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74-549: Nils Dacke and his peasants were dissatisfied with the policies of the Swedish king Gustav Vasa . In his effort to modernize Sweden and gain more power, the king had instituted a more efficient system for tax collection. The heavy tax burden angered many peasants. Gustav Vasa had also broken relations with Rome and promoted Lutheranism instead of Catholicism ; as part of the Swedish Reformation, properties of

148-553: A Gentleman; and (2) a freeborn man who can sell "his own free land in yearly revenue to the summe of 40 shillings Sterling". The fact that only the legal definition (introduced in the Electors of Knights of the Shires Act 1429 ) was given is another suggestion that yeoman was a common word at the time. Between the 12th century Pseudo-Cnut de Foresta and The New World of English Words in 1658, linguists have had to re-construct

222-446: A commission (document). Hamlet then says he has substituted for the original a commission which he himself wrote: "... I sat me down, Devised a new commission, wrote it fair— I once did hold it, as our statists do, A baseness to write fair, and labored much How to forget that learning; but, sir, now It did me yeoman's service." Hamlet , V, 2 Hamlet remarks that he "wrote it fair", that is, in elegant, gentlemanly prose;

296-425: A household servant, is one of the earliest documented uses of the word. During the 14th century, it referred to a servant or attendant in a royal or noble household , usually one who was of higher rank in the household hierarchy . This hierarchy reflected the feudal society in which they lived. Everyone who served a royal or noble household knew their duties, and knew their place. This was especially important when

370-471: A lesser thegn. OED suggested that yongerman is related to youngman , meaning a male youth or young male adult who was in the service of a high-ranking individual or family. This proposed etymology is that youngman is in turn related to Old Norse ungmenni (youths); North Frisian ongman (lad, fellow); Dutch jongeman (youngman); and German Jungmann (deckhand, ordinary seaman); cf. also German Junker ⇐ jung[er] Herr . This etymology provides

444-439: A plausible semantic link from yongerman to youngman , while at the same time providing most of the earliest definitions of yeoman. The Chambers Dictionary of Etymology (CDE) is another well-respected scholarly source, as it is published by the same company which produces The Chambers Dictionary . Their proposed etymology reconstructs a possible Old English word, *ġēamann , as the parent of yeoman. (The asterisk or star as

518-640: A product of the English form of feudalism in which the military duty of a knight to his lord (which was implicit in tenure feudalism) was replaced by paid, short-term service. The Yeoman Archers were the English Army's response to a chronic manpower problem when trying to field an army on the European continent during the 14th century. Against 27,000 French knights, England could only muster at most 5,000 men-at-arms . With this 5:1 tactical disadvantage,

592-477: A sermon about the miracle to each man there: knight, squire, yeoman, and page. Although Wilton Abbey was a Benedictine nunnery , it held its lands from the king by knight service . The Abbess ' knights were her tenants, who in turn held land from the Abbey by knight service. Usually the abbess fulfilled her duty to the king by scutage . But she had knights with King Henry III on his 1223 Welsh campaign, and at

666-460: A style of writing which he tried very hard to forget. But in composing the fake commission, Hamlet had to resort to "that learning". He tells Horatio that "it did me yeoman's service", that is, his learning stood him in good stead. Standing one in good stead is another idiom very similar in meaning to yeoman service. Note that it was used in the third line of Stanza of the Gest of Robyn Hode quoted in

740-458: A yeoman's stead he may thee stand, If thou great need have." Here Robin vouches for Little John as a yeoman, a faithful servant who will perform whatever duties are required in times of great need. The phrase yeoman's service is used by William Shakespeare in Hamlet (published in 1601). In act V, scene 2, Prince Hamlet tells Horatio how he discovered the king's plot against himself in

814-561: Is "something pertaining to or characteristic of a yeoman", such as the speech or the dress. Perhaps the best way of illustrating this meaning is to quote briefly from one of the earliest Middle English ballads. Robin Hood and the Potter survives as a manuscript dated from about 1500. Robin demands a one penny toll of the Potter, for which the traveler could then proceed unharmed by the outlaw. The Potter refuses to pay. A scuffle ensues, in which

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888-476: Is a local political party in the township of Gnosjö . M/S Nils Dacke  [ sv ] is a vessel, owned by TT-Line serving the Trelleborg - Świnoujście route. Dacke , a made-for-television film, was released in 1961 by Swedish director and screenwriter Bengt Lagerkvist  [ sv ] . The asteroid 7217 Dacke is named after him. Yeoman Yeoman / ˈ j oʊ m ə n /

962-598: Is a noun originally referring either to one who owns and cultivates land or to the middle ranks of servants in an English royal or noble household . The term was first documented in mid-14th-century England . The 14th century witnessed the rise of the yeoman longbow archers during the Hundred Years' War , and the yeoman outlaws celebrated in the Robin Hood ballads. Yeomen joined the English Navy during

1036-421: Is not included in this dictionary. This suggests that in 1604, yeoman was a very commonly-used English word. A more comprehensive, or general dictionary, was published in 1658. Edward Phillips ' The New World of English Words contained basic definitions. Yeoman is included; probably for the first time in an English language dictionary. But only a legal definition was given: (1) a social class immediately below

1110-404: Is unclear to a 21st-century reader. But it is apparent that the original 15th century audiences knew exactly what good yeomanry was. The Yeoman Archer is a term applied specifically to English and Welsh military longbow archers (either mounted or on foot) of the 14th–15th centuries. Yeoman archers were commoners; free-born members of the social classes below the nobility and gentry . They were

1184-634: Is where the 20-year old Edward III learned how to combine archers and dismounted men-at-arms – tactics that he would employ during his Crécy campaign in France. The English victory at the Battle of Crécy was followed by another victory at the Battle of Poitiers , and a final victory at the Siege of Calais . After the Battle of Agincourt , the Yeoman Archer had become as legendary as his bow. By negating

1258-705: The Merchant's Tale of Beryn about the same time as the Robin Hood and the Monk manuscript, and shortly before the end of the Hundred Years War. To understand the connections between yeoman and the early English navy, it is necessary to examine King Edward III's reign and the beginning of the Hundred Years War. England did not have a standing navy until the Tudor Navy of King Henry VIII . Before then,

1332-519: The Parliament of England re-organized the House of Commons into counties and boroughs, with voting rights granted to all freeholders . The Electors of Knights of the Shires Act 1429 restricted voting rights to those freeholders whose land value exceeded 40 shillings . These yeomen became a social stratum of commoners below the landed gentry , but above the husbandmen . This stratum later embodied

1406-834: The War of the Roses all contributed to the end of the Middle Ages in England , and the beginning of the English Renaissance . It was during this time that English gradually replaced Norman French as the official language. The first single-language dictionary of the English language, Robert Cawdrey 's Table Alphabeticall , was published in 1604. The dictionary only included unusual English words, and loan words from foreign languages such as Hebrew, Greek, Latin, or French. Yeoman

1480-473: The "King's Ships" were a very small fleet allocated for the King's personal use. During the Hundred Years War, King Edward III actually owned only a few ships. The rest were made available to the King through agreements with his nobles and the various port towns of England. About 25 ships of various sizes were made available to Edward III every year. They ranged from the small Thames sailing barges (descended from

1554-765: The Controller. Of the Steward, Treasurer, and the Controller, at least one of them must preside in the Court every day. One of the earliest documents which contains yeoman as a chivalric rank is the Chronicon Vilodunense ( Life of Saint Edith ). Originally written in Latin by Goscelin sometime in the 11th century, it was later translated into the Wiltshire dialect of Middle English about 1420. Part of

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1628-462: The English needed a strategic advantage. When Edward I invaded Wales in 1282 , he quickly realized the battlefield importance of the opposing Welsh archers. Firing from ambush, they inflicted serious casualties on Edward's army. When Edward invaded Scotland for the second time in 1298 , his army consisted mostly of infantry (12,500 of 15,000 men). His infantry included about 10,500–10,900 Welshmen. 2,000 men, including archers, were raised as part of

1702-520: The German threat. In the autumn of 1542, the king had to agree to a truce with Dacke. The king broke the ceasefire in January 1543 and sent a new and larger army into the rebellious area. His forces moved in from Östergötland and Västergötland . Royal propaganda had been spread to win over the population and turn them against Dacke. Dacke himself had become overconfident after earlier successes and met

1776-661: The Guard to remain as a garrison, indicating that the Tower was still a royal palace. When the Tower no longer served that function, the garrison became warders, and were not permitted to wear the Yeoman of the Guard uniform. During the reign of Henry's son, Edward VI , the warders were given back the uniform. This was done as a result of petition from the former Lord Protector of the Realm , Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset . Seymour, who

1850-545: The Hundred Years' War as seamen and archers. In the early 15th century, yeoman was the rank of chivalry between page and squire . By the late 17th century, yeoman became a rank in the Royal Navy for the common seamen who were in charge of ship's stores, such as foodstuffs, gunpowder, and sails. References to the emerging social stratum of wealthy land-owning commoners began to appear after 1429. In that year,

1924-619: The King on demand. The 1345 Household Ordinance of Edward III provides a brief summary of the Fleets organized for the Crécy campaign . The South Fleet (which included all English ports south and west of River Thames) consisted of 493 ships with 9,630 mariners. Of these, the King's Ships (25 ships with 419 mariners), the ports of Dartmouth (31 ships with 757 mariners), Plymouth (26 ships with 603 mariners), and London (25 ships with 602 mariners) were

1998-473: The King, and the second group were commoners who performed similar duties for other household residents and guests in the Great Hall, kitchen, pantry, and other areas. Yeoman service (also yeoman's service) is an idiom which means "good, efficient, and useful service" in some cause. It has the connotations of the work performed by a faithful servant of the lower ranks, who does whatever it takes to get

2072-596: The Lancashire and Cheshire levies under the Commission of Array . At the Battle of Falkirk , the English army archers opened up the Scottish schiltrons with hails of arrows. The Scottish infantrymen fled the battlefield, to be pursued and killed by the English cavalry. In 1333, his grandson, Edward III, undertook his first invasion of Scotland, which culminated with the Battle of Halidon Hill . Halidon Hill

2146-490: The Offices concerned with household management. Procurement, storage, and preparation of food, waiting at table, and tending to the kitchen gardens, were some of the duties for which the Steward was responsible. Under the Steward during the reign of King Edward III, there were two separate groups of yeomen: Yeomen of the King's Chamber and Yeomen of the Offices . The first group were members of noble families who waited only on

2220-482: The Potter overcomes Robin. The Potter then wants to know whom he has beaten. After hearing Robin's name, the Potter responds (modern translation from glossary notes): "It is full little courtesy," said the potter. "As I have heard wise men say, If'n a poor yeoman come driving over the way, To hold him on his journey." "By my troth, thou says truth", said Robin. "Thou says good yeomanry; And though thou go forth every day, Thou shalt not be held by me." In

2294-731: The Siege of Bedford Castle the following year. Between 1277 and 1327 she offered knight service at least four times. About 50 years later in 1470, another reference to yeomen is made in the Warkworth Chronicle . The scene is King Edward IV's coronation, and the chronicler lists the nobles who received titles from His Majesty. At the end of the list he notes: "And other gentlemen and yeomen he made knights and squires, as they had deserved." (modern spelling) The chronicler makes no further mention of these men. An early historical meaning that seems to have disappeared before our modern era

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2368-537: The Swedish Royal Army in a pitched battle in March. The trained soldiers fighting on their own terms shattered the peasant army, and Dacke was severely injured. After this defeat, the rebellion was effectively over and Dacke became an outlaw . Dacke was shot during the summer of 1543 in the forests of the parish of Virserum. According to contemporary sources, he had been injured in both legs by hits from

2442-469: The Younger  [ sv ] . He was defeated by Dacke's constantly growing army of peasants. Other attempts to defeat Dacke militarily also failed. Dacke and his army reached as far north as Mjölby at the fringes of the Östergötland plains ( Östgötaslätten  [ sv ] ) and enjoyed widespread support around Sommen and Ydre . Local aristocrat Måns Johansson ( Natt och Dag ) sided with

2516-507: The annihilation of Dacke's entire family, but showed some leniency against those who had given themselves up. Dacke's wife, brother-in-law and other relatives were executed. His son was taken to prison in Stockholm where he either starved to death or died from the plague. Thus, the unity of the realm was restored. As a result of the war, the king was henceforth more careful when dealing with his subjects. The reliance on foreign mercenaries in

2590-683: The army was reduced in favour of soldiers of Swedish extraction (many of which were recruited in Småland), and this laid the foundation for Sweden's military successes in later wars. Nils Dacke is commonly perceived as a Småland freedom hero. His name is often linked to an independent streak in Småland. Statues in memory of him have been erected, including one in Virserum , where the final battle allegedly took place during 1543. The Nils Dacke party  [ sv ] ( Swedish : Nils Dacke-partiet )

2664-514: The arrival of Stanley's troops. During the melee , Richard's horse became mired in the marsh, and he was killed. Henry had won. Henry rewarded his bodyguards by formal establishing the Yeomen of the Guard of (the body of) our Lord the King . The King of England always had bodyguards ( Yeoman of the Crown ). This royal act recognized their bravery and loyalty in doing their duty, and designated them as

2738-705: The ballads were refashioned into heroes fighting for justice under the law and the rights of freeborn Englishmen . The etymology of yeoman is uncertain, for several reasons. The earliest documented use occurs in Middle English . There are no known Old English words which are considered acceptable parent words for yeoman. Nor are there any readily identifiable cognates of yeoman in Anglo-Norman , Old Frisian , Old Dutch , Old Saxon , or Middle Low German . The four last-named of these languages are West Germanic languages , closely related to Old English at

2812-510: The church (including land) were appropriated, under the laws of the Reduction of Gustav I of Sweden . In 1541 the king's men had confiscated many of the belongings of the churches in Småland , such as the church silver and even the church bells , to finance the army. Dacke criticized the new church order and promoted the old faith. He was also supported by many local priests . The rebellion

2886-523: The earlier household ordinances of King Edward III wrote: "Our sovereign lord's household is now discharged ... of the Court of Marshalsea, and all his clerks and yeomen." The writer was referring to the transfer of the Marshalsea Court from the royal household. The Ordinance describe the duties of the Steward of the Household, who was also the Steward of the Court of Marshalsea. The Steward

2960-540: The famous Norman longships of the Bayeux Tapestry ) which shuttled the royal retinue up and down the River Thames , to large cogs . Cogs were large merchant ships, with high prows and sterns , and a single mast with a single square sail. The largest cogs were built to carry sizable wine casks . The Vintners' Company , in return for their monopoly on the wine trade, had to make their cogs available to

3034-462: The first letter is a linguistic convention to indicate the word has been reconstructed, and is unattested in any surviving record). The reconstructed word is a compound word made from the root word ġē , ġēa (district, region) + mann (man). To further strengthen their etymology, CDE compares their reconstructed word to Old Frisian gāman (villager), and modern West Frisian gea , goa , Dutch gouw , German Gau (district, region). When comparing

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3108-419: The first members of a bodyguard to protect the King (or Queen) of England forever. In their first official act on 1 October 1485, fifty members of the Yeoman of the Guard, led by John de Vere, 13th Earl of Oxford, formally escorted Henry Tudor to his coronation ceremony. The Tower of London was used as permanent royal residence until 1509–10, during the reign of King Henry VIII . Henry ordered 12 Yeoman of

3182-443: The first stanza the Potter describes himself as a poor yeoman, whom people say Robin Hood would never stop or waylay (also known as a holdup). It is obvious from the story that the Potter was not dressed in a yeomanly manner, otherwise Robin would have never accosted him. It was not until Robin heard the Potter speak that he recognizes him as a yeoman. Whether he was referring to his direct straightforward manner, or his dialect, or both,

3256-439: The head of a peasant army in 1523. He had established Sweden's independence from Denmark and made Protestantism the national religion. Småland found itself on the border between Sweden and Denmark and was hit hard by Vasa's ban on cross-border trade. In addition, the heavy handed way in which the church was reformed and the increasing tax burden led to much dissatisfaction among the poor peasants. Already in 1536, Nils Dacke

3330-451: The household staff consisted of both nobles and commoners. There were actually two household hierarchies which existed in parallel. One was the organization based upon the function ( duty ) being performed. The other was based upon whether the person performing the duty was a noble or a commoner. Similar household duties were grouped into Household Offices , which were then assigned to one of several Chief Officers. In each Household Office,

3404-558: The job done. The sense – although not the use – of the idiom can be found in the Gest of Robyn Hode , dated to about 1500. In the First Fitte (the first section of the ballad), Robin gives money to a poor knight to pay his debt to the abbot of St Mary's Abbey. Noticing that the knight was traveling alone, Robin offers him the service of Little John as a yeoman: "I shall thee lend Little John, my man, For he shall be thy knave; In

3478-633: The king despite having a troublesome relation to him. He was put in charge of an army to suppress the rebellion. Next, the Swedish government stopped all supplies of provisions and other necessities to the region. This weakened the rebellion considerably. Defaming propaganda about Dacke was also spread by the government, labeling him a traitor and a heretic. In March 1543 Gustav Vasa ordered his army of Swedish recruits and German landsknecht mercenaries to attack Småland. This time larger forces were deployed, and Dacke's forces were attacked from two directions – from Östergötland and Västergötland . The uprising

3552-539: The king's crossbows during the decisive battle a few months earlier, his forces had been routed, and he was likely trying to escape from the king's mercenaries. Dacke eventually fell in August 1543 at a farm in the parish of Gullabo in Södra Möre. Dacke was executed posthumously , quartered, and his limbs were sent for public display in larger communities that had supported him during the rebellion. Gustav Vasa ordered

3626-450: The king. Dacke himself was caught and killed in August 1543 when trying to escape the country. According to legend, his body was taken to Kalmar , where his head was publicly displayed wearing a crown of copper, as a warning to others. Unrest in Ydre continued well after the death of Dacke and ended only after Gustav Vasa sent a force of 400 men to pacify the hundred . The rebellion was

3700-445: The largest contingents. The North Fleet (which included all English ports north of River Thames) consisted of 217 ships with 4521 mariners. The port of Yarmouth, with 43 ships with 1095 mariners, was the largest contingent. The definition of a mariner is unclear, as is the difference between a mariner and a sailor. The number of mariners given is about twice that needed to man a ship. Edward's warships carried two crews. The second crew

3774-458: The manuscript relates a story about the archbishop of York caught in a storm at sea while on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. He prayed to Saint Edith for the storm to subside, and suddenly he saw Saint Edith standing beside him. The Blessed Virgin had sent her, she said, to assure the archbishop he would arrive home safe and sound. Miraculously, the storm stopped. The archbishop kept his vow, and visited St Edith's tomb at Wilton Abbey . There he preached

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3848-418: The meanings of yeoman from the surviving manuscripts. The various meanings of yeoman were apparently widely understood by the document author and his audience, and were not explained in the manuscripts. Linguists have deduced these specific historical meanings based on the context in which yeoman was used within the document itself. It is these meanings which are described in the following sections. Yeoman, as

3922-403: The modern linguistic study of Old English in the early to mid 19th century. Two possible etymologies have been proposed to explain the origin of yeo . The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) has proposed that yeoman is derived from yongerman , which first appeared in a manuscript called Pseudo-Cnut's Constitutiones de Foresta . Although the manuscript has been demonstrated to be a forgery (it

3996-489: The most serious threat to the rule of Gustav Vasa, but after having defeated it he managed to consolidate his power, concentrating more and more power in the hands of the monarch. In the Swedish language, the idiom "not since the Dacke War" is used to mean "not for a long time". This expression is especially common in the southern parts of Sweden but is also used elsewhere. Nils Dacke Nils Dacke (died 1543)

4070-619: The paragraph above. Marshalsea Court was a court of the English royal household, presided over by the Steward and the Knight-Marshal . The court kept records from about 1276 until 1611. Unfortunately, only a few survive from the years 1316–59. Some information on the yeomen of the Marshalsea Court can be found in the Household Ordinance of King Edward IV from about 1483. The author of the Ordinance, looking back to

4144-721: The political and economic ideas of the English Enlightenment and Scottish Enlightenment , and transplanted those ideas to British North America during the early modern era . Numerous yeoman farmers in North America served as citizen soldiers in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War . The 19th century saw a revival of interest in the medieval period with English Romantic literature . The yeoman outlaws of

4218-402: The rugged forests and suffered heavy losses. Dacke had devised defensive tactics that allowed the peasants to use their steel crossbows with devastating effect. Dacke's successes helped spread the revolt over all the southern provinces of Sweden. The situation was so serious that the king was forced to sue for peace, and a one-year ceasefire was signed on 8 November. During the ceasefire, Dacke

4292-473: The servants were organized into a hierarchy, arranged in ranks according to the level of responsibility. The Chief Officers were nobles, but the servant ranks of Sergeant, Yeoman, and Groom could be filled by either commoners or members of noble families. Any household duties which required close contact with the lord's immediate family, or their rooms, were handled by nobles. For example, the Steward oversaw

4366-594: The simpler and more comprehensive OED etymology with the CDE etymology, modern linguists have expressed dissatisfaction with the CDE version. In the history of the English language , the earliest recorded usage of yeoman occurs in the Late Middle English period, and then becoming more widespread in the Early Modern English period. The transition from Middle English to Early Modern English

4440-474: The small village of Stoke Golding, Henry Tudor met King Richard III in battle for the Crown of England. The War of the Roses had persisted intermittently for more than 30 years between the rival claimants of the House of York (white rose) and the House of Lancaster (red rose). In 1483, Richard, of the House of York, had deposed his young nephew, 12-year old Edward V . Henry Tudor, of the House of Lancaster,

4514-517: The tactical advantage of large numbers of cavalry (mounted knights and men-at-arms) with their ability to rapidly fire volleys of arrows, Yeoman Archers are considered part of the Infantry revolution of the 14th century. They could be deployed as "Archers on horse" (mounted archers who could reach the scene quickly, dismount, & set up a firing line) or as "Archers on foot" (foot archers who followed as reinforcements). On 22 August 1485, near

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4588-478: The time they were spoken. Taken together, these facts would indicate that yeoman (1) is a word specific to the regional dialects found in England; and (2) is nothing similar to any word used in continental Europe. Another complicating factor for the etymology is that yeoman is a compound word made by joining two other words: yeo + man . Linguists have been perplexed about the origin of yeo since scholars such as John Mitchell Kemble and Joseph Bosworth began

4662-469: Was Edward's uncle, had been confined there, and found the warders to be most considerate. The earliest documented use of yeoman relative to a navy is found in the Merchant's Tale of Beryn : "Why gone the yeomen to boat – Anchors to haul?" The context of the quotation sheds no further light on either yeomen or boats. What is important is the date of the manuscript: between 1450 and 1470. This places

4736-452: Was a Swedish yeoman who was the leader of a mid-16th century peasant revolt in the historic province of Småland in southern Sweden. The resulting Dacke War ( Swedish : Dackefejden ) was fought against King Gustav I of Sweden of the Vasa family . It was the most widespread and serious civil war in Swedish history and almost toppled the king. King Gustav Vasa had come to power at

4810-458: Was a gradual process occurring over decades. For the sake of assigning a historical date, OED defines the end of Middle English and the beginning of Early Modern English as occurring in 1500. The year 1500 marks the end of nearly 200 years of political and economic upheaval in England. The Hundred Years War , the recurring episodes of the Black Death , and over 32 years of civil war known as

4884-530: Was assigned one chaplain, two squires, and four yeomen as his personal retinue. One yeoman was specifically attached to the Steward's rooms at the Court of Marshalsea "to keep his chamber and stuff". When the Steward was present in Court, he was entitled to a 10-person retinue. Besides the Steward and the Knight-Marshal, two other members of the royal household were empowered to preside: the Treasurer and

4958-410: Was defeated, and Dacke was wounded but managed to flee. The king's retribution upon the instigators of the rebellion was harsh. The leaders that were caught were executed together with the priests who had supported Dacke. Peasants who had supported the rebellion were deported to Finland , where they had to serve in the army, and the counties where the rebellion had taken place had to pay a large fine to

5032-426: Was holding his son hostage. Stanley's forces remained uncommitted as the battle raged. As Oxford advanced, the troops appeared to leave Henry, his bodyguards, and some French mercenaries isolated. Or so it appeared to Richard. Sensing an opportunity, Richard charged toward Henry. Seeing this, Stanley made his decision, and charged to reinforce Henry. Henry's bodyguards fought bravely to hold off Richard's bodyguards until

5106-468: Was one of many rebellions during the rule of Gustav Vasa. In contrast with other contemporary rebellions in Sweden, this one was led by peasants, and not supported by the local nobility . The uprising began in summer 1542 when the king's bailiffs were attacked and killed when they came to collect taxes. Gustav Vasa responded by sending a military force led by his own father-in-law Gustav Olofsson Stenbock

5180-402: Was produced during the reign of King Henry II of England , rather than during the reign of King Cnut ), it is considered authentic to the 11th and 12th century forest laws . According to the OED, the manuscript refers to 3 social classes: (1) the thegn (noble) at the top; (2) the tunman (townman) at the bottom; and (3) the lesser thegn in the middle. Yongerman is considered a synonym for

5254-469: Was the de facto ruler of most of southern Sweden and received offers of foreign support from the Elector Palatine Frederick II (1482–1556), who was the son-in-law of King Christian II of Denmark , and Albrecht VII, Duke of Mecklenburg (1486–1547). He reinstated the ceremonies of the Roman Catholic Church and reopened the cross-border trade in the areas under his control. With Danish support, Gustav Vasa mounted an invasion of Mecklenburg which neutralised

5328-451: Was the favored candidate to replace Richard. Three armies met that day on Bosworth Field: Richard, with his supporters, Duke of Norfolk and the Earl of Northumberland ; Henry, with his troops under command of the veteran John de Vere , Earl of Oxford; and the troops of Thomas, Lord Stanley . Stanley was a powerful lord in northwest England. But he was stepfather of Henry Tudor, and Richard

5402-466: Was tried at a local court for killing a sheriff ; according to court records he was fined 10 oxen . The uprising started in Södra Möre during June 1542 with the assassination of more sheriffs and tax collectors. Gustav Vasa underestimated the military prowess of the peasants and sent his German mercenaries ( Landsknecht ) to quell the revolt. The landsknechts were, however, unsuited for battle in

5476-419: Was used for night sailing, for providing a crew for prize ships, and for providing more fighting men. Early in the Hundred Years War, the largest existing merchant ships, such as the cog, were converted to warships with the addition of wooden castles. There were three types of castles: forecastle (at the prow), aftcastle (at the stern), and the topcastle (at the top of the mast). A record from 1335 tells of

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