Misplaced Pages

#569430

96-632: The secret societies declared they would support Faisal's father Hussein bin Ali 's revolt against the Ottoman Empire , if the demands in the protocol were submitted to the British. These demands, defining the territory of an independent Arab state to be established in the Middle East that would encompass all of the lands of Ottoman Western Asia south of the 37th parallel north , became the basis of

192-518: A Reuters dispatch, instead set the date as March 7, 1924, and describe Hussein bin Ali being elected as a caliph by Muslims from "Mesopotamia, Transjordan, and Hejaz". A third counting of the official date takes place when he received the homage of the majority of the Arab population in Amman as the caliph, on March 11, 1924. Finally, a fourth version places the date on Friday, March 14, 1924, when Hussein

288-670: A Zionist delegation led by rabbi Yaakov Meir and a British colonel. Despite having welcomed them with respect, he would not change his position. As his stance was seen by the United Kingdom as extremist, the British and the Zionist media engaged in press campaigns against Hussein, where his positions were misrepresented. They also engaged heavily against his Caliphate , calling it illegitimate. After him becoming Caliph, he continued on this path, stating: "I consider Zionism unjust towards Muslims, Christians and Orthodox Jews, and as

384-651: A madhhab was more fluid. In 1911, Hussein became involved in an Ottoman campaign in 'Asir ; the Young Turks requested his support to fight Muhammad ibn Ali al-Idrisi , who had recently revolted there and proclaimed the Idrisid Emirate . Hussein was very supportive of this campaign because 'Asir traditionally belonged to the Hejaz, and al-Idrisi presence in the area severed his financial and political ties with 'Asir. He gathered an army of about 5,000 men from

480-969: A policy of extermination of the minorities in the Ottoman Empire through various genocides . This frightened the Arabs , who were the largest minority in the Empire, and was openly criticized by Hussein bin Ali. These oppositions with the Turks became so violent that they overshadowed those that existed in Arab society and Bedouin society; and many rival tribes to the Hashemites rallied behind their leadership. An independentist and anti-colonial Arab movement developed, mainly in Ottoman Syria , where Arab intellectuals and newspapers called for

576-574: A religious and anti-colonial one. Twenty days after the start of the Armenian genocide in the Ottoman Empire , Hussein bin Ali's son, Faisal , met with the leaders of the revolutionary organization Al-Fatat in Damascus . They assured him of their support in case of revolt and recognized Hussein as the representative of the Arab nation . When Hussein took up the pan-Arab claims in 1916, after his proclamation of independence, he became

672-629: A hill station near Mecca, which after an initial repulse settled down into a siege. With the British-Egyptian artillery support, Abdullah took Ta'if on 22 September 1916. After this, and for most of the war, Hussein's sons directed the fighting ; most notably Faisal , future Faisal I of Iraq, and Abdullah , future Abdullah I of Jordan. Hussein mostly stayed in Mecca to direct the operations, while his sons were fighting. The Arab revolt laid siege to Medina but wasn't able to take it for

768-599: A payment of £30,000 conditional on signature. Hussein declined and in 1921, stated that he could not be expected to "affix his name to a document assigning Palestine to the Zionists and Syria to foreigners". He refused again to accept the Balfour Declaration in 1923, and stated : "I look at the people of Palestine as I look at my own family, without distinction between Muslim, Christian, Jewish, or nationalist". In January 1924, Hussein received in Amman

864-785: A phrase that would generate controversy in London and the Middle East for years to come. 'It may be,' he concluded, 'that an Arab of the true race will assume the Caliphate at Mecca or Medina and so good may come by the help of God out of all the evil that is now occurring'. In his reply Hussein did not mention the Caliphate but said that he could not immediately break with the Turks because of his position in Islam . On 11 November 1914

960-665: A position of supreme power in the Empire. It was during the Köprülü era that the Ottoman Empire reached its largest geographic expansion across Europe, Asia Minor, and Africa. In Ottoman legal theory, the Sultan was supposed to conduct affairs of state exclusively via the Grand Vizier, but in reality, this arrangement was often circumvented. As the Ottomanist Colin Imber writes, the sultan "had closer contact with

1056-712: A protector of justice, I will resist this unjust Zionism". This contributed to aggravate his relationship with the Zionists towards a breaking point. After the Caliphate was abolished by the Turkish Grand National Assembly , Hussein was proclaimed as Caliph. The accounts on the official date and proceedings vary, some place the beginning of the Caliphate on 3 March 1924, when Hussein would have declared himself Caliph at his son Abdullah's winter camp in Shunah, Transjordan . Other accounts, such as

SECTION 10

#1732773231570

1152-461: A strong state. Grand Viziers gained immense political supremacy in the later days of the Ottoman Empire. Power was centralized in the position of the Grand Vizier during the Köprülü era . Köprülü Mehmed Pasha was a powerful political figure during the reign of Mehmed IV, and was appointed to the office of Grand Vizier in 1656. He consolidated power within the position and sent the Sultan away from

1248-481: A type of vernacular poetry ( malhun ) of the Bedouins. He also practiced horseback riding and hunting. In 1875, he married Abdullah's daughter, Abdiyah, his cousin. In 1877, Abdullah died, and Hussein, along with his cousin Ali ibn Abdullah, received the rank of Pasha . After a series of political assassinations among his uncles vying for the position of Sharif, he gained attention for his independence of thought and

1344-577: A year, thus impeding the operations. During this battle, the Ottomans killed and deported the civilian Arabic population of Medina into the Syrian desert , an event hidden by the pretense of doing " Seferberlik ", or mobilization. On 30 October 1916, Emir Abdullah called a meeting of majlis where he read a letter in which "Husayn ibn Ali was recognized as sovereign of the Arab nation. Then all those present arose and proclaimed him Malik al-Arab , King of

1440-773: Is evidently enthroned as caliph in Baghdad during the Friday prayer. In any case, all sources agree on a date in March 1924, shortly after the abolition of the Ottoman caliphate by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk . Separately, he made statements in support of the Ottoman dynasty , which had been ruined and exiled from Turkey . In this regard, he declared: The services rendered by the Ottoman family to Islam and Muslims are undeniable; their heroism cannot be belittled. The recent decision regarding

1536-464: Is said to have saved up to 4,000 people from the genocide, in collaboration with Hussein al-Attrache, a Druze chieftain who then disguised the refugees as Druzes . His son, Faisal, provided free transportation to all Armenian refugees for their trip towards the British refugee camp in Damascus and free use of the Hejaz railway  ; even if that meant impeding on the war effort. In the aftermath of

1632-760: The 37th parallel north on the southern border of Turkey , bounded in the east by Persia and the Persian Gulf , in the west by the Mediterranean Sea and in the south by the Arabian Sea . Following deliberations at Ta'if between Hussein and his sons in June 1915, during which Faisal counselled caution, Ali argued against rebellion and Abdullah advocated action, the Sharif set a tentative date for armed revolt for June 1916 and commenced negotiations with

1728-556: The Arabic language and was also educated in Islamic law and doctrine . Among his teachers was Sheikh Muhammad Mahmud at-Turkizi ash-Shinqiti, with whom he studied the seven Mu'allaqat . With Sheikh Ahmad Zayni Dahlan , he studied the Quran , completing its memorization before the age of 20. During Abdullah's reign, Hussein became familiar with the politics and intrigue surrounding

1824-745: The Balfour Declaration , a document supporting the Jewish settlers in Palestine , and the establishment of British and French mandates in Syria , Iraq , and Palestine . His sons Faisal and Abdullah were made rulers of Iraq and Transjordan respectively in 1921. He later refused to sign the Anglo-Hashemite Treaty and thus was left in a very precarious position, the British decided progressively to stop supporting him after

1920-711: The Banu Hashim clan who was the Sharif and Emir of Mecca from 1908 and, after proclaiming the Great Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire , King of the Hejaz , even if he refused this title, from 1916 to 1924. He proclaimed himself Caliph after the abolition of the Ottoman Caliphate in 1924 and stayed in power until 1925 when Hejaz was invaded by the Saudis . His Caliphate was opposed by

2016-709: The Battle of Megiddo , in September 1918, Hussein's troops led by his son Faisal, joined the British forces and managed to utterly destroy the 4th, 7th and 8th Ottoman armies, and push into retreat the Yildirim Army Group , comprising the German Asian Corps and led at the time by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk , thus leaving the Palestinian and Arabian front without defence, and finally breaking inside

SECTION 20

#1732773231570

2112-656: The British and French empires, the Zionists and the Wahhabis alike. However, he received support from a large part of the Muslim population of that time and from Mehmed VI . He is usually considered as the father of modern pan-Arabism . In 1908, in the aftermath of the Young Turk Revolution , Hussein was appointed Sharif of Mecca by the Ottoman sultan Abdul Hamid II . His relationship with

2208-482: The British should not be overestimated. The deep-rooted reason for the Arab revolt, according to him, remains the persecutions and abuse carried out by the Young Turks against the Arabs of the Ottoman Empire, and is not necessarily linked to British support. This support would therefore be contingent and the revolt would have still occurred without their help. This point was shared at the time by Abbas II of Egypt ,

2304-768: The Deccan had substantially weakened. Asaf Jah I, however, refused to grant Chauth to the Maratha Confederacy during its onset in 1718 and in 1721, after the nobility of the Mughal Empire had the two Sayyid Brothers assassinated. However, the Marathas had already expanded up to the Narmada River , and entrenched themselves in that region thereafter. Baji Rao I later instigated war by collecting Chauth in 1723, and trying to expand Maratha rule in

2400-516: The Mughal Empire during the reign of Akbar . Saadullah Khan , Grand Vizier of the Mughal Empire during the reign of Shah Jahan made the biggest contribution to the organization and administration of the Mughal Empire, he is considered the best of the long line of Mughal Grand Viziers. During the reign of Aurangzeb, Ali Quli Khan was bestowed this title. Later general Zulfiqar Khan Nusrat Jung became Grand Vizier, his fame as one of

2496-679: The Ottoman Empire , the Mughal Empire , the Sokoto Caliphate , the Safavid Empire and Cherifian Empire of Morocco . In the Ottoman Empire, the grand vizier held the imperial seal and could convene all other viziers to attend to affairs of the state; the viziers in conference were called " Kubbealtı viziers" in reference to their meeting place, the Kubbealtı ('under the dome') in Topkapı Palace . His offices were located at

2592-754: The Sublime Porte . Today, the Prime Minister of Pakistan is referred to in Urdu as Wazir-e-azam , which translates literally to grand vizier. Initially, the grand viziers were exclusively of Turk origin in the Ottoman Empire. However, after there were troubles between the Turkish grand vizier Çandarlı Halil Pasha the Younger and Sultan Mehmed II (who had him executed), there was a rise of slave administrators ( devshirme ). These were much easier for

2688-666: The Syrian territories in which the Armenian genocide took place, he issued a decree to protect Armenians from persecution and allow them to settle in peace, in which he ordered : "What is requested of you is to protect and to take good care of everyone from the Jacobite Armenian community living in your territories and frontiers and among your tribes; to help them in all of their affairs and defend them as you would defend yourselves, your properties and children, and provide everything they might need whether they are settled or moving from place to place, because they are

2784-536: The sharif 's son Abdullah met Herbert Kitchener , British Governor General of Egypt and the Sudan, in Cairo and asked him whether Hussein could rely on British support in the event of Turkish moves against the Hejaz . At this point Kitchener could offer no encouragement, but two months later Abdullah met with Kitchener's Oriental Secretary, Sir Ronald Storrs , and was given the assurance that Great Britain would guarantee

2880-587: The 19th century, the Grand Viziers came to assume a role more like that of the prime ministers of contemporary Western monarchies. Forty nine Grand Viziers of Albanian ethnicity served the empire during the Ottoman period and most of them were southern Albanians ( Tosks ). Bairam Khan was the Grand Vizier of the Mughal Empire, who led the forces of Akbar to victory during the Second Battle of Panipat . Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak , Grand Vizier of

2976-530: The Aqil and Bisha tribes, both tribes being from 'Asir, in Mecca and then began to march against al-Idrisi. After an initial defeat due to the heat and a cholera epidemic, he managed to inflict two heavy defeats on the Idrisid forces . Then, he managed to break the siege of Abha , which was being conducted by al-Idrisi forces and where Suleiman Pasha, the Ottoman governor of the city, was entrenched. Overall, he

Damascus Protocol - Misplaced Pages Continue

3072-528: The Arab understanding of the Hussein–McMahon Correspondence . The text was first translated into English by George Antonius in 1938, based on a copy of the protocol given to him by Faisal: The recognition by Great Britain of the independence of the Arab countries lying within the following frontiers: North: The Line Mersin - Adana to parallel 37N and thence along the line Birejek - Urga - Mardin - Midiat - Jazirat (Ibn 'Unear) - Amadia to

3168-567: The Arabs". During the whole duration of the war, Hussein's troops stayed underequipped and lacking artillery – which the Allies didn't want to give, seing that front as utopical and not as important as the fight was in the Western front , among others. This lack of artillery and high mobility ; since most of the troops were mounted Bedouins , pushed them to use guerilla tactics in the desert ; for example by severing Ottoman supplies with

3264-433: The British High Commissioner in the Sultanate of Egypt , Hussein seized the opportunity and demanded recognition of an Arab nation that included the Hejaz and other adjacent territories as well as approval for the proclamation of an Arab Caliphate of Islam. High Commissioner McMahon accepted and assured him that his assistance would be rewarded by an Arab empire encompassing the entire span between Egypt and Persia , with

3360-401: The British High Commissioner in Egypt, Sir Henry McMahon via the Hussein-McMahon Correspondence . Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca Hussein bin Ali al-Hashimi ( Arabic : ٱلْحُسَيْن بِن عَلِي ٱلْهَاشِمِي , romanized :  al-Ḥusayn bin 'Alī al-Hāshimī pronunciation ; 1 May 1854 – 4 June 1931) was an Arab leader from the Banu Qatadah branch of

3456-423: The Committee of Union and Progress of violating tenets of Islam and limiting the power of the sultan-caliph. While his armies, led by his sons, were engaged in fighting the Ottoman and German troops in the Middle East , Hussein supported the Armenians during the Armenian genocide and saved up to 4,000 of them. In the aftermath of World War I , Hussein refused to ratify the Treaty of Versailles , in protest of

3552-445: The Deccan and beyond, causing the outbreak of the Later Mughal-Maratha Wars . Qamaruddin Khan was handpicked to be the Grand Vizier of the Mughal Empire, by Asaf Jah I. He successfully repelled Baji Rao I during the Battle of Delhi (1737), and negotiated peace after the occupation of the Mughal Empire by the forces of Nader Shah . He fell in battle after being struck by a stray artillery shell, in battle against Afghan forces in

3648-530: The Dhawu Awn branch and ending the centuries-long dominance of the Dhawu Zayd. He reigned until 1851, when he was replaced by Sharif Abd al-Muttalib ibn Ghalib of the Dhawu Zayd. After being deposed, he sent his family and sons to reside in the Ottoman capital of Constantinople . It was there that Hussein was born to Muhammad's son, Ali, in 1853–1854. Muhammad was reinstated to power in 1856, and Hussein, then two or three years old, accompanied his father and grandfather to Mecca . Muhammad quickly died in 1858 and

3744-410: The Dhawu Awn clan of the Abadilah, a branch of the Banu Qatadah tribe. The Banu Qatadah had ruled the Sharifate of Mecca since the accession of their ancestor Qatadah ibn Idris in 1201 and were the last of the four branches of Hashemite sharifs who, together, had governed Mecca since the 11th century . In 1827, Muhammad bin Abd al-Mu'in was appointed as the Sharif, becoming the first Sharif of

3840-416: The Elder reformed the role of the vizier in several ways. Several viziers before him held an equivalent, but differently named office; he was the first who held the position of "Grand Vizier", during the reign of Murad I . He was the first advisor with a military background – his forerunners had come from a more scholarly class of men. It is also significant that he was the first of a political family that, at

3936-409: The First World War, siding with fellow anti-Saudis, the Ottomans in 1910. Hussein initiated a series of reforms, including measures to avoid offending Muslims from French or British colonies who undertook the Hajj . He also addressed the issue of stray dogs, attempted to ensure the security of the Hajj routes, and sought to combat the prevalent slave markets in the Hejaz region . He undertook

Damascus Protocol - Misplaced Pages Continue

4032-505: The Grand Sherif could not be found; if they are still unavailable it may be somewhat awkward when King Hussein produces the originals. (...) Failing a satisfactory solution King Hussein will have some grounds for considering that Great Britain has broken her pledged word." In 1919, King Hussein refused to ratify the Treaty of Versailles . In August 1920, five days after the signing of the Treaty of Sèvres , Curzon asked Cairo to procure Hussein's signature to both treaties and agreed to make

4128-429: The Ottoman Empire. The battle happened at the same time as the Vardar offensive in the Balkans , which managed to overrun Bulgarian defences, thus opening the Balkans and ultimately Austria-Hungary . Since the war was seemingly won, and the Ottoman defences were crumbling, Faisal projected himself towards Damascus, which he took the 1st of October 1918. After this, he engaged in the pursuit to Haritan , pursuing

4224-428: The Ottoman government deteriorated after the Committee of Union and Progress took power, particularly because of their policies of Turkification and persecution of ethnic minorities, including Arabs. In 1916, with the promise of British support for Arab independence, although it is debated as to what extent the British were influential in his choice, he proclaimed the Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire , accusing

4320-415: The Ottoman history, the Grand Viziers have also been termed sadr-ı âlî ( صدر عالی , "sublime vizier"), vekil-ı mutlak ( وكیل مطلق , "absolute attorney"), sâhib-ı devlet ( صاحب دولت , "holder of the State"), serdar-ı ekrem ( سردار اكرم , "most noble [commander-in-]chief"), serdar-ı a’zam ( سردار اعظم , "grand [commander-in-]chief") and zât-ı âsafî ( ذات آصفی , "vizieral person"). Halil Pasha

4416-498: The Persian frontier; East: The Persian frontier down to the Persian Gulf; South: The Indian Ocean (with the exclusion of Aden, whose status was to be maintained). West: The Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea back to Mersin. The abolition of all exceptional privileges granted to foreigners under the capitulations. The conclusion of a defensive alliance between Great Britain and the future independent Arab State. The grant of economic preference to Great Britain. On 5 February 1914

4512-438: The Protected People of the Muslims ( Ahl Dimmat al-Muslimin ) – about whom the Prophet Muhammad (may Allah grant him His blessings and peace) said: "Whosoever takes from them even a rope, I will be his adversary on the day of Judgment". This is among the most important things we require of you to do and expect you to accomplish, in view of your noble character and determination". The Armenian National Institute considers it to be

4608-463: The Saudis, bringing the Kingdom of Hejaz, the Sharifate of Mecca and the Sharifian Caliphate to an end. Hussein was then sent into exile to Cyprus , where the British kept him prisoner until his health deteriorated so much that they allowed him to go back to Amman , next to his son Abdullah I of Jordan . He died in Amman in 1931 and was buried as a Caliph in the Al-Aqsa mosque compound. Hussein bin Ali bin Muhammad bin Abd al-Mu'in bin Awn

4704-410: The Sharif to become leader of a revolt against the Ottomans. At the same time Hussein's eldest son Ali bin Hussein uncovered a Turkish plot to depose the Sharif in favour of Ali Haidar , head of the dispossessed Motallib branch of the Sharifian family. Hussein ordered his son Faisal to confront the Grand Vizier in Constantinople with evidence of the plot, but also to stop in Damascus to explore

4800-457: The Sharifian court. He also participated in numerous expeditions to the Najd and the eastern regions of Hejaz to meet the Arab tribes, over whom the Sharifate of Mecca then exerted a loose form of control. He learned the customs of the Bedouins , including the skills necessary to withstand the harsh desert environment. During his travels, he also gained a thorough knowledge of the desert's flora and fauna and composed poems in humayni verse,

4896-485: The Turks Faisal became equally concerned about his family's position in the Hejaz . On his return journey Faisal visited Damascus to resume talks with al-Fatat and al-'Ahd and joined their revolutionary movement. It was during this visit that Faisal was presented with the document that became known as the 'Damascus Protocol'. The document declared that the Arabs would revolt in alliance with Great Britain in return for recognition of Arab independence in an area running from

SECTION 50

#1732773231570

4992-416: The Turks declared a jihad against the Entente ( Allies of World War I ) and urged the Arab leader Husayn bin Ali , Sharif of Mecca , to support the call and to contribute troops to their forces. According to Schneer, in January 1915, Hussein was approached by Fauzi al-Bakri (brother of Nasib al-Bakri , both members of al-Fatat and whose father was an old friend of Hussein) with the aim of persuading

5088-400: The Turks. By the time of Kitchener's reply in October the Turks had joined the Germans, Kitchener now stated that if the Amir and the 'Arab Nation' supported Britain in the war, the British would recognise and support the independence of the Amirate and of the Arabs and, further, would guarantee Arabia against external aggression. And then Kitchener gratuitously and on his own authority added

5184-436: The areas affected. The troops of Hussein also committed war crimes, deciding to execute Turkish troops responsible of the Tafas massacre against Arabian civilians, instead of taking them prisoners. After the fall of Aqaba, the Arab forces, supplemented with British auxiliaries and with the design of joining forces with the British main armies, which were trying to break out of Egypt and Palestine, managed to join them. During

5280-555: The areas in question had already been claimed by the new British ally, France. Having received a British subsidy totalling £6.5m between 1916 and April 1919, in May 1919, the subsidy was reduced to £100K monthly (from £200K), dropped to £75K from October, £50K in November, £25K in December until February 1920 after which no more payments were made. The British were not disposed to fulfill their promises to Hussein, as Colonel Wilson stated in secret correspondence : "At one time, our Arabic copies of Sir H. MacMahon's letters to

5376-451: The bombings of specific sections of the Hejaz railway . After the fall of Medina, the Arab troops were able to secure Aqaba quickly and this allowed them to project themselves farther; they still ambushed Ottoman troops, such as during the battle of Wadi Musa , helping themselves with their superior knowledge of the Arabian and Syrian deserts. This conflict was marked by widespread ethnic cleansing directed at non-Turkish populations in

5472-445: The city on hunting trips, thus stopping Mehmed's direct management over the state. Next, he forcibly removed any officers suspected of corruption; those who did not leave were executed. He also conducted campaigns against Venice and the Habsburgs, as well as quelling rebellions in Anatolia. On his deathbed five years later, he convinced Mehmed to appoint his son (Köprülü Fazıl Ahmed Pasha) as the next Grand Vizier, thus securing his dynasty

5568-423: The empire. In 1908, the Hejaz Railway was completed, allowing the Turks to strengthen their control over the Hejaz and provide a rapid response capability to reinforce their garrisons in Mecca and Medina . It was built under constant threat of Arab raids, such as those from the Harb tribe , which demonstrated their hostility towards the project. Furthermore, in April 1915, the Ottoman government began

5664-413: The exception of British possessions and interests in Kuwait , Aden , and the Syrian coast. However, at that time, the British scarcely thought about the promises made; their primary concern was winning the war and dismantling the Ottoman Empire. The fate of the Arab populations and the division of territory were left for a future date. According to Ekrem Buğra Ekinci , the links between Hussein and

5760-399: The family [exile] has pierced the hearts and saddened the spirits of Muslims. Therefore, we see it as an obligation of Islamic brotherhood to meet the needs of the family and prevent them from experiencing financial difficulties. Those who wish to participate in this great endeavor should express their intentions to our representatives in Mecca. In the same perspective, he financially supported

5856-483: The increasingly nationalistic Ottoman administration. Following deliberations at Ta'if between Hussein and his sons in June 1915, during which Faisal counselled caution, Ali argued against rebellion and Abdullah advocated action and encouraged his father to enter into correspondence with Sir Henry McMahon ; over the period 14 July 1915 to 10 March 1916, a total of ten letters, five from each side, were exchanged between Sir Henry McMahon and Sherif Hussein. McMahon

SECTION 60

#1732773231570

5952-402: The lands of Allah in which nothing will ever stand except the Shariah of Allah [...] The constitution of the lands of Allah is the Shariah of Allah and the Sunnah of His Prophet". His main teacher was Ahmad Zayni Dahlan , with whom he became a hafiz . He had a Shafi'i and Hanafi education, but also allied with the Malikis and opposed the Wahhabis , at a time when adherence to

6048-428: The last Khedive of Egypt , even though he was a sympathizer of the Young Turks. Hussein decided to join the Allied camp immediately, because of information that he would soon be deposed as Sharif of Mecca by the Ottoman government in favor of Sharif Ali Haidar , leader of the rival Zaʻid family. The much-publicized executions of the Arab nationalist leaders in Damascus led Hussein to fear for his life if he

6144-422: The last major restoration of the Masjid al-Haram in 1920 and a restoration of the mosques of Palestine and more specifically of al-Aqsa mosque , for which he funded 26,672 liras. Starting from 1917, Hussein made decisions to protect the Armenian refugees and those residing in his lands from the Armenian genocide . First, he condemned the genocide publicly as early as 1916, stating "We specifically bring to

6240-399: The leading figure behind whom the pan-Arabs rallied, and is therefore frequently regarded as the father of pan-Arabism . During World War I , Hussein initially remained allied with the Ottomans but began secret negotiations with the British on the advice of his son, Abdullah , who had served in the Ottoman parliament up to 1914 and was convinced that it was necessary to separate from

6336-505: The members of the exiled Ottoman dynasty to prevent them from being ruined. Despite his complicated financial and economic situation, he provided them with 2400 liras. The claim to the title was recognized by a large part of the Hejazi, Levantine and more generally Arabic Muslim population. He also received the support of Mehmed VI , on March 18, 1924, one of the last Ottoman Caliphs and the last Ottoman Sultan , according to The Times and Vatan , that reported that he supported him as

6432-413: The most greatest military leaders in the Mughal Empire would lead to his downfall when rogue generals executed him in a power struggle after the death of Aurangzeb. In 1718, Balaji Vishwanath , leader of the antagonistic Maratha Confederacy , secured the right to collect Chauth and Sardeshmukhi from the Subahs of the Mughal Empire by the rogue Vizier Syed Hassan Ali Khan Barha , whose grip over

6528-406: The new Caliph. Grand Vizier Grand vizier ( Persian : وزيرِ اعظم , romanized :  vazîr-i aʾzam ; Ottoman Turkish : صدر اعظم , romanized :  sadr-ı aʾzam ; Turkish : sadrazam ) was the title of the effective head of government of many sovereign states in the Islamic world . It was first held by officials in the later Abbasid Caliphate . It was then held in

6624-490: The oldest declaration by a head of state to recognize the Armenian genocide. Alongside this, he gave citizenship to his Armenian subjects. According to survivors of the Armenian genocide, such as Levon Yotnakhparian, Hussein personally received him and was shocked by the news of what was happening. He also supported Armenian survivors and provided men and protection for expeditions in the Syrian desert aimed at rescuing Armenian deportees. According to testimonies, this method

6720-422: The pages of the privy chamber, the kapi agha , the kizlar agha or with other courtiers than he did with the Grand Vizier, and these too could petition the sultan on their own or somebody else’s behalf. He might, too, be more inclined to take the advice of his mother, a concubine, or the head gardener at the helm of the royal barge, than of the Grand Vizier". After the Tanzimat period of the Ottoman Empire in

6816-446: The proclamation of his caliphate and the refusal to sign any treaty with them. Thus, they decided to support Ibn Saud , who promptly launched an invasion of the Kingdom of Hejaz. In October 1924, facing defeat by Ibn Saud, he abdicated and was succeeded as king by his eldest son Ali bin Hussein . After Hejaz was subsequently completely invaded by the Ibn Saud - Wahhabi armies of the Ikhwan , on 23 December 1925, Hussein surrendered to

6912-602: The remnants of the Yildirim Army Group and ultimately taking Aleppo on the 25 of October 1918 , thus ending the war on that front. The US State Department quotes an aide-mémoire dated 24 October 1917 given by the Arab Bureau to the American Diplomatic Agency in Cairo confirming that "...Britain, France and Russia agreed to recognize the Sherif as lawful independent ruler of the Hejaz and to use

7008-642: The restoration of the caliphate in the hands of a Quraysh , and especially for the acquisition of Arab independence from the Ottoman Empire . The relationship between Hussein and the Committee of Union and Progress worsened even more after the discovery and foiling of a plot by Enver Pasha to assassinate Hussein. All of these points led to a violent rupture between Arab elites and the Ottoman political class, and are reflected in Hussein's later proclamation of independence, where he presented his struggle as

7104-400: The siege was won by Mehmed II , the Younger was executed for his opposition. After his death, the position of Grand Vizier was chosen nearly exclusively from the kul system. Often, the men who were chosen had a Byzantine or Balkan background. According to Gábor, this was usually a political move, designed to appease powerful European factions to Ottoman supremacy. In fact, it was easier for

7200-532: The status quo in Arabia against "wanton Turkish aggression". British reluctance to oppose the Turks evaporated following the onset of war in August 1914. Kitchener, then Secretary of State for War, sent a message to Abdullah asking whether the Arabs would support Great Britain if Turkey joined the war on the side of Germany . Abdullah responded that the Sharif would support Britain in return for British support against

7296-473: The subject of Palestine. In January and February 1918, Hussein received the Hogarth Message and Bassett Letter in response to his requests for an explanation of the Balfour Declaration and Sykes-Picot Agreement respectively. Despite their explanations, he stated that Palestine should be included within the borders of the newly founded Arab Kingdom and should refuse Zionist settlers, even if he

7392-460: The sultan to control an enslaved and non-Turk administrator. In the Ottoman Empire, executing a Grand Vizier of Turkish origin (in the event they were rebellious) and an enslaved foreigner would also give rise to different reactions. Further, the devshirme were less subject to influence from court factions. From the very beginning, the Turcoman were a danger that undermined the Sultan's creation of

7488-532: The sultans to control, as compared to the free administrators of Turkish aristocratic origin. The term vizier was originally used in the Abbasid Caliphate in the 8th century AD. This position was later adopted by the Ottomans in the early 14th century, by the Seljuks of Anatolia. During the nascent phases of the Ottoman state , "vizier" was the only title used. The first of these Ottoman viziers who

7584-503: The time, rivaled the Ottoman dynasty itself. Several of Çandarlı Halil Pasha the Elder's kin went on to hold the office of Grand Vizier in the decades following his death. Çandarlı Halil Pasha the Younger , the grandson of Pasha the Elder, was also highly influential in shaping the role of the Grand Vizier. During the reign of Mehmed II, the Younger opposed the siege of Constantinople and the ongoing hostilities with Christians. Two days after

7680-420: The title of "King of the Hejaz" when addressing him, and a note to this effect was handed to him on December 10, 1916". When Hussein declared himself King of the Hejaz , he also declared himself King of the Arab lands ( malik bilad-al-Arab ). This only aggravated his conflict with Abdulaziz ibn Saud , which was already present because of their differences in religious beliefs and with whom he had fought before

7776-466: The two commanders, and Hussein decided to withdraw from 'Asir after having pursued the defeated Idrisid forces for some time. It seems that this campaign had a very negative impact on how Hussein viewed the Ottoman presence and actions in the Levant, and it is possible that from this moment on, he was already on the verge of rebellion. Although there is no formal evidence suggesting that Hussein bin Ali

7872-575: The veil covering the Kaaba and turned out to be a potent propaganda weapon for the Hashemites, who portrayed the Ottomans as desecrating Islam's most holy site. Hashemite forces in Mecca were joined by Egyptian troops sent by the British, who provided much needed artillery support, and took Mecca on 9 July 1916. Also on 10 June, another of Hussein's sons, the Emir Abdullah , attacked Ta'if ,

7968-514: The viability of a revolt with the leaders of the secret societies, which he did on 26 March 1915. After a month of talks Faisal was unconvinced of the strength of the Arab movement and concluded that a revolt would not succeed without the assistance of one of the Great Powers . On reaching Constantinople in April and receiving the news that an Arab declaration of jihad was viewed as essential by

8064-523: The war, the Arabs found themselves freed from centuries of Ottoman rule. Hussein's son Faisal was made King of Syria , but this kingdom proved short-lived, as the Middle East came under mandate rule of France and the United Kingdom. The British Government subsequently made Faisal and his brother Abdullah kings of Iraq and Transjordan , respectively. Starting at the end of the war, Hussein found himself in severe conflict with Britain's views on

8160-606: The world's condemnation the atrocities committed against the Greeks and Armenians, atrocities that our holy law can only disapprove of". In this regard, he promulgated in 1917, in a decree: "In the name of Most Merciful Allah and our prophet Muhammad, we are addressing our Arab brothers (...) to take Armenian refugees in their families, to share with them their belongings – camels, food, shelter, blankets – and share everything that you have in excess, and everything that you can give to people." In April 1918, as part of his conquest of

8256-491: The year 1748. After defeating Ahmad Shah Durrani , the new Mughal emperor, Ahmad Shah Bahadur , posted Safdarjung , Nawab of Oudh as Mughal Grand Vizier, Feroze Jung III as Mir Bakshi and Muin ul-Mulk (Mir Mannu) , the son of late Grand Vizier Qamaruddin Khan , as the governor of Punjab . Safdarjung 's efforts to defend the reign of Ahmad Shah Bahadur from treacherous subjects failed. Shuja-ud-Daula served as

8352-402: Was able to defeat the opposing forces. However, during this campaign, he seems to have been shocked by the violence of the Ottoman troops against the revolted and had a heated dispute with the Ottoman governor of Abha, Suleiman Pasha, after he began wanting to administer the territories he managed to reconquer according to Bedouin and Sharifian norms, as previously. This led to a rupture between

8448-606: Was appointed grand sharif by official decree of the sultan Abdul Hamid II in November 1908. However, the situation was peculiar for Hussein, who arrived in Mecca in the midst of the Young Turk Revolution , which brought the Young Turks (CUP) to power. Upon his arrival, he met CUP representatives who greeted him as the "Constitutional Sharif," intending to gauge his response to such a designation. He replied: "Verily these are

8544-637: Was born in Constantinople in 1853 or 1854. He was the eldest son of Sharif Ali bin Muhammad, who is the second son of Muhammad bin Abd al-Mu'in , the former Sharif of Mecca . As a member of the Hashemite dynasty , he was a descendant of Muhammad in the 37th generation through his grandson Hasan bin Ali . His mother, Salah Bani-Shahar, the wife of Ali, would have been a Circassian . He belonged to

8640-487: Was deposed in favour of Ali Haidar. The revolt proper began on 10 June 1916, when Hussein proclaimed the independence of the Kingdom of Hejaz and ordered his supporters to attack the Ottoman garrison in Mecca. In the Battle of Mecca , there ensued over a month of bloody street fighting between the out-numbered, but far better armed Ottoman troops and Hussein's tribesmen. Indiscriminate Ottoman artillery fire, set fire to

8736-484: Was in contact with British Foreign Secretary Edward Grey throughout, and Grey was to authorise and be ultimately responsible for the correspondence. The British Secretary of State for War , Field Marshal Lord Kitchener , appealed to him for assistance in the conflict on the side of the Triple Entente . Starting in 1915, as indicated by an exchange of letters with Lieutenant Colonel Sir Henry McMahon ,

8832-554: Was inclined towards Arab nationalism before 1916, the rise of Turkish nationalism towards the end of the Ottoman Empire , culminating in the Young Turks Revolution of 1908 , strongly displeased the Hashemites and Bedouins . Additionally, the increasing centralization of the Ottoman Empire , the progressive prohibition of Arabic in teaching, Turkification policies , and the settlement of Turkish colonists in Arab areas worried and frightened Arabs throughout

8928-463: Was ready to accept Jewish people in Palestine , notably those who already lived there and were not coming from foreign countries. However, even after an assurance by McMahon, Hussein did not receive the lands promised by their British allies. McMahon claimed that the proposed lands to be taken in by the new Arab State were not purely Arab. In actuality, McMahon refused to hand over the new lands as

9024-461: Was sent back to Constantinople by the reigning uncle at that time in 1892–1893. He remained there for 15 years, until 1908, mainly focusing on raising his children, learning the politics of the Sublime Porte —where he aligned with the conservative faction—and hoping to return home. Following the removal of his predecessor in October and the sudden death of his successor shortly thereafter, Hussein

9120-415: Was succeeded by his eldest son, Sharif Abdullah Pasha, Hussein's uncle. He returned to Mecca after his father's death, at a young age, when his uncle Sharif Abdullah called them back, with his mother in 1861–1862. Hussein was raised at home, unlike other Hashemite youth who were typically sent outside the city to grow up among Bedouin nomads. Apparently a diligent young man, he mastered the principles of

9216-581: Was titled "Grand Vizier" (French spelling: grand-vézir ) was Çandarlı Halil Pasha the Elder . The purpose in instituting the title "Grand Vizier" was to distinguish the holder of the sultan's seal from other viziers. The initially more frequently used title of vezir-ı a’zam ( وزیر اعظم ) was gradually replaced by another one, sadr-ı a’zam ( صدر اعظم from Arabic صَدْر "front part, bosom, forehead, lead, forefront" and أعْظَم "superior, major, maximal, paramount, grand", informally pronounced sadrazam ), both meaning "grand vizier" in practice. Throughout

#569430