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201-485: Daima is located in northeastern Nigeria , 5 kilometers away from the Cameroonian frontier. It is also close to Lake Chad , as it is located about 45 kilometers away from the shoreline. The excavations discovered that around Daima, large deposits of firki clay are found. Further excavations proved that Daima's base also rests on firki clay plains. The mound's surroundings are composed of sandy areas. An aerial survey of

402-520: A conchoidal fracture . With early hand axes, it is easy to improvise their manufacture, correct mistakes without requiring detailed planning, and no long or demanding apprenticeship is necessary to learn the necessary techniques. These factors combine to allow these objects to remain in use throughout pre-history. Their adaptability makes them effective in a variety of tasks, from heavy duty such as digging in soil, felling trees or breaking bones to delicate such as cutting ligaments, slicing meat or perforating

603-524: A lithic reduction sequence may be used as tools. (Other biface typologies make five divisions rather than four. ) French antiquarian André Vayson de Pradenne introduced the word biface in 1920. This term co-exists with the more popular hand axe ( coup de poing ), that was coined by Gabriel de Mortillet much earlier. The continued use of the word biface by François Bordes and Lionel Balout supported its use in France and Spain, where it replaced

804-549: A megacity like Lagos and other major Nigerian cities which are linked with economic development, population growth and the inability of municipal councils to manage the resulting rise in industrial and domestic waste. This waste management problem is also attributable to unsustainable environmental management lifestyles of Kubwa community in the Federal Capital Territory, where there are habits of indiscriminate disposal of waste, dumping of waste along or into

1005-506: A zig-zag pattern was found, and it is believed to have been the floor of a circular mud hut. This particular feature dates to around 650 AD. Pottery features from Daima II, do not differ so greatly from the pottery of Daima I. Decoration patterns and methods such as com-sampling, grooving and riding, comb-drawing, wiping and smoothing, plaited cord roulettes, and mat impressions are present in Daima II. The shape of pots also continued to be

1206-528: A 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 6.2/10, ranking it 82nd globally out of 172 countries. In the year 2010, thousands of people were inadvertently exposed to lead-containing soil from informal gold mining within the northern state of Zamfara. While estimates vary, it is thought that upwards of 400 children died of acute lead poisoning , making this perhaps the largest lead poisoning fatality outbreak ever encountered. Stone axes A hand axe (or handaxe or Acheulean hand axe )

1407-530: A bifacial item and many bifacial items are not hand axes. Nor were hand axes and bifacial items exclusive to the Lower Palaeolithic period in the Old World. They appear throughout the world and in many different pre-historical epochs, without necessarily implying an ancient origin. Lithic typology is not a reliable chronological reference and was abandoned as a dating system. Examples of this include

1608-496: A bit more. Exotic materials are found throughout Daima during the Daima III phase. Materials such as bronze, glass, carnelian , and clear quartz are widely found in many of the burials of Daima III. The finding of these materials suggests that the people of Daima III had contacts with the outside world and were trading. It is believed that carnelian could have come from as far as India . Although it coming from somewhere along

1809-415: A button-like bronze disc on its waist. Although it is possible that Burial 38 and Burial 36 were both intrusive from Daima III into Daima II. Although the archaeological matrix was still sand and firki clay, Daima III differed from the first two phases. The sand and ash deposits of Daima III appear to be even greater. A percentage of the mound is composed of ash. White and black ash can be found throughout

2010-471: A civilian government but not before appointing Ernest Shonekan head of an interim national government . Babangida's regime has been considered the most corrupt and responsible for creating a culture of corruption in Nigeria. Shonekan's interim government, the shortest in the political history of the country, was overthrown in a coup d'état of 1993 led by General Sani Abacha , who used military force on

2211-436: A criterion of mate choice." Miller followed their example and said that hand axes have characteristics that make them subject to sexual selection, such as that they were made for over a million years throughout Africa, Europe and Asia, they were made in large numbers, and most were impractical for utilitarian use. He claimed that a single design persisting across time and space cannot be explained by cultural imitation and draws

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2412-684: A cultural or ritual use. Miller thinks that the most important clue is that under electron microscopy hand axes show no signs of use or evidence of edge wear. Others argue that little evidence for use-wear simply relates to the particular sedimentological conditions, rather than being evidence of discarding without use. It has been noted that hand axes can be good handicaps in Zahavi 's handicap principle theory: learning costs are high, risks of injury, they require physical strength, hand-eye coordination, planning, patience, pain tolerance and resistance to infection from cuts and bruises when making or using such

2613-489: A few spearheads. Throughout Daima's history, the occupants buried the dead within the settlement. Most of the burials of Daima I were in a contracted position and some others were flexed burials. The contracted burials consisted of flexed legs, which in some occasions could almost touch the chest. The flexed burials consisted of merely flexed legs. The burials appear to be in a sleeping position. People were buried lying mostly on their right side. The arms and legs were flexed and

2814-516: A formally independent federation on 1 October 1960. It experienced a civil war from 1967 to 1970, followed by a succession of military dictatorships and democratically elected civilian governments until achieving a stable government in the 1999 Nigerian presidential election , with the election of Olusegun Obasanjo of the Peoples Democratic Party . However, the country frequently experiences electoral fraud , and corruption

3015-430: A hand axe. The use-wear analysis of Palaeolithic hand axes is carried out on findings from emblematic sites across nearly all of Western Europe. Keeley and Semenov were the pioneers of this specialized investigation. Keeley stated, " The morphology of typical hand axes suggests a greater range of potential activities than those of flakes " . Many problems need to be overcome in carrying out this type of analysis. One

3216-405: A papyrus boat. Clay bells, pendants, balls, and beads were also being made. Clay spindle-whorls became popular towards the end of the phase. Their making implies cotton became important in the mound during this period. Socket-stem smoking pipes appeared at the end of Daima III. Clay bracelets also became common towards the end of Daima III, as clay was cheaper than most metals, and widely available in

3417-629: A parallel between bowerbirds ' bowers (built to attract potential mates and used only during courtship) and Pleistocene hominids ' hand axes. He called hand axe building a "genetically inherited propensity to construct a certain type of object." He discards the idea that they were used as missile weapons because more efficient weapons were available, such as javelins . Although he accepted that some hand axes may have been used for practical purposes, he agreed with Kohn and Mithen who showed that many hand axes show considerable skill, design and symmetry beyond that needed for utility. Some were too big, such as

3618-482: A poorly made or no floor at all. In order to support pots, the fireplaces had 3 or more protrusions from the walls onto the fire cavity. These were also decorated with patterns such as running chevron pattern and diamond lattice pattern. The fireplaces are thought to have been used as domestic cooking places. Some of the fireplaces are believed to be blacksmithing forges, although this is still being debated. Circular mud houses are still being constructed on Daima III. This

3819-432: A river system. The river system of the northeast is also a major river system. In addition, Nigeria has numerous coastal rivers. Over the last million years, Lake Chad in the far north-east of Nigeria has dried up several times for a few thousand years and just as often growing to many times its current size. In recent decades its surface area has been reduced considerably, which may also be due to humans taking water from

4020-504: A running pose. The clay figurines of Daima III show a much more varied subject than those made in Daima I and Daima II. Anthropomorphic figurines start to become more and more prominent. These figurines are composed of a heavy cylindrical base which more likely supported a head which was later attached to the base. These figurines also display great emphasis on the arms and legs. Figurines of wild animals are also predominant in Daima III. Some of

4221-481: A sharp border all around. Other uses seem to show that hand axes were a multi-functional tool, leading some to describe them as the "Acheulean Swiss Army knife ". Other academics have suggested that the hand axe was simply a byproduct of being used as a core to make other tools, a weapon, or was perhaps used ritually. Wells proposed in 1899 that hand axes were used as missile weapons to hunt prey – an interpretation supported by Calvin , who suggested that some of

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4422-551: A site in Baise , China shows that hand axes were made in eastern Asia. Hand axe technology is almost unknown in Australian prehistory, although a few have been found. Experiments in knapping have demonstrated the relative ease with which a hand axe can be made, which could help explain their success. In addition, they demand relatively little maintenance and allow a choice of raw materials–any rock will suffice that supports

4623-401: A spearhead. It is assumed that many other tools such as blades and hoes were present at the time. It is also presumed that the arrival of iron changed Daima entirely. Iron was essential not only on tool making, but also in cultural artifacts such as collars and bracelets. Iron is the reason why house construction during Daima II shifted to clay and mud huts and buildings, as it is easier to dig up

4824-440: A straight border. An experienced flintknapper needs less than 15 minutes to produce a good quality hand axe. A simple hand axe can be made from a beach pebble in less than 3 minutes. The manufacturing process employs lithic reduction . This phase is commonly thought of as the most important in hand axe fabrication, although it is not always used, such as for hand axes made from flakes or a suitable tool stone. An important concern

5025-559: A successful jihad against the Hausa Kingdoms , founding the centralised Sokoto Caliphate . This empire, with Arabic as its official language, grew rapidly under his rule and that of his descendants , who sent out invading armies in every direction. The vast landlocked empire connected the east with the western Sudan region and made inroads down south conquering parts of the Oyo Empire (modern-day Kwara ), and advanced towards

5226-503: A suitable tool stone, but they rarely show evidence of retouching . Later hand axes were improved by the use of the Levallois technique to make the more sophisticated and lighter Levallois core. In summary, hand axes are recognized by many typological schools under different archaeological paradigms and are quite recognisable (at least the most typical examples). However, they have not been definitively categorized. Stated more formally,

5427-403: A technical analysis of their manufacture and a morphological analysis. The technical analysis of a hand axe tries to discover each of the phases in its chaîne opératoire (operational sequence). The chain is highly flexible, as a toolmaker may focus narrowly on just one of the sequence's links or equally on each link. The links examined in this type of study start with the extraction methods of

5628-572: A triumvirate of three brigadier generals whose decisions could be vetoed by a Supreme Military Council . For this triumvirate, they convinced General Murtala Muhammed to become military head of state, with General Olusegun Obasanjo as his second-in-command, and General Theophilus Danjuma as the third. Together, the triumvirate introduced austerity measures to stem inflation, established a Corrupt Practices Investigation Bureau, replaced all military governors with new officers, and launched "Operation Deadwood" through which they fired 11,000 officials from

5829-432: A variety of materials. Later examples of hand axes are more sophisticated with their use of two layers of knapping (one made with stone knapping and one made with bone knapping). Lastly, a hand axe represents a prototype that can be refined giving rise to more developed, specialised and sophisticated tools such as the tips of various projectiles, knives, adzes and hatchets. Given the typological difficulties in defining

6030-402: A variety of shapes, including circular, triangular and elliptical—calling in to question the contention that they had a constant and only symbolic significance. They are typically between 8 and 15 cm (3 and 6 in) long, although they can be bigger or smaller. They were typically made from a rounded stone , a block or lithic flake , using a hammer to remove flakes from both sides of

6231-706: A wide scale to suppress the continuing civilian unrest. In 1995, the government hanged environmentalist Ken Saro-Wiwa on trumped-up charges in the deaths of four Ogoni elders, which caused Nigerian's suspension from the Commonwealth . Lawsuits under the American Alien Tort Statute against Royal Dutch Shell and Brian Anderson, the head of Shell's Nigerian operation, settled out of court with Shell continuing to deny liability. Several hundred million dollars in accounts traced to Abacha were discovered in 1999. The regime came to an end in 1998 when

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6432-429: Is English , chosen to facilitate linguistic unity at the national level. Nigeria's constitution ensures de jure freedom of religion , and it is home to some of the world's largest Muslim and Christian populations. Nigeria is divided roughly in half between Muslims , who live mostly in the north part of the country, and Christians , who live mostly in the south; indigenous religions , such as those native to

6633-541: Is a prehistoric stone tool with two faces that is the longest-used tool in human history . It is made from stone, usually flint or chert that has been "reduced" and shaped from a larger piece by knapping , or hitting against another stone. They are characteristic of the lower Acheulean and middle Palaeolithic ( Mousterian ) periods, roughly 1.6 million years ago to about 100,000 years ago, and used by Homo erectus and other early humans, but rarely by Homo sapiens . Their technical name ( biface ) comes from

6834-406: Is a pointed area at one end, cutting edges along its side and a rounded base (this includes hand axes with a lanceolate and amygdaloidal shape as well as others from the family). The axes are almost always symmetrical, despite studies showing that symmetry doesn't help in tasks such as using a hand axe for skinning animals. While there is a "typical" shape to most hand axes, there are some displaying

7035-402: Is a vast amount of iron found at Daima. Out of this iron, the earliest dates to about 500 A.D. Although it is still unclear exactly how iron arrived at Daima, iron tools became essential ever since iron first made it to the mound. Iron replaced both bone and stone tools to such degree, that they were almost extinguished. Among some of the available iron tools, there is what appears to be a knife or

7236-588: Is added to its variety of forms [...] we realise that the hand axe is one of the most problematical and complex objects in Prehistory In 1969 in the 2nd edition of World Prehistory, Grahame Clark proposed an evolutionary progression of flint-knapping industries (also known as complexes or technocomplexes ) in which the "dominant lithic technologies" occurred in a fixed sequence where simple Oldowan one-edged tools were replaced by these more complex Acheulean hand axes, which were then eventually replaced by

7437-757: Is basically mechanical, and apart from the colour and the wear it has the same characteristics as the interior in terms of hardness , toughness etc. However, flint is surrounded by a limestone cortex that is soft and unsuitable for stone tools. As hand axes are made from a tool stone's core, it is normal to indicate the thickness and position of the cortex in order to better understand the techniques that are required in their manufacture. The variation in cortex between utensils should not be taken as an indication of their age. Many partially-worked hand axes do not require further work in order to be effective tools. They can be considered to be simple hand axes. Less suitable tool stone requires more thorough working. In some specimens

7638-559: Is believed the people of Daima I grew sorghum, as well as hunted and fished. At Daima I, vast amounts of broken pottery or potsherds can be found. Some of the decoration patterns include comb-sampling, comb-drawing, grooving and ridging, wiping and smoothing, plaited cord roulettes, and mat impressions. The shape and form of the pottery include small bowls and pots, as well as pots with curved necks, externally thickened rims and pot-lids. Although round-based pots were widely available throughout Daima's history. Since Daima sits on firki clay,

7839-485: Is characterized by a sloping complex of hearths which consist of a mixture of red and yellow burnt sand and firki clay, and white ash. Houses at Daima I were built out of thin wood and then were covered with grass or mats. Lumps of fired clay at Daima I are surprisingly low in contrast to the other two phases of the mound. Traces of black and white ash are present, as well as animal bones, potsherds, and charcoal. Bone tools and animal clay figurines are also found at Daima I. It

8040-419: Is combined in one tool. Given the right circumstances, it is possible to make use of loose flakes . In the same book, Keeley states that a number of the hand axes studied were used as knives to cut meat (such as hand axes from Hoxne and Caddington ). He identified that the point of another hand axe had been used as a clockwise drill . This hand axe came from Clacton-on-Sea (all of these sites are located in

8241-551: Is considered to be the foundation of Igbo culture . Nri and Aguleri , where the Igbo creation myth originates, are in the territory of the Umeuri clan. Members of the clan trace their lineages back to the patriarchal king-figure Eri . In West Africa, the oldest bronzes made using the lost wax process were from Igbo-Ukwu , a city under Nri influence. The Yoruba kingdoms of Ife and Oyo in southwestern Nigeria became prominent in

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8442-464: Is easily identifiable and was carried out using techniques such as the coup de tranchet (French, meaning " tranchet blow"), or simply with scale or scalariform retouches that alter an edge's symmetry and line. With its flattened-teardrop symmetry, the Achulean handaxe has long invited cognitive explanations. It is the earliest hominid tool that seems "designed" in some modern sense. Yet, for most of

8643-502: Is fairly stone-less. Some of the found stone tools also include stone grinders, grindstones, and pounders. Some of these tools might have been used as bead polishers. In addition, a round "stone ball" is also found at this deposit. Because of a continuous wear seen in the stone tools, it is believed these were being reused as they broke down. It is thought that pieces of broken grindstones became grinders or pounders, which may have been reused once more as grooved stone. Further analysis of

8844-410: Is found in some of the deeper deposits of Daima III, which would suggest sorghum was being cultivated at Daima from around 800 AD. Some evidence of Pennisetum type of millet is found in the form of clay casts of whole grains together. It appears millet was also being grown but at a lesser degree than sorghum . Remains of Ziziphus are also among the found organic remains. It is assumed this plant

9045-403: Is found in the area, as this area is part of the wet season fields used by the present Daima village; also, because large numbers of cattle are watered down in the pool located at the northeast edge of the mound during dry seasons. Aside from grass, the other type of vegetation that survives and can be found in the area consists of bushes of Calotropis procera , which is particularly available at

9246-432: Is hollow and open on the underside, maybe to be able to be sewn into clothes. This artifact denotes the artistic and technological skill of the people at Daima. Bronze bracelets and rings are also found throughout this phase of the mound. In Daima III, remains of organic material can be found in the form of carbonized grain. Great quantities of sorghum are available in the Daima III deposit. The earliest sorghum of this phase

9447-441: Is implied by the lack of postholes in this phase. Also, remains of circular walls can be found. There are also many remains of clay that appear to have formed part of some kind of structures. Remains of clay walls or decorated moldings can also be appreciated in the Daima III deposit. It appears that some of the buildings were constructed using bundles of grass which were very tightly tied, and were then plastered with mud. Changes in

9648-510: Is important to study the rock's grain, texture, the presence of joints, veins, impurities or shatter cones etc. In order to study the use of individual items it is necessary to look for traces of wear such as pseudo-retouches, breakage or wear, including areas that are polished. If the item is in a good condition it is possible to submit it to use-wear analysis , which is discussed in more detail below. Apart from these generalities, which are common to all carved archaeological pieces, hand axes need

9849-485: Is interesting, as it is the only burial which has a clay headrest. This headrest is about 17.2 centimeters long. Other found grave goods are iron penannular ornaments, iron bracelets, one necklace composed of 29 carnelian beads, blue glass cylinder, and quartz cylinder of different shapes and sizes. Carnelian pendants, brass and bronze biconical beads, clay beads, quartz biconical beads, disc beads, faceted cylinder beads, brown glass and ostrich eggshell beads are also part of

10050-814: Is known as the Acheulean . The use of hand axes survived the Middle Palaeolithic in a much smaller area and were especially important during the Mousterian , up to the middle of the Last glacial period . [In Europe s]mall bifaces are found from the late Acheulean until the Aurignacian Hand axes dating from the lower Palaeolithic were found on the Asian continent, on the Indian subcontinent and in

10251-415: Is necessary to detach a 'starting flake', often much larger than the rest of the flakes (due to the oblique angle of a rounded pebble requiring greater force to detach it), thus creating an asymmetry. Correcting the asymmetry by removing material from the other faces, encouraged a more pointed (oval) form factor. (Knapping a completely circular hand axe requires considerable correction of the shape.) Studies in

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10452-564: Is plains of tall grass interrupted by trees. Sudan savannah is similar but with shorter grasses and shorter trees. Sahel savannah consists of patches of grass and sand, found in the northeast. Nigeria is divided into two main catchment areas - that of Lake Chad and that of the Niger. The Niger catchment area covers about 63% of the country. The main tributary of the Niger is the Benue, whose tributaries extend beyond Cameroon into Cameroon into Chad and

10653-462: Is rampant in various levels of Nigerian politics. Nigeria is a multinational state inhabited by more than 250 ethnic groups speaking 500 distinct languages , all identifying with a wide variety of cultures. The three largest ethnic groups are the Hausa in the north , Yoruba in the west , and Igbo in the east , together constituting over 60% of the total population. The official language

10854-458: Is still being practiced in Daima III. The most popular source of stone at this time is Hadjer el Hamis, just as it was back in Daima I. It makes sense, since it is closer to Daima, and transportation of materials through water was possible. By now, very little material is being gathered from the Mandara area. The decrease in the use of the Mandara area could hint sources of iron were being exploited

11055-399: Is the difficulty in observing larger pieces with a microscope. Of the millions of known pieces and despite their long role in human history, few have been thoroughly studied. Another arises from the clear evidence that the same tasks were performed more effectively using utensils made from flakes: This raises the question: why make hand axes, whose production is more complicated and costly, if

11256-513: Is the implement that has been used to form the biface. If multiple implements were used, it is essential to discover in what order they were used and the result obtained by each one. The most common implements are: Hand axes can be made without subsequent reworking of the edges. A hammerstone was the most common percussive tool used during the Acheulean. The resulting artefact is usually easily recognizable given its size and irregular edges, as

11457-435: Is the possibility of selling warfare prisoners as slaves. Just like the people of Daima I and Daima II, the people of Daima III buried the dead in the settlement. Daima III continued with many of the previous burial attitudes observed in both Daima I and Daima II. Once again, all of the burials are inhumations and the individuals were buried in flexed positions, although sometimes they were either contracted or extended. Most of

11658-496: Is the same in Dutch where the expression used is vuistbijl which literally means "fist axe". The same locution occurs in other languages. However, the general impression of these tools was based on ideal (or classic) pieces that were of such perfect shape that they caught the attention of non-experts. Their typology broadened the term's meaning. Biface hand axes and bifacial lithic items are distinguished. A hand axe need not be

11859-502: The Bight of Benin , and Bonny Island on the Bight of Biafra. The majority of those taken to these ports were captured in raids and wars. Usually, the captives were taken back to the conquerors' territory as forced labour ; they were sometimes gradually acculturated and absorbed into the conquerors' society. Slave routes were established throughout Nigeria linking the hinterland areas with

12060-798: The Bornu Empire gave rise to the British-controlled Borno Emirate which established Abubakar Garbai of Borno as ruler. In 1903, the British victory in the Battle of Kano gave them a logistical edge in pacifying the heartland of the Sokoto Caliphate and parts of the former Bornu Empire. On 13 March 1903, at the grand market square of Sokoto, the last vizier of the caliphate officially conceded to British rule. The British appointed Muhammadu Attahiru II as

12261-666: The Eastern Region . In May 1967, Governor of the Eastern Region Lt. Colonel Emeka Ojukwu declared the region independent from the federation as a state called the Republic of Biafra , as a result of the continuous and systematically planned attacks against Igbos and those of Eastern extraction popularly known as 1966 pogroms . This declaration precipitated the Nigerian Civil War , which began as

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12462-683: The Hoabinhian . However, Movius' hypothesis was proved incorrect when many hand axes made in Palaeolithic era were found in 1978 at Hantan River, Jeongok, Yeoncheon County , South Korea for the first time in East Asia. Some of them are exhibited at the Jeongok Prehistory Museum, South Korea. The Padjitanian culture from Java was traditionally thought to be the only oriental culture to manufacture hand axes. However,

12663-582: The Igbo and Yoruba ethnicities, are in the minority. Nigeria is a regional power in Africa and a middle power in international affairs. Nigeria's economy is the fourth-largest in Africa , the 53rd-largest in the world by nominal GDP , and 27th-largest by PPP . Nigeria is often referred to as the Giant of Africa owing to its large population and economy , and is considered to be an emerging market by

12864-669: The Lagos Treaty of Cession . British missionaries expanded their operations and travelled further inland. In 1864, Samuel Ajayi Crowther became the first African bishop of the Anglican Church . In 1885, British claims to a West African sphere of influence received recognition from other European nations at the Berlin Conference . The following year, it chartered the Royal Niger Company under

13065-469: The Mandara Mountains . These vast distances hint trade with other places, but it remains uncertain. Stone was not always easy to come by. Stone had to be collected, gathered, and then carried back to the site. Is believed this extensive process, caused people to turn to animal bones for tool material. Daima I is also characterized by beautiful and intricately made bone tools. Among these tools,

13266-571: The Muslim world . There are early historical references by medieval Arab and Muslim historians and geographers which refer to the Kanem–Bornu Empire as the region's major centre for Islamic civilization. The Kingdom of Nri of the Igbo people consolidated in the 10th century and continued until it lost its sovereignty to the British in 1911. Nri was ruled by the Eze Nri , and the city of Nri

13467-724: The Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods. These tools are similar to more modern adzes and were a cheaper alternative to polished axes. The modern day villages along the Sepik river in New Guinea continue to use tools that are virtually identical to hand axes to clear forest. "The term biface should be reserved for items from before the Würm II-III interstadial ", although certain later objects could exceptionally be called bifaces. Hand axe does not relate to axe , which

13668-589: The Niger River running through the country. This name was coined on 8 January 1897, by the British journalist Flora Shaw . The neighboring Republic of Niger takes its name from the same river. The origin of the name Niger , which originally applied to only the middle reaches of the Niger River, is uncertain. The word is likely an alteration of the Tuareg name egerew n-iger ewen used by inhabitants along

13869-564: The Nigerian Political Bureau which made recommendations for the transition to the Third Nigerian Republic. In 1989, Babangida started making plans for the transition to the Third Nigerian Republic. Babangida survived the 1990 Nigerian coup d'état attempt , then postponed a promised return to democracy to 1992. Babangida legalized the formation of political parties and formed the two-party system with

14070-602: The Northern Nigeria Protectorate into the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria . Administratively, Nigeria remained divided into the Northern and Southern Protectorates and Lagos Colony . Inhabitants of the southern region sustained more interaction, economic and cultural, with the British and other Europeans owing to the coastal economy. Christian missions established Western educational institutions in

14271-593: The Saharan margins is also possible. Bronze, clear quartz, and glass are also thought to have originated from outside the firki plains, but their exact place of origin continues to be unknown. For bronze is hypothesized that trans-Saharan merchants were bringing it to Daima. The way in which the people of Daima were paying for these goods and materials is unknown. It is assumed that the inhabitants of Daima were trading sorghum grains or animal products such as elephant tusks, leopard skin, and ostrich feathers. In addition, there

14472-560: The Social Democratic Party and National Republican Convention ahead of the 1992 general elections . He urged all Nigerians to join either of the parties, which Chief Bola Ige referred to as "two leper hands". The 1993 presidential election held on 12 June was the first since the military coup of 1983. The results, though not officially declared by the National Electoral Commission, showed

14673-800: The World Bank . Nigeria is a founding member of the African Union and a member of many international organizations, including the United Nations , the Commonwealth of Nations , NAM , the Economic Community of West African States , Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and OPEC . It is also a member of the informal MINT group of countries and is one of the Next Eleven economies. The name Nigeria derives from

14874-525: The Yoruba heartland of Ibadan , to reach the Atlantic Ocean. The territory controlled by the empire included much of modern-day northern and central Nigeria. The sultan sent out emirs to establish suzerainty over the conquered territories and promote Islamic civilization; the emirs in turn became increasingly rich and powerful through trade and slavery. By the 1890s, the largest slave population in

15075-401: The fluvial terraces of Western Europe . This means that different strategies were required for the procurement and use of available resources. The supply of materials was the most important factor in the manufacturing process as Palaeolithic artisans were able to adapt their methods to available materials, obtaining adequate results from even the most difficult raw materials. Despite this it

15276-404: The idealised model combines a series of well-defined properties , but no set of these properties are necessary or sufficient to identify a hand axe. The study of hand axes is made complicated because its shape is the result of a complicated chain of technical actions that are only occasionally revealed in their later stages. If this complexity of intentions during the manufacture of a hand axe

15477-585: The world's sixth-most populous country . Nigeria borders Niger in the north , Chad in the northeast , Cameroon in the east , and Benin in the west . Nigeria is a federal republic comprising 36 states and the Federal Capital Territory , where its capital, Abuja , is located. The largest city in Nigeria is Lagos , one of the largest metropolitan areas in the world and the largest in Africa . Nigeria has been home to several indigenous pre-colonial states and kingdoms since

15678-417: The "Swiss Army knife" multipurpose suite of proposed uses (deflesh- ing, scraping, pounding roots, and flake source), an easy-to-make shape would suffice – and indeed the simpler tools continued to be made. None of these uses adequately addresses the "design aspects." Why is the handaxe mostly symmetric, why mostly flattened, why the seldom-sharp point, why sharpened all around (when that interferes with gripping

15879-854: The "quasi-bifaces" that sometimes appear in strata from the Gravettian , Solutrean and Magdalenian periods in France and Spain, the crude bifacial pieces of the Lupemban culture ( 9000 B.C. ) or the pyriform tools found near Sagua La Grande in Cuba . The word biface refers to something different in English than biface in French or bifaz in Spanish, which could lead to many misunderstandings. Bifacially carved cutting tools, similar to hand axes, were used to clear scrub vegetation throughout

16080-576: The 10th century. With the spread of Islam from the 7th century AD, the area became known as Sudan or as Bilad Al Sudan (English: Land of the Blacks). Since the populations were partially affiliated with the Arab Muslim culture of North Africa , they began trans-Saharan trade and were referred to by the Arabic speakers as Al-Sudan (meaning "The Blacks") as they were considered an extended part of

16281-467: The 12th and 14th centuries, respectively. The oldest signs of human settlement at Ife's current site date back to the 9th century, and its material culture includes terracotta and bronze figures. In the 16th century, Portuguese explorers were the first Europeans to begin important, direct trade with the peoples of southern Nigeria, at the port they named Lagos (formerly Eko) and in Calabar along

16482-416: The 1990s at Boxgrove , in which a butcher attempted to cut up a carcass with a hand axe, revealed that the hand axe was able to expose bone marrow . Kohn and Mithen independently arrived at the explanation that symmetric hand axes were favoured by sexual selection as fitness indicators . Kohn in his book As We Know It wrote that the hand axe is "a highly visible indicator of fitness, and so becomes

16683-586: The 2007 general elections, Umaru Yar'Adua of the People's Democratic Party came to power. The international community, which had observed the Nigerian elections to promote a free and fair process, condemned these elections as seriously flawed. Yar'Adua died on 5 May 2010, and Vice President Goodluck Jonathan had been sworn in by the Senate three months earlier as acting president to succeed Yar'Adua. Jonathan won

16884-449: The 2011 presidential election; the polls went smoothly and with relatively little violence or electoral fraud. Jonathan's tenure saw an economic recovery that made Nigeria the leading economic power in Africa. The Jonathan administration also saw an increase in unparalleled corruption, with as many as 20 billion US dollars said to have been lost to the Nigerian state through the national oil company. Above all, however, Jonathan's tenure saw

17085-467: The British government moved Nigeria toward self-government on a representative and increasingly federal basis. By the eve of independence in 1960, regional differences in modern educational access were marked. The legacy, though less pronounced, continues to the present day. The balance between north and south was also expressed in Nigeria's political life. For instance, northern Nigeria did not outlaw slavery until 1936 whilst in other parts of Nigeria, slavery

17286-763: The Chad Basin, where the course of the El Beid River forms the border with Cameroon, from the Mandara Mountains to Lake Chad. The Komadugu Yobe river system gives rise to the internationally important Hadejia-Nguru wetlands and Ox-bow lakes around Lake Nguru in the rainy season. Other rivers of the northeast include the Ngadda and the Yedseram, both of which flow through the Sambisa swamps, thus forming

17487-545: The El Basalito site in Salamanca , where excavation uncovered fragments of a hand axe with marks at the tip that appeared to be the result of the action of a wedge, which would have subjected the object to high levels of torsion that broke the tip. A break or extreme wear can affect a tool's point or any other part. Such wear was reworked by means of a secondary working as discussed above. In some cases this reconstruction

17688-590: The Kwankwassiya of Rabiu Kwankwaso , former governor of Kano State in the Northwest. Bola Tinubu , of the ruling party, won the disputed election with 36.61% of the vote, but both runners-up claimed victory and litigation is ongoing in an election tribunal. Bola Tinubu's inauguration was held on 29 May 2023. Problems with widespread kidnapping in Nigeria continued. On 29 May 2024, Tinubu signed into law an act readopting Nigeria, We Hail Thee , which

17889-571: The Maritime Academy handaxe or the "Great Hand Axe" found in Furze Platt, England that is 30.6 cm long (other scholars measure it as 39.5 cm long). Some were too small - less than two inches. Some were "overdetermined", featuring symmetry beyond practical requirements and showing evidence of unnecessary attention to form and finish. Some were actually made out bone instead of stone and thus were not very practical, suggesting

18090-640: The Middle East (to the south of parallel 40° N), but they were absent from the area to the east of the 90° E meridian . Movius designated a border (the so-called Movius Line ) between the cultures that used hand axes to the west and those that made chopping tools and small retouched lithic flakes , such as were made by Peking Man and the Ordos culture in China, or their equivalents in Indochina such as

18291-600: The Niger and the Cross Rivers has lost most of its forest because of development and harvesting by increased population and has been replaced by grassland . Everything in between the far south and the far north is savannah (insignificant tree cover, with grasses and flowers located between trees). Rainfall is more limited to between 500 and 1,500 millimetres (20 and 60 in) per year. The savannah zone's three categories are Guinean forest-savanna mosaic , Sudan savannah, and Sahel savannah. Guinean forest-savanna mosaic

18492-531: The Nigerian government, with Nigeria utilizing air support from Egyptian pilots provided by Gamal Abdel Nasser , while France and Israel aided the Biafrans. The Congolese government, under President Joseph-Désiré Mobutu , took an early stand on the Biafran secession, voicing strong support for the Nigerian federal government and deploying thousands of troops to fight against the secessionists . Following

18693-739: The Sharie catchment area. In the Sahel region, rain is less than 500 millimetres (20 in) per year, and the Sahara Desert is encroaching. In the dry northeast corner of the country lies Lake Chad , on a shared water boundary delimitation with Niger, Chad and Cameroon. The Chad Basin is fed from the north-eastern quarter of Nigeria. The Bauchi Plateau forms the watershed between the Niger/Benue and Komadugu Yobe river systems. The flat plains of north-eastern Nigeria are geographically part of

18894-399: The animals their economy relies on as adoration or idolization. Clay bracelets and miniature pots which are believed to be children toys, were also made at Daima I. Just like potsherds, great amounts of stone tools are found at the site. The most prominent kind of stone tools found are ground stone axes . The overall findings of stone tools in this area is remarkable, as this part of Nigeria

19095-416: The area. Clay rods which had a very careful and polished finish are also present. Although it is thought these were some kind of lip or nose adornment. Grooved stones made their way to Daima III and lasted until the last occupation. It is believed they were vital for the smoothing of arrow shafts and other artifacts alike. Grindstones and grinders or pounders also continue to be widely found in Daima III. On

19296-695: The best specimens come from 1.2 mya deposits in Olduvai Gorge . By 1.8 mya early man was present in Europe. Remains of their activities were excavated in Spain at sites in the Guadix-Baza basin and near Atapuerca. Most early European sites yield "mode 1" or Oldowan assemblages. The earliest Acheulean sites in Europe appear around 0.5 mya. In addition, the Acheulean tradition did not spread to Eastern Asia. In Europe and particularly in France and England,

19497-552: The border with Cameroon , where the montane land is part of the Bamenda Highlands of Cameroon. The far south is defined by its tropical rainforest climate , where annual rainfall is 1,500 to 2,000 millimetres (60 to 80 in) per year. In the southeast stands the Obudu Plateau . Coastal plains are found in both the southwest and the southeast. Mangrove swamps are found along the coast. The area near

19698-593: The border with Cameroon close to the coast is rich rainforest and part of the Cross-Sanaga-Bioko coastal forests ecoregion , an important centre for biodiversity . It is a habitat for the drill primate , which is found in the wild only in this area and across the border in Cameroon. The areas surrounding Calabar , Cross River State, also in this forest, are believed to contain the world's largest diversity of butterflies. The area of southern Nigeria between

19899-526: The burials from Daima I, the burials of Daima II were not adorned nor had any material goods on them. Only one infant burial referred to as "Burial 38" was buried with what appear to be adornments. Burial 38 had an iron collar in its neck, as well as a large quartz bead which was also located near the neck. One of the forearms had one iron bracelet and many more iron fragments were found at the waist. Another infant burial referred to as "Burial 36" also had in one of its forearms an iron bracelet. In addition, it had

20100-583: The burials lay o their sides with an apparent preference for the right side. Most of the time, hands were placed in front or under the head, and the head is mostly oriented to the west or southwest and northwest, just as in Daima I. The only way in which the burials of Daima III differentiate from the other two phases, is an increase of grave goods. These were found on 14 of 19 burials. Many of the found grave goods are made from exotic materials such as quartz, bronze, glass and carnelian. These are significant, as they might be indicating personal wealth and status. Some of

20301-405: The caliphate and the central Sokoto administration to prevent any defence as he worked towards the capital. As the British approached the city of Sokoto , Sultan Muhammadu Attahiru I organized a quick defence of the city and fought the advancing British-led forces. The British force quickly won, sending Attahiru I and thousands of followers on a Mahdist hijra . In the northeast, the decline of

20502-477: The canals, sewerage systems that are channels for water flows, and the like. Haphazard industrial planning, increased urbanisation, poverty and lack of competence of the municipal government are seen as the major reasons for high levels of waste pollution in major cities of the country. Some of the solutions have been disastrous to the environment, resulting in untreated waste being dumped in places where it can pollute waterways and groundwater . In 2005, Nigeria had

20703-565: The civil service. Colonel Buka Suka Dimka launched a February 1976 coup attempt , during which General Murtala Muhammed was assassinated. Dimka lacked widespread support among the military, and his coup failed, forcing him to flee. After the coup attempt, General Olusegun Obasanjo was appointed military head of state. Obasanjo vowed to continue Murtala's policies. Aware of the danger of alienating northern Nigerians, Obasanjo brought General Shehu Yar'Adua as his replacement and second-in-command as Chief of Staff, Supreme Headquarters completing

20904-412: The clay figurines as less depictions of cattle are found throughout. Fishing, hunting, fowling, and collecting were also part of the mound's economy. Some of the found animal bones belong to gazelles, reedbucks, warthogs , bushpigs , and elephants. There is also evidence of freshwater mollusk consumption such as Aspatharia and Pila wernei . Long distance gathering and transporting of raw materials

21105-407: The consumption of cereals such as sorghum . By this time, house construction shifts from wood and grass, to clay and mud. One straight mud wall and the remains of a few circular mud houses were found. In addition, floor-like spreads were also found. These findings indicate circular mud houses were being built by the people of Daima II. An amazing piece of edge-laid potsherd pavement carefully laid in

21306-493: The core as the irregularities formed during knapping are not removed. The notches obtained were exploited in the production sequence. It is common that this type of manufacture yields " partial bifaces " (an incomplete working that leaves many areas covered with cortex), "unifaces" (tools that have only been worked on one face), " bifaces in the Abbevillian style " and " nucleiform bifaces " . This type of manufacturing style

21507-463: The cortex is unrecognisable due to the complete working that it has undergone, which has eliminated any vestige of the original cortex. It is possible to distinguish multiple types of hand axe: Older hand axes were produced by direct percussion with a stone hammer and can be distinguished by their thickness and a sinuous border. Mousterian hand axes were produced with a soft billet of antler or wood and are much thinner, more symmetrical and have

21708-490: The cultural and political differences were sharp among Nigeria's dominant ethnic groups: the Hausa in the north, Igbo in the east and Yoruba in the west. The Westminster system of government was retained, and thus the President 's powers were generally ceremonial. The parliamentary system of government had Abubakar Tafawa Balewa as Prime Minister and Nnamdi Azikiwe as the ceremonial president. The founding government

21909-482: The cutting and dump them at a sufficient distance from the cutting edge. Many of the cuttings were dug with trowels, picks and shovels. The excavated soil was carried away and deposited on soil heaps at a safe distance for further observation and analysis. All the test cuttings (Cuttings I-VIII) were excavated in the same manner. The cuttings were later backfilled to keep the site protected from erosion . Intense radiocarbon analyses discovered that Daima dates to early in

22110-409: The depicted animals include ox, birds, fish, pigs, antelopes, and a possible baboon. Fish were generally depicted with spikes on them. This is also true about other animals, which makes identifying them somewhat difficult. Humans and animals were not the only subjects of clay depictions. One canoe clay figurine of about 7.3 centimeters is also found. It is assumed this clay figurine was meant to depict

22311-492: The deposit. Pink ash is also found slightly covering some parts near the top of the mound. Pits are vastly available in Daima III. These pits vary in size; some are small and their purpose remains unknown. Others are believed to be used for storing food. Pots which were used as water storage units are also available. Very low amounts of animal bone are found throughout the entire Daima III phase. Potsherd pavements stop being made in Daima III, as they cannot be found at all in any of

22512-505: The deposits from this phase. By this time, hearths were even more popular than they were on Daima I and Daima II. Clay fireplaces are the most common form of structural evidence. These fireplaces were made from clay that was fired to a yellow color. These also varied in size, shape and design. The fireplaces had circular shapes, but most of them were elongated with an opening on one side. These fireplaces had floor patterns which also varied significantly. Some had well-fired floors while others had

22713-570: The dictator died in the villa. He looted money to offshore accounts in Western European banks and defeated coup plots by arresting and bribing generals and politicians. His successor, General Abdulsalami Abubakar , adopted a new constitution on 5 May 1999, which provided for multiparty elections. On 29 May 1999, Abubakar handed over power to the winner of the 1999 presidential election, former military ruler General Olusegun Obasanjo , as President of Nigeria. Obasanjo had been in prison under

22914-516: The dictatorship of Abacha. Obasanjo's inauguration heralded the beginning of the Fourth Nigerian Republic, ending a 39-year period of short-lived democracies, civil war and military dictatorship. Although the elections that brought Obasanjo to power and allowed him to run for a second term in the 2003 presidential elections were condemned as unfree and unfair, Nigeria made significant progress in democratization under Obasanjo. In

23115-622: The direct control of the British government and established the Southern Nigeria Protectorate as a British protectorate and part of the British Empire . By 1902, the British had begun plans to move north into the Sokoto Caliphate. British General Lord Frederick Lugard was tasked by the Colonial Office to implement the agenda. Lugard used rivalries between many of the emirs in the southern reach of

23316-561: The duo of Moshood Abiola and Baba Gana Kingibe of the Social Democratic Party defeated Bashir Tofa and Sylvester Ugoh of the National Republican Convention by over 2.3 million votes. However, Babangida annulled the elections, leading to massive civilian protests that effectively shut down the country for weeks. In August 1993, Babangida finally kept his promise to relinquish power to

23517-723: The earliest known sculptures in sub-Saharan Africa and smelted iron by about 550 BC and possibly a few centuries earlier. Evidence of iron smelting has also been excavated at sites in the Nsukka region of southeast Nigeria: dating to 2000 BC at the site of Lejja and to 750 BC and at the site of Opi . The Kano Chronicle highlights an ancient history dating to around 999 AD of the Hausa Sahelian city-state of Kano , with other major Hausa cities (or Hausa Bakwai ) of Daura , Hadeija , Kano , Katsina , Zazzau , Rano , and Gobir all having recorded histories dating back to

23718-667: The east of England). Toth reached similar conclusions for pieces from the Spanish site in Ambrona ( Soria ). Analysis carried out by Domínguez-Rodrigo and co-workers on the primitive Acheulean site in Peninj ( Tanzania ) on a series of tools dated 1.5 mya shows clear microwear produced by plant phytoliths , suggesting that the hand axes were used to work wood. Among other uses, use-wear evidence for fire making has been identified on dozens of later Middle Palaeolithic hand axes from France , suggesting Neanderthals struck these tools with

23919-792: The emergence of a wave of terror by the Boko Haram insurgency , such as the Gwoza massacre and Chibok schoolgirls kidnapping in 2014. Ahead of the general election of 2015 , a merger of the biggest opposition parties in Nigeria – the Action Congress of Nigeria , the Congress for Progressive Change , the All Nigeria Peoples Party , a faction of the All Progressives Grand Alliance and

24120-490: The essence of a hand axe, it is important when analysing them to take account of their archaeological context ( geographical location , stratigraphy , the presence of other elements associated with the same level , chronology etc.). It is necessary to study their physical state to establish any natural alterations that may have occurred: patina, shine, wear and tear, mechanical, thermal and / or physical-chemical changes such as cracking, in order to distinguish these factors from

24321-562: The even more complex Mousterian tools made with the Levallois technique . The oldest known Oldowan tools were found in Gona, Ethiopia . These are dated to about 2.6 mya. Early examples of hand axes date back to 1.6 mya in the later Oldowan (Mode I), called the "developed Oldowan " by Mary Leakey . These hand axes became more abundant in mode II Acheulean industries that appeared in Southern Ethiopia around 1.4 mya. Some of

24522-407: The fact that the archetypical model is a generally bifacial (with two wide sides or faces) and almond -shaped (amygdaloidal) lithic flake . Hand axes tend to be symmetrical along their longitudinal axis and formed by pressure or percussion. The most common hand axes have a pointed end and rounded base, which gives them their characteristic almond shape, and both faces have been knapped to remove

24723-469: The firki clay if using iron tools. Just as the people of Daima I, the people of Daima two buried the dead in the settlement, and all of these burials are inhumations. Most of the burials at Daima II are positioned in a contracted way, although some others are flexed burials. Burials also lay on either side, but no preferred side is seen in most of them. Adult and few infant burials are found at Daima II. 7 adults and 5 immature individuals are present. just as

24924-493: The first millennium BC until early into the second millennium AD. The excavations showed the stratigraphy of the mound seems to separate Daima into three parts. Daima I represents a community of people without any metalwork who herded cattle and grew sorghum . Daima II is characterized by the first iron working people of the mound’s history. Daima III represents a community of people with a rich material culture which include many different kinds of exotic goods and materials. Daima I

25125-467: The first time at Daima II. Lip, nose, and ear ornaments also appear, as well as clay bracelets. Daima II is mostly characterized by the arrival of iron to the site. As iron became more and more popular, some tools decreased in making, or completely disappeared from the record. Stone balls are rarely found on the Daima II deposit, and the ground stone axe completely disappeared. Although grooved stones, grindstones and grinders are somewhat available throughout

25326-522: The first time since the return of democracy, no former military ruler ran for president, marking a strengthening of democracy and faith in the multiparty constitution . The election also saw the rise of metonymic supporters of the new candidates, the Obidient movement of Peter Obi , previously governor of Anambra State, widely appealed to young, urban voters and has his core base in the Southeast; and

25527-528: The flakes can do the same work with the same efficiency? The answer could be that, in general, hand axes were not conceived for a particular function (excluding certain specialized types) [...], they were not made for one main task but covered a much more general purpose. Keeley based his observations on archaeological sites in England. He proposed that in base settlements where it was possible to predict future actions and where greater control on routine activities

25728-416: The forest zone's most southerly portion, especially around the Niger River and Cross River deltas, is mangrove swamp . North of this is a freshwater swamp, containing different vegetation from the saltwater mangrove swamps, and north of that is a rainforest. The savannah zone's three categories are divided into Guinean forest-savanna mosaic , made up of plains of tall grass which are interrupted by trees,

25929-469: The form of red and yellow burnt sand and firki clay are highly available during this phase. There are also vast numbers of pits found. These measure about 50 to 70 centimeters in diameter, and about 50 centimeters deep. It is believed that the people at Daima II were using these pits as trash dumpsters and sorghum storage units. Fishing and hunting continued to be practiced. Although there is a decrease in animal bones. This decrease would suggest an increase of

26130-759: The found grave goods. Nigeria Nigeria , officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria , is a country in West Africa . It is situated between the Sahel to the north and the Gulf of Guinea to the south in the Atlantic Ocean . It covers an area of 923,769 square kilometres (356,669 sq mi). With a population of more than 230 million, it is the most populous country in Africa , and

26331-460: The hand axe was not itself a tool, but a large lithic core from which flakes had been removed and used as tools (flake core theory). On the other hand, there are many hand axes found with retouching such as sharpening or shaping, which casts doubt on this idea. Other theories suggest the shape is part tradition and part by-product of its manufacture. Many early hand axes appear to be made from simple rounded pebbles (from river or beach deposits). It

26532-496: The hands were placed before the face or under the head. The head was most of the times facing west or southwest and northwest. None of the burials at Daima I were adorned, and they had no personal goods on them. The Daima II phase resembles that of Daima I. Sand and firki clay continue to be present in Daima II. Although the amount of firki clay at Daima II is not as extensive as it was on the previous phase. Remains of hearths in

26733-528: The highest rate of deforestation in the world, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations . That year, 12.2%, the equivalent of 11,089,000 hectares, had been forested in the country. Between 1990 and 2000, Nigeria lost an average of 409,700 hectares of forest every year equal to an average annual deforestation rate of 2.4%. Between 1990 and 2005, in total Nigeria lost 35.7% of its forest cover or around 6,145,000 hectares. Nigeria had

26934-445: The inhabitants of Daima used it a lot throughout the three phases. The fired clay figurines found at Daima I depicted cows and cattle in general. Most of the clay figurines were about 5 centimeters in length. Two main styles of clay figurines are found at the site. These styles are standing and sitting depictions of cattle. The exact purpose of the clay figurines is unknown, but it is generally hypothesized that societies build figurines of

27135-407: The inlets to irrigate agricultural land. Nigeria is covered by three types of vegetation: forests (where there is significant tree cover), savannahs (insignificant tree cover, with grasses and flowers located between trees), and montane land (least common and mainly found in the mountains near the Cameroon border). Both the forest zone and the savannah zone are divided into three parts. Some of

27336-470: The item. This hammer can be made of hard stone, or of wood or antler . The latter two, softer hammers can produce more delicate results. However, a hand axe's technological aspect can reflect more differences. For example, uniface tools have only been worked on one side and partial bifaces retain a high proportion of the natural cortex of the tool stone , often making them easy to confuse with chopping tools . Further, simple bifaces may have been created from

27537-477: The leadership of Sir George Taubman Goldie . By the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the company had vastly succeeded in subjugating the independent southern kingdoms along the Niger River , the British conquered Benin in 1897, and, in the Anglo-Aro War (1901–1902), defeated other opponents. The defeat of these states opened up the Niger area to British rule. In 1900, the company's territory came under

27738-476: The location of a large area of Central African mangroves . Nigeria's most expansive topographical region is that of the valleys of the Niger and Benue river valleys (which merge and form a Y-shape). To the southwest of the Niger is a "rugged" highland . To the southeast of the Benue are hills and mountains, which form the Mambilla Plateau , the highest plateau in Nigeria. This plateau extends through

27939-676: The major coastal ports. Some of the more prolific slave-trading kingdoms who participated in the Atlantic slave trade were linked with the Edo's Benin Empire in the south, Oyo Empire in the southwest, and the Aro Confederacy in the southeast. Benin's power lasted between the 15th and 19th centuries. Oyo, at its territorial zenith in the late 17th to early 18th centuries, extended its influence from western Nigeria to modern-day Togo . In

28140-408: The material culture of Daima III can also be appreciated in its pottery. Pottery attributes from Daima I such as comb-sampling, comb-drawing, plaited cord roulettes and mat impressions disappeared. A series of new pottery features and attributes emerged. Carved roulettes in the form of running chevrons, as well as nodular roulettes emerged for the first time in Daima III. Changes in the form and shape of

28341-461: The middle reaches of the river around Timbuktu before 19th-century European colonialism . Before Flora Shaw suggested the name Nigeria , other proposed names included Royal Niger Company Territories , Central Sudan , Niger Empire , Niger Sudan , and Hausa Territories . Kainji Dam excavations showed ironworking by the 2nd century BC. The transition from Neolithic times to the Iron Age

28542-418: The military triumvirate, with Obasanjo as head of state and General Theophilus Danjuma as Chief of Army Staff , the three went on to re-establish control over the military regime and organized the military's transfer of power programme: states creation and national delimitation , local government reforms and the constitutional drafting committee for a new republic. The military carefully planned

28743-417: The mineral pyrite to produce sparks at least 50,000 years ago. Some hand axes were used with force that left clearly visible marks. Other visible marks can be left as the scars from retouching, on occasion it is possible to distinguish them from marks left by the initial manufacture. One of the most common cases is when a point breaks. This was seen at sites in Europe, Africa and Asia. One example comes from

28944-403: The most common across the country; Sudan savannah, with short grasses and short trees; and Sahel savannah patches of grass and sand, found in the northeast. Waste management including sewage treatment , the linked processes of deforestation and soil degradation , and climate change or global warming are the major environmental problems in Nigeria. Waste management presents problems in

29145-414: The most interesting grave goods include a bronze disc found placed near the neck of the individual from "Burial 31." This bronze disc is very thin and about 5.2 centimeters in diameter. The disc rises to a point at the center and a twisted molding covers the entire edge. The back is hollow and has a retention bar. As mentioned above, this bronze disc was made using the lost-wax casting technique. "Burial 19"

29346-466: The most notorious are the bone harpoons. The bone harpoons are boat-shaped in cross-section and are pointed at both ends. The length of these tools varies from 5.1 centimeters to 13.0 centimeters and these usually have two line-retention lugs; Some have only one, and some do not have one at all. Also, the harpoons have a few barbs on them. Those mentioned details denote these tools are in fact harpoons that were intended to detach from their shaft and remain in

29547-490: The natural cortex , at least partially. Hand axes are a type of the somewhat wider biface group of two-faced tools or weapons. Hand axes were the first prehistoric tools to be recognized as such: the first published representation of a hand axe was drawn by John Frere and appeared in a British publication in 1800. Until that time, their origins were thought to be natural or supernatural. They were called thunderstones , because popular tradition held that they had fallen from

29748-594: The new PDP (a faction of serving governors of the ruling People's Democratic Party) – formed the All Progressives Congress led by current president Bola Ahmed Tinubu. At the time, it was the most expensive election ever to be held on the African continent (being surpassed only by the elections of 2019 and 2023 ). The new mega-opposition party chose as their candidate for the election former military dictator Muhammadu Buhari. Buhari's campaign in 2015

29949-434: The new caliph. Lugard abolished the caliphate but retained the title sultan as a symbolic position in the newly organized Northern Nigeria Protectorate . This remnant became known as " Sokoto Sultanate Council ". In June 1903, the British defeated the remaining northern forces of Attahiru. By 1906, all resistance to British rule had ended. On 1 January 1914, the British formally united the Southern Nigeria Protectorate and

30150-579: The north, the incessant fighting amongst the Hausa city-states and the decline of the Bornu Empire allowed the Fulani people to gain headway into the region. Until this point, the Fulani, a nomadic ethnic group, primarily traversed the semi-desert Sahelian region north of Sudan with cattle and avoided trade and intermingling with the Sudanic peoples. At the beginning of the 19th century, Usman dan Fodio led

30351-516: The official Nigerian government side attacked Biafra on 6 July 1967, at Garkem. The 30-month war, with a long blockade of Biafra and its isolation from trade and international relief, ended in January 1970. Estimates of the number of dead in the former Eastern Region during the 30-month civil war range from one to three million. Britain and the Soviet Union were the main military backers of

30552-431: The oldest hand axes appear after the Beestonian Glaciation – Mindel Glaciation , approximately 750,000 years ago, during the so-called Cromerian complex . They became more widely produced during the Abbevillian tradition. The apogee of hand axe manufacture took place in a wide area of the Old World , especially during the Riss glaciation , in a cultural complex that can be described as cosmopolitan and which

30753-412: The other side, the artifactual use of animal bone, which was so characteristic of Daima I, cannot be found at all by Daima III. Overall animal bones that showed human interaction occurred rarely throughout the Daima III phase. Iron objects in Daima III are not as common as they were in Daima II. Most of the found iron is in the form of rods. Iron slag became common during this phase. This implies that iron

30954-466: The plotters struggled to form a central government. Senate President Nwafor Orizu handed over government control to the Army , under the command of another Igbo officer, Major General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi . Later, the counter-coup of 1966, supported primarily by Northern military officers, facilitated the rise of Yakubu Gowon as military head of state. Tension rose between north and south; Igbos in northern cities suffered persecution and many fled to

31155-579: The pottery also occurred. Small bowls and pots with curved necks disappeared. What became characteristic attributes of pottery during this period include massive rims and terminal pieces of "So pots," legs, and flat bases with and without a foot. Some old decoration methods such as grooving and grinding, and wiping and smoothing persisted, as well as most of the pottery attributes from Daima II such as twisted cord roulettes, punctate impressions, and vertical rims. Externally thickened rims and pot-lids also persisted. Flat-based pots were characteristic of this phase of

31356-561: The pottery assemblage of Daima II. The making of clay figurines continued well into Daima II. But somewhere about halfway through the phase, clay figurines become less frequent. Clay figurines also become much more diverse in type during this phase of the mound. Clay figurines are now depicting humans and other anthropomorphic figures. Upright figures are also found, and are thought to represent animals or humans as well. Wild animals also start being depicted during Daima II. Clay beads and clay balls of about 2 centimeters in diameter also appear for

31557-443: The protectorates. Under Britain's policy of indirect rule and validation of Islamic legitimist tradition, the Crown did not encourage the operation of Christian missions in the northern, Islamic part of the country. By the mid-20th century following World War II , a wave for independence was sweeping across Africa, in response to the growth of Nigerian nationalism and demands for independence, successive constitutions legislated by

31758-401: The raw material, then include the actual manufacture of the item, its use, maintenance throughout its working life, and finally its disposal. A toolmaker may put a lot of effort into finding the highest quality raw material or the most suitable tool stone. In this way more effort is invested in obtaining a good foundation, but time is saved on shaping the stone: that is, the effort is focused on

31959-423: The record. Bone tools also drastically decrease in popularity. The ulna tool cannot be found at all during Daima II. It seems harpoons, as well as the spatulate tools disappeared early in the Daima II phase. Double-ended bone points survived a bit longer, but after some time, they also stop being made. Animal bones are still found, but at a lesser degree, as well as few objects of worked animal phalanges . There

32160-404: The region Slave Coast . Europeans traded goods with peoples at the coast; coastal trade with Europeans also marked the beginnings of the Atlantic slave trade . The port of Calabar on the historical Bight of Biafra (now commonly referred to as the Bight of Bonny) became one of the largest slave-trading posts in West Africa in this era. Other major slaving ports were located in Badagry , Lagos on

32361-408: The removed flakes leave pronounced percussion bulbs and compression rings. A hammerstone produces a small number of flakes that are wide and deep leaving long edges on the tool as their highly concave form yields curving edges. The cross-section is irregular, often sub-rhombic, while the intersection between the faces forms an acute angle of between 60° and 90° degrees. The shape is similar to that of

32562-428: The resettlement of slaves freed by Britain in North America after the American Revolutionary War . Britain intervened in the Lagos kingship power struggle by bombarding Lagos in 1851, deposing the slave-trade-friendly Oba Kosoko , helping to install the amenable Oba Akitoye and signing the Treaty between Great Britain and Lagos on 1   January 1852. Britain annexed Lagos as a crown colony in August 1861 with

32763-405: The return to civilian rule putting in place measures to ensure that political parties had broader support than witnessed during the first republic. In 1979, five political parties competed in a series of elections in which Alhaji Shehu Shagari of the National Party of Nigeria (NPN) was elected president. All five parties won representation in the National Assembly. On 1 October 1979, Shehu Shagari

32964-465: The rounder specimens of Acheulean hand axes were used as hunting projectiles or as "killer frisbees" meant to be thrown at a herd of animals at a water hole so as to stun one of them. This assertion was inspired by findings from the Olorgesailie archaeological site in Kenya . Few specimens indicate hand axe hafting , and some are too large for that use. However, few hand axes show signs of heavy damage indicative of throwing, modern experiments have shown

33165-583: The same. There are some small bowls and pots, as well as externally thickened rims and pot-lids continue to be made. Some new decoration patterns emerged. A decoration pattern called twisted cord roulette decoration appears for the first time at Daima II, and it continued to be a popular decoration pattern until the last occupation of the mound. Punctate impression decoration is also characteristic of this period, just as using cordons as decoration. Pot form and shape also changed. Globular and sub-hemispherical vessels emerged. Vertical and large rims also became popular in

33366-401: The scars left during the tool's manufacture or use. The raw material is an important factor, because of the result that can be obtained by working it and in order to reveal the economy and movement of prehistoric humans. In the Olduvai Gorge the raw materials were most readily available some ten kilometres from the nearest settlements. However, flint or silicate is readily available on

33567-480: The second millennium BC, with the Nok civilization in the 15th century BC marking the first internal unification. The modern state originated with British colonialization in the 19th century, taking its present territorial shape with the merging of the Southern Nigeria Protectorate and the Northern Nigeria Protectorate in 1914. The British set up administrative and legal structures while practicing indirect rule through traditional chiefdoms . Nigeria became

33768-426: The separatist Ambazonia ) 1,690 km or 1,050 mi. Its coastline is at least 853 km (530 mi). Nigeria lies between latitudes 4° and 14°N , and longitudes 2° and 15°E . The highest point in Nigeria is Chappal Waddi at 2,419 m (7,936 ft). The main rivers are the Niger and the Benue , which converge and empty into the Niger Delta . This is one of the world's largest river deltas and

33969-417: The shaft was grounded to a chisel-like with a point on the edge. This artifact is thought to have been used as a skinning tool. In addition, an ulna tool is also present in the archaeological record of Daima I. This tool consists of a proximal end used as a handle, just as the spatulate tool previously mentioned. Also, the shaft was ground to a circular and pointed cross-section. Additional bone tools include

34170-421: The signs of use. Hand axes are mainly made of flint , but rhyolites , phonolites , quartzites and other coarse rocks were used as well. Obsidian , natural volcanic glass, shatters easily and was rarely used. Most researchers think that handaxes were primarily used as cutting tools. The pioneers of Palaeolithic tool studies first suggested that bifaces were used as axes despite the fact that they have

34371-411: The site suggested the sand area is larger than the firki area. The survey also suggested the sand may be of alluvial origin. The excavation also demonstrated that the firki clay in which Daima sits on, is very thin and there is some sand beneath it. This suggests the first settlement of the mound might have grown on a small sand island that extended to the edge of the firki as time passed. Little vegetation

34572-497: The site, as well as a type of tripod-pot. Fired clay figurines continued being made through this phase. By Daima III, clay figurines do not represent cattle as much as they did in the first two phases of the mound. Previously, only humpless cattle were depicted, but now a humped cow of the zebu type seems to be depicted. This could be an indication of the drying of the environment, as zebus are important for their abilities to survive in dry conditions. Sheep and goats were depicted in

34773-454: The site. Thorny forests are also available at the site. Few trees are also scattered throughout. Other trees such as Balanites aegyptiaca , Ficus gnaphalocarpa , and Acacia albida were documented as being present in the mound around 1967. Occasional patches of thorn bushes such as Ziziphus spina-christi , and Ziziphus mauritania are also found. Daima was first excavated by Graham Connah in 1965 and 1966. According to Connah, who

34974-583: The sky during storms or were formed inside the earth by a lightning strike and then appeared at the surface. They are used in some rural areas as an amulet to protect against storms. Handaxes are generally thought to have been primarily used as cutting tools, with the wide base serving as an ergonomic area for the hand to grip the tool, though other uses, such as throwing weapons and use as social and sexual signaling have been proposed. The four classes of hand axe are: While Class 4 hand axes are referred to as "formalized tools", bifaces from any stage of

35175-436: The start of the Acheulean period and became more common with time. Manufacturing a hand axe from a flake is actually easier than from a pebble. It is also quicker, as flakes are more likely to be closer to the desired shape. This allows easier manipulation and fewer knaps are required to finish the tool; it is also easier to obtain straight edges. When analysing a hand axe made from a flake, it should be remembered that its shape

35376-448: The start of the operational chain. Equally the artisan may concentrate the most effort in the manufacture so that the quality or suitability of the raw material is less important. This will minimize the initial effort, but will result in a greater effort at the end of the operational chain. Hand axes are most commonly made from rounded pebbles or nodules, but many are also made from a large flake. Hand axes made from flakes first appeared at

35577-456: The stone tools suggests the material is rhyolite from Hadjer el Hamis, a rock formation located about 80 kilometers away from Daima. Although it is believed stone materials were transported by water along Lake Chad . If this was the case, then the distance would be of about 210 kilometers. Other materials used were granite , which is believed to have come from Grea, which is located around 121 kilometers away from Daima, and volcanic material from

35778-701: The technique to often result in flat-faced landings, and many modern scholars consider the "hurling" theory to be poorly conceived but so attractive that it has taken a life of its own. As hand axes can be recycled, resharpened and remade, they could have been used for varied tasks. For this reason it may be misleading to think of them as axes , they could have been used for tasks such as digging, cutting, scraping, chopping, piercing and hammering. However, other tools, such as small knives, are better suited for some of these tasks, and many hand axes have been found with no traces of use. Baker suggested that since so many hand axes have been found that have no retouching, perhaps

35979-425: The term hand axe . Use of the expression hand axe has continued in English as the equivalent of the French biface ( bifaz in Spanish), while biface applies more generally for any piece that has been carved on both sides by the removal of shallow or deep flakes. The expression Faustkeil is used in German ; it can be literally translated as hand axe, although in a stricter sense it means "fist wedge". It

36180-403: The threshold of power in the country. As oil production and revenue rose, the Nigerian government became increasingly dependent on oil revenues and international commodity markets for budgetary and economic concerns. The coup in July 1975 , led by Generals Shehu Musa Yar'Adua and Joseph Garba , ousted Gowon, who fled to Britain. The coup plotters wanted to replace Gowon's autocratic rule with

36381-486: The tool for pounding uses)? Neither does a suite of uses suggest why this form could remain the same from southern Africa to northern Europe to eastern Asia – and resist cultural drift for so long. The handaxe technique and its rationale were surely lost many times, just as Tasmanians lost fishing and fire-starting practices. So how did Homo erectus keep rediscovering the enigmatic handaxe shape, over and over for nearly 1.5 million years? The most characteristic and common shape

36582-413: The war, Nigeria enjoyed an oil boom in the 1970s, during which the country joined OPEC and received huge oil revenues. Despite these revenues, the military government did little to improve the standard of living , help small and medium businesses, or invest in infrastructure. As oil revenues fueled the rise of federal subsidies to states, the federal government became the centre of political struggle and

36783-502: The waters of this country". In August 1983, Shagari and the NPN were returned to power in a landslide victory, with a majority of seats in the National Assembly and control of 12 state governments. But the elections were marred by violence, and allegations of widespread vote-rigging and electoral malfeasance led to legal battles over the results. There were also uncertainties, such as in the first republic, that political leaders may be unable to govern properly. The 1983 military coup d'état

36984-419: The widespread cultivation of agricultural products, such as the palm, for use in European industry. The slave trade continued after the ban, as illegal smugglers purchased slaves along the coast from native slavers. Britain's West Africa Squadron sought to intercept the smugglers at sea. The rescued slaves were taken to Freetown , a colony in West Africa originally established by Lieutenant John Clarkson for

37185-491: The world, about two million, was concentrated in the territories of the Sokoto Caliphate . The use of slave labour was extensive, especially in agriculture. By the time of its break-up in 1903 into various European colonies, the Sokoto Caliphate was one of the largest pre-colonial African states. A changing legal imperative (the outlawing of the Atlantic slave trade in 1807) and economic imperative (a desire for political and social stability) led most European powers to support

37386-403: The wound after impact. Double-ended bone points are also highly common during this phase. In Daima's case, it is assumed the bone points were being used as projectiles such as arrows. A spatulate-like tool is also found at Daima I. This tool is made out of a splinter of metapodial bones with part of the proximal end used as the handle. The distal end of the bone was removed, and the end of

37587-408: Was a coalition of conservative parties: the Northern People's Congress led by Sir Ahmadu Bello , a party dominated by Muslim northerners, and the Igbo and Christian-dominated National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons led by Nnamdi Azikiwe . The opposition consisted of the comparatively liberal Action Group , which was largely dominated by the Yoruba and led by Obafemi Awolowo . An imbalance

37788-425: Was abolished soon after colonialism. Nigeria gained a degree of self-rule in 1954, and full independence from the United Kingdom on 1 October 1960, as the Federation of Nigeria with Abubakar Tafawa Balewa as its Prime Minister , while retaining the British monarch , Elizabeth II , as nominal head of state and Queen of Nigeria . Azikiwe replaced the colonial governor-general in November 1960. At independence,

37989-567: Was accomplished without intermediate bronze production. Some have suggested the technology moved west from the Nile Valley . But the Iron Age in the Niger River valley and the forest region appears to predate the introduction of metallurgy in the upper savanna by more than 800 years, as well as predating it in the Nile Valley. More recent research suggests that iron metallurgy was developed independently in sub-Saharan Africa . The Nok civilization thrived between 1,500 BC and AD 200. It produced life-sized terracotta figures that are some of

38190-433: Was being smithed or at least smelted in Daima. Although if this was the case, greater amounts of iron slag would be expected to be found at the site. Bronze found its way to Daima, making its first appearance in Daima III. A bronze button-like object in the form of a waterfowl is found. This button-like object was made using the lost-wax technique, as were most of the bronze artifacts found at Daima III. The button's body

38391-502: Was common, the preferred tools were made from specialized flakes, such as racloirs , backed knives, scrapers and punches. However, hand axes were more suitable on expeditions and in seasonal camps, where unforeseen tasks were more common. Their main advantage in these situations was the lack of specialization and adaptability to multiple eventualities. A hand axe has a long blade with different curves and angles, some sharper and others more resistant, including points and notches. All of this

38592-403: Was coordinated by key officers of the Nigerian military and led to the overthrow of the government and the installation of Major General Muhammadu Buhari as head of state. The military coup of Muhammadu Buhari shortly after the regime's re-election in 1984 was generally viewed as a positive development. In 1985, Ibrahim Babangida overthrew Buhari in a coup d'état. In 1986, Babangida established

38793-412: Was created in the polity as the result of the 1961 plebiscite . Southern Cameroons opted to join the Republic of Cameroon while Northern Cameroons chose to join Nigeria. The northern part of the country became larger than the southern part. The disequilibrium and perceived corruption of the electoral and political process led to two military coups in 1966. The first coup was in January 1966 and

38994-404: Was led mostly by soldiers under Majors Emmanuel Ifeajuna (of the Igbo tribe), Chukwuma Kaduna Nzeogwu ( Northerner of Eastern extraction) and Adewale Ademoyega (a Yoruba from the West). The coup plotters succeeded in assassinating Sir Ahmadu Bello and Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa alongside prominent leaders of the Northern Region and Premier Samuel Akintola of the Western Region , but

39195-414: Was overused in lithic typology to describe a wide variety of stone tools. At the time the use of such items was not understood. In the particular case of Palaeolithic hand axes the term axe is an inadequate description. Lionel Balout stated, "the term should be rejected as an erroneous interpretation of these objects that are not 'axes ' ". Subsequent studies supported this idea, particularly those examining

39396-418: Was popular and built around his image as a staunch anti-corruption fighter—he won the election by over two million votes. Observers generally praised the election as being fair. The election marked the first time an incumbent president had lost re-election in Nigeria. In the 2019 presidential election , Buhari was re-elected. Four candidates vied for the presidency in the 2023 presidential election . For

39597-441: Was predetermined (by use of the Levallois technique or Kombewa technique or similar). Notwithstanding this, it is necessary to note a tool's characteristics: type of flake, heel, knap direction. The natural external cortex or rind of the tool stone, which is due to erosion and the physical-chemical alterations of weathering , is different from the stone's interior. In the case of chert , quartz or quartzite , this alteration

39798-440: Was sworn in as the first President and Commander-in-Chief of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. Obasanjo peacefully transferred power to Shagari, becoming the first head of state in Nigerian history to willingly step down. The Shagari government became viewed as corrupt by virtually all sectors of Nigerian society. In 1983, the inspectors of the state-owned Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation began to notice "the slow poisoning of

39999-501: Was the country's national anthem from 1960 to 1978, as its national anthem, replacing Arise, O Compatriots . Nigeria is located in western Africa on the Gulf of Guinea and has a total area of 923,768 km (356,669 sq mi), making it the world's 32nd-largest country . Its borders span 4,047 kilometres (2,515 mi), and it shares borders with Benin (773 km or 480 mi), Niger (1,497 km or 930 mi), Chad (87 km or 54 mi), and Cameroon (including

40200-413: Was the lead archaeologist in this project, seven test shafts of 2.13 by 2.12 meters each were sunk at 30-m intervals on the highest point of the mound to its edge. These cuttings showed most of the ground properties such as levels of sand, firki clay, animal disturbances, white and black ash, and levels of burials. Archaeologists working in this project tried to find a way to remove the loosened deposits from

40401-415: Was used for its edible fruit. The economy of Daima III was composed of farming and stock-rearing. As discussed above, sorghum and millet were being cultivated in the mound. Sorghum becoming much more popular by the latest deposits of Daima III. The remains of animal bones were analyzed, and it was discovered that small stock such as goats became more prominent near the last deposits. This is also suggested by

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