement and environmental exploitation. Cistercian labour transformed southern Scotland into one of northern Europe's main sources of sheep wool. Almost as soon as he was in charge of the Cumbrian principality, David placed the bishopric of Glasgow under his chaplain, John , whom David may have met for
31356-482: The ruling elite as they gradually abandoned French. By the 15th century, it was the language of government, with acts of parliament, council records and treasurer's accounts almost all using it from the reign of James I onwards. As a result, Gaelic, once dominant north of the Tay, began a steady decline. Lowland writers began to treat Gaelic as a second-class, rustic and even amusing language, helping to frame attitudes towards
31557-680: The sacred inaugural tree of the Kings of Connacht . Muirchertach was involved in further naval actions against Connacht the next year in 1089 when he was looting islands in Lough Ree , but Ruadhrí na Saide blocked the path home on the River Shannon around the settlement of Clonmacnaoise , forcing Muirchertach to hand over his ships to the forces of the Kingdom of Meath after retreating to Athlone . He marched with his army back home to Munster on foot, but using Muirchertach's confiscated ships,
31758-467: The same amount of coastline at 4,000 miles (6,400 kilometres). Scotland has over 790 offshore islands, most of which are to be found in four main groups: Shetland , Orkney , and the Hebrides , subdivided into the Inner Hebrides and Outer Hebrides . Only a fifth of Scotland is less than 60 metres above sea level. The defining factor in the geography of Scotland is the distinction between
31959-540: The same year, matters were taken even further, when at a meeting of the General Assembly in Glasgow the Scottish bishops were formally expelled from the Church, which was then established on a full Presbyterian basis. Victory in the resulting Bishops' Wars secured the Presbyterian Kirk and precipitated the outbreak of the civil wars of the 1640s. Disagreements over collaboration with Royalism created
32160-438: The simple nature of trade. Though coins were not absent from Scotland before David, these were by definition foreign objects, unseen and unused by most of the population. The arrival of a native coinage – no less than the arrival of towns, laws and charters – marked the penetration of the "Europeanising" concepts of European culture into ever less "non-European" Scotland. David was also a great town builder. In part, he made use of
32361-444: The south-east, stretching into modern northern England. In 793, ferocious Viking raids began on monasteries such as those at Iona and Lindisfarne , creating fear and confusion across the kingdoms of north Britain. Orkney , Shetland and the Western Isles eventually fell to the Norsemen. These threats may have sped up a long-term process of Gaelicisation of the Pictish kingdoms, which adopted Gaelic language and customs. There
32562-416: The stalemate of the Battle of Largs and the Treaty of Perth in 1266. The Isle of Man fell under English control, from Norwegian, in the 14th century, despite several attempts to seize it for Scotland. The English briefly occupied most of Scotland, under Edward I . Under Edward III , the English backed Edward Balliol , son of King John Balliol , in an attempt to gain his father's throne and restore
32763-407: The throne, and bribed a contingent of his forces to desert back to their ships during the battle. As Magnus landed on the shore, a large Irish force emerged from the thick bush. In the ensuing battle, Magnus was killed, and the Norwegian force was destroyed. Afterwards, Sigurd returned home to Norway without his bride. Norwegian influence remained in the area, but no Norwegian king would set foot in
32964-407: The thrones of England and Ireland, creating a Union of the Crowns that left the three states with their separate identities and institutions. He also moved the centre of royal patronage and power to London . When James' son Charles I attempted to impose elements of the English religious settlement on Scotland, the result was the Bishops' Wars (1637–1640), which ended in defeat for the king and
33165-437: The time of King David". The name Freskin is Flemish, and in the words of Geoffrey Barrow "it is virtually certain that Freskin belonged to a large group of Flemish settlers who came to Scotland in the middle decades of the 12th century and were chiefly to be found in West Lothian and the valley of the Clyde". Freskin was responsible for building a castle in the distant territory of Moray, and because Freskin had no kinship ties to
33366-491: The town 1440s on law, Greek, Latin and philosophy, under the patronage of Mary of Guise . These evolved into the "Tounis College", which would become the University of Edinburgh in 1582. The results were a revitalisation of all Scottish universities, which were now producing a quality of education the equal of that offered anywhere in Europe. Under the Commonwealth, the universities saw an improvement in their funding, as they were given income from deaneries, defunct bishoprics and
33567-433: The training of clerics, but they were increasingly used by laymen who would begin to challenge the clerical monopoly of administrative posts in the government and law. Those wanting to study for second degrees still needed to go abroad. The continued movement to other universities produced a school of Scottish nominalists at Paris in the early 16th century, of which John Mair was probably the most important figure. By 1497,
33768-416: The use of a new liturgy. When the liturgy emerged in 1637 it was seen as an English-style Prayer Book, resulting in anger and widespread rioting. Representatives of various sections of Scottish society drew up the National Covenant on 28 February 1638, objecting to the King's liturgical innovations. The king's supporters were unable to suppress the rebellion and the king refused to compromise. In December of
33969-421: The victory of Muirchertach's great-grandfather Brian Boru over the Vikings at the Battle of Clontarf in 1014 and the breaking of Norse power in Ireland, Dublin remained under the rule of Norse–Gael kings and had links with other Viking Kingdoms. They paid tribute to their Irish overlords, but otherwise the Irish rarely interfered, mainly because of the trade the Norse brought to the area. However, in 1052,
34170-432: The virtues of Scots "poesie", after his accession to the English throne, he increasingly favoured the language of southern England. In 1611, the Kirk adopted the 1611 Authorized King James Version of the Bible. In 1617, interpreters were declared no longer necessary in the port of London because as Scots and Englishmen were now "not so far different bot ane understandeth ane uther". Jenny Wormald describes James as creating
34371-450: The ways in which the Pictish language in the north and Cumbric languages in the south were overlaid and replaced by Gaelic , Old English and later Norse in the Early Middle Ages . By the High Middle Ages , the majority of people within Scotland spoke the Gaelic language, then simply called Scottish , or in Latin , lingua Scotica . In the Northern Isles the Norse language brought by Scandinavian occupiers and settlers evolved into
34572-419: The west. This encouraged the spread of blanket bogs , the acidity of which, combined with high level of wind and salt spray, made most of the islands treeless. The existence of hills, mountains, quicksands and marshes made internal communication and conquest extremely difficult and may have contributed to the fragmented nature of political power. The Uplands and Highlands had a relatively short growing season, in
34773-550: The whole Scottish kingdom [north of the Forth], and the others wavering without a pastor to the loss of both morals and property; when he died, he left nine, both of ancient bishoprics which he himself restored, and new ones which he erected". What is very likely is that as well as preventing the long vacancies in bishoprics which had hitherto been common, David was at least partly responsible for forcing semi-monastic "bishoprics" like Brechin , Dunkeld , Mortlach (Aberdeen) and Dublane to become fully episcopal and firmly integrated into
34974-475: The years after 1066 is considered to have made England more like if not part of this "core". In applying this model to Scotland, it would be considered that, as recently as the reign of David's father Máel Coluim III , "peripheral" Scotland had lacked – in relation to the "core" cultural regions of northern France, western Germany and England – respectable Catholic religion, a truly centralised royal government, conventional written documents of any sort, native coins,
35175-417: Was Duke of Shrewsbury , and his brother Arnulf was Earl of Pembroke . Robert of Normandy invaded the Kingdom of England to secure the throne, but he and Henry quickly came to an agreement before there was any major bloodshed. But Henry turned against Robert's supporters, namely the two de Belleme brothers. Robert de Belleme sought assistance from the Welsh and from Magnus Barefoot , but received none from
35376-409: Was a largely itinerant institution, Scone remained one of its most important locations, with royal castles at Stirling and Perth becoming significant in the later Middle Ages before Edinburgh developed as a capital city in the second half of the 15th century. The Crown remained the most important element of government, despite the many royal minorities . In the late Middle Ages, it saw much of
35577-437: Was a noble (6s. 8d.) of David II. Under James I pennies and halfpennies of billon (an alloy of silver with a base metal) were introduced, and copper farthings appeared under James III . In James V's reign the bawbee ( 1 + 1 ⁄ 2 d) and half-bawbee were issued, and in Mary, Queen of Scot's reign a twopence piece, the hardhead, was issued to help "the common people buy bread, drink, flesh, and fish". The billon coinage
35778-456: Was a son of Toirdelbach Ua Briain , the previous Dalcassian King of Munster and de facto High King of Ireland . As a descendant of Brian Boru , he was part of the powerful O'Brien dynasty who ruled Ireland at the time. His mother was Derbforgaill, daughter of Tadhg Mac Giolla Pádraig of Osraige , who also bore Muirchertach's brother Tadhg. His early life is largely unknown. The Annals of Tigernach give his birth date as 1050. Afterwards, he
35979-405: Was able to re-install his nephew Diarmuit as King of the Isle of Man in the year 1111. With direct control of the Isle of Man , he also exercised control over the other Islands close to the Scottish mainland. At the time, Scotland was ruled by King Edgar . In 1105, Muirchertach received the gift of a camel from Edgar. This is seen by modern historians as significant as camels were very rare in
36180-417: Was acknowledged as High King of Ireland and he received hostages from the other three kings. Following this conference, Muirchertach went on campaign in Leinster again, but while he was away, Munster was attacked by Ua Maél Sechnaill who was joined by Ruadhrí na Saide. Although he was defeated by the Meath forces, he was able to drive the armies of Connacht back, and then received assistance from Mac Lochlainn in
36381-435: Was also a merger of the Gaelic (Scots) and Pictish kingdoms, although historians debate whether it was a Pictish takeover of Dál Riata, or vice-versa. This culminated in the rise of Cínaed mac Ailpín (Kenneth MacAlpin) as "king of the Picts" in the 840s (traditionally dated to 843), which brought to power the House of Alpin . When he died as king of the combined kingdom in 900, one of his successors, Domnall II (Donald II),
36582-432: Was an import, illustrating Barrow's "balance of New and Old" argument. An important source of David's wealth during his career came from the revenue of his English earldom and the proceeds of the silver mines at Alston . Alston silver allowed David to indulge in the "regalian gratification" of his own coinage and to continue his project of attempting to link royal power and economic expansion. Building programmes depended to
36783-475: Was certainly at least one of medieval Scotland's greatest monastic patrons. In 1113, in perhaps David's first act as Prince of the Cumbrians, he founded Selkirk Abbey for the Tironensian Order . Several years later, perhaps in 1116, David visited Tiron itself, probably to acquire more monks; in 1128 he transferred Selkirk Abbey to Kelso , nearer Roxburgh , at this point his chief residence. In 1144, David and Bishop John of Glasgow prompted Kelso Abbey to found
36984-427: Was closed in the Education Act 1646 , which established a solid institutional foundation for schools on Covenanter principles. Although the Restoration brought a reversion to the 1633 position, in 1696 new legislation restored the provisions of 1646. An act of the Scottish parliament in 1696 underlined the aim of having a school in every parish. In rural communities these obliged local landowners (heritors) to provide
37185-407: Was considered the southernmost point of the Kingdom of Norway . After these campaigns, Magnus went home to Norway to campaign against Sweden , but he would return later. In 1101, Muirchertach declared himself High King and travelled the island provinces. He is first named as High King in the Annals of Tigernach in this year. It was in this year that he gave the fortress on the rock of Cashel to
37386-444: Was discontinued after 1603, but twopence pieces in copper continued to be issued until the Act of Union in 1707. Early Scottish coins were virtually identical in silver content to English ones, but from c. 1300 onwards their silver content began to depreciate more rapidly than their English counterparts. Between 1300 and 1605, Scottish coins lost silver value at an average of 12 percent every decade, three times higher than
37587-664: Was established by the year 1147 at Cambuskenneth near Stirling, another prominent royal centre. However, by 23 March 1137 David had also turned his patronage towards the Cistercian Order , founding the famous Melrose Abbey from monks of Rievaulx . Melrose would become the greatest medieval monastic establishment in Scotland south of the river Forth. It was from Melrose that David established Newbattle Abbey in Midlothian , Kinloss Abbey in Moray, and Holmcultram Abbey in Cumberland . David also, like Alexander, patronised Benedictines , introducing monks to Coldingham (a non-monastic property of Durham Priory ) in 1139 and having made it
37788-447: Was important for a number of reasons, including trade and its military forces, particularly its navy . Appointment of Muirchertach Following the death of the King of Leinster in the year 1075, Dublin came under the control of Muirchertach's father, Toirdelbach mac Tadhg Ua Briain , King of Munster and High King of Ireland, as he expanded his power throughout Ireland. Toirdelbach at first appointed Godfraid mac Ragnaill as king but he
37989-431: Was involved in the Isle of Man as well, more or less controlling the island, possibly through one his sons, Tadc, brother of Muirchertach, marrying a woman from the Manx royalty. Upon Toirdelbhach's death and the accession of Muirchertach to the throne, the Manx may have used the opportunity to assert some form of independence from Irish rule, lasting until 1095, when Muirchertach was able to assert control, again through
38190-511: Was largely concentrated among a male and wealthy elite, with perhaps 60 per cent of the nobility being literate by the end of the period. Until the 15th century, those who wished to attend university had to travel to England or the continent, and just over a 1,000 have been identified as doing so between the 12th century and 1410. Among these the most important intellectual figure was John Duns Scotus , who studied at Oxford , Cambridge and Paris and probably died at Cologne in 1308, becoming
38391-458: Was later expelled by Toirdelbhach. He then placed a man by the name of Domnall as governor but he was himself replaced by Muirchertach later that same year after the former's sudden death. This was probably Muirchertach's first major political appointment as it was in this year that he was first mentioned in the Annals of Tigernach , signifying the power and the importance of the position he held. As governor, he would have had frequent contact with
38592-461: Was making quite a name for himself in the political landscape of Ireland. He launched repeated invasions of Munster, which Muirchertach struggled to repel in his weakened position. Muirchertach was further weakened by rebellions by the MacCarthy Mór dynasty in southern Munster, who had been living under the rule of the O'Brien dynasty for over a century. These rebellions were supported by Ua Conchobhair, who managed to successfully invade and partition
38793-415: Was never as central to the national life as its counterpart in England. In the early period, the kings of the Scots depended on the great lords of the mormaers (later earls ) and toísechs (later thanes ), but from the reign of David I, sheriffdoms were introduced, which allowed more direct control and gradually limited the power of the major lordships. In the 17th century, the creation of justices of
38994-405: Was never as central to the national life. In the early period, the kings of the Scots depended on the great lords—the mormaers and toísechs—but from the reign of David I , sheriffdoms were introduced, which allowed more direct control and gradually limited the power of the major lordships. In the 17th century, the creation of Justices of Peace and Commissioners of Supply helped to increase
39195-422: Was not much contact between the Norwegians and the Irish, apart from an incident when three Norwegian ships were sunk by the Ulaid (who were under Muirchertach's overlordship), probably while cattle raiding in the area. Some sources do say Magnus planned a full assault on Ireland, but the Irish gathered a large army on the coast, and Magnus did not attack. Earlier, Muirchertach had sent a fleet to Wales to help
39396-474: Was particularly the case with the Augustinians. Moreover, these new monasteries, and the Cistercian ones in particular, introduced new agricultural practices. In the words of one historian, the Cistercians were "pioneers or frontiersmen ... cultural revolutionaries, who carried new techniques of land management and new attitudes towards land exploitation". Duncan calls Scotland's new Cistercian establishments "the largest and most significant contribution by David I to
39597-435: Was restored and the bishops, who had generally supported James VII, abolished. However, William, who was more tolerant than the kirk tended to be, passed acts restoring the Episcopalian clergy excluded after the Revolution. The result was a Kirk divided between factions, with significant minorities, particularly in the west and north, of Episcopalians and Catholics. The establishment of Christianity brought Latin to Scotland as
39798-436: Was shared by the Protestant reformers, with a desire for a godly people replacing the aim of having educated citizens. In 1560, the First Book of Discipline set out a plan for a school in every parish, but this proved financially impossible. In the burghs the old schools were maintained, with the song schools and a number of new foundations becoming reformed grammar schools or ordinary parish schools. Schools were supported by
39999-405: Was the first man to be called rí Alban (King of Alba ). The Latin term Scotia would increasingly be used to describe the heartland of these kings, north of the River Forth , and eventually the entire area controlled by its kings would be referred to, in English, as Scotland. The long reign (900–942/3) of Donald's successor Causantín (Constantine II) is often regarded as the key to formation of
40200-476: Was the last time it changed hands. The Auld Alliance with France led to the heavy defeat of a Scottish army at the Battle of Flodden Field in 1513 and the death of the King James IV . A long period of political instability followed. In the 16th century, under James V of Scotland and Mary, Queen of Scots , the Crown and court took on many of the attributes of the Renaissance and New Monarchy , despite long royal minorities , civil wars and interventions by
40401-509: Was the work of the Lutheran Scot Patrick Hamilton . His execution with other Protestant preachers in 1528, and of the Zwingli -influenced George Wishart in 1546, who was burnt at the stake in St Andrews , did nothing to stem the growth of these ideas. Wishart's supporters seized St Andrews Castle , which they held for a year before they were defeated with the help of French forces. The survivors, including chaplain John Knox , were condemned to be galley slaves , helping to create resentment of
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