Philosophers
111-496: Dara Shikoh (20 March 1615 – 30 August 1659), also transliterated as Dara Shukoh , was the eldest son and heir-apparent of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan . Dara was designated with the title Padshahzada-i-Buzurg Martaba ( lit. ' Prince of High Rank ' ) and was favoured as a successor by his father and his elder sister, Princess Jahanara Begum . He had been given the title of 'Shah-e-Buland Iqbal' by Shah Jahan . In
222-614: A Greek general serving in some of the Persian expeditions, describes many aspects of Armenian village life and hospitality in around 401 BC. Some scholars have linked the name Armenia with the Early Bronze Age state of Armani (Armanum, Armi) or the Late Bronze Age state of Arme (Shupria) . These connections are inconclusive as it is not known what languages were spoken in these kingdoms. Additionally, while it
333-666: A death occurring). In 2015, pursuant to the 2011 Perth Agreement , the Commonwealth realms changed the rules of succession to the 16 thrones of Elizabeth II to absolute primogeniture, except for male heirs born before the Perth Agreement. The effects are not likely to be felt for many years; the first two heirs at the time of the agreement (Charles, Prince of Wales, later Charles III , and his son William, Prince of Wales ) were already eldest born children, and in 2013 William's first-born son Prince George of Wales became
444-487: A heretic in the eyes of his orthodox younger brother and a suspect eccentric in the view of many of the worldly power brokers swarming around the Mughal throne. Dara Shikoh was a follower of the Armenian Sufi - perennialist mystic Sarmad Kashani , as well as Lahore 's famous Qadiri Sufi saint Mian Mir , whom he was introduced to by Mullah Shah Badakhshi (Mian Mir's spiritual disciple and successor). Mian Mir
555-469: A legal sense (according to that form of primogeniture) to the current title-holder. The clearest example occurs in the case of a childless bearer of a hereditary title that can only be inherited by one person. If at any time the title bearer were to produce children, those children would rank ahead of any person who had formerly been heir presumptive. Many legal systems assume childbirth is always possible regardless of age or health. In such circumstances
666-619: A mystery for over two centuries until 2020, when Sanjeev Kumar Singh, an engineer at the South Delhi Municipal Corporation (SDMC), identified the grave among several marked and unmarked graves in Humayun’s Tomb in Delhi. Singh's discovery has garnered attention from the likes of Irfan Habib , B.R. Mani, and K. K. Muhammed . After four years of research, Singh concluded that one of the three unmarked cenotaphs in
777-437: A person may be, in a practical sense, the heir apparent but still, legally speaking, heir presumptive. Indeed, when Queen Victoria succeeded her uncle King William IV , the wording of the proclamation even gave as a caveat : ...saving the rights of any issue of his late Majesty King William IV, which may be born of his late Majesty's consort. This provided for the possibility that William's wife, Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen ,
888-716: A single person. Most monarchies refer to the heir apparent of their thrones with the descriptive term of crown prince or crown princess , but they may also be accorded with a more specific substantive title : such as Prince of Orange in the Netherlands, Duke of Brabant in Belgium, Prince of Asturias in Spain (also granted to heirs presumptive), or the Prince of Wales in England and Wales; former titles include Dauphin in
999-453: A stand and fight the relentless pursuers sent by Aurangzeb, but was once again comprehensively routed in the battle of Deorai (near Ajmer) on 11 March 1659. After this defeat he fled to Sindh and sought refuge under Malik Jeevan (Junaid Khan Barozai), an Afghan chieftain, whose life had on more than one occasion been saved by the Mughal prince from the wrath of Shah Jahan . However, Junaid held Dara Shikoh by his wrist and seized him. Then he gave
1110-486: A system of absolute primogeniture that disregards gender, female heirs apparent occur. As succession to titles, positions, or offices in the past most often favoured males, females considered to be an heir apparent were rare. Absolute primogeniture was not practised by any modern monarchy for succession to their thrones until the late twentieth century, with Sweden being the first to adopt absolute primogeniture in 1980 and other Western European monarchies following suit. Since
1221-596: Is agreed that Arme was located to the immediate west of Lake Van (probably in the vicinity of Sason , and therefore in the greater Armenia region), the location of the older site of Armani is a matter of debate. Some modern researchers have placed it near modern Samsat , and have suggested it was populated, at least partially, by an early Indo-European-speaking people. It is possible that the name Armenia originates in Armini , Urartian for "inhabitant of Arme" or "Armean country". The Arme tribe of Urartian texts may have been
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#17327806852911332-733: Is also attested by the transfer of the seat of the Catholicos of the Armenian Apostolic Church, the spiritual leader of the Armenian people, to the region. The Seljuk Empire soon started to collapse. In the early 12th century, Armenian princes of the Zakarid family drove out the Seljuk Turks and established a semi-independent principality in northern and eastern Armenia known as Zakarid Armenia , which lasted under
1443-712: Is at the Nor Geghi 1 Stone Age site in the Hrazdan river valley. Thousands of 325,000 year-old artifacts may indicate that this stage of human technological innovation occurred intermittently throughout the Old World, rather than spreading from a single point of origin (usually hypothesized to be Africa), as was previously thought. Many early Bronze Age settlements were built in Armenia (Valley of Ararat, Shengavit, Harich, Karaz, Amiranisgora, Margahovit, Garni, etc.). One of
1554-770: Is geographically located in the South Caucasus , it is generally considered geopolitically European. Since Armenia aligns itself in many respects geopolitically with Europe , the country is a member of numerous European organizations including the Organization for Security and Co-Operation in Europe , the Council of Europe , the Eastern Partnership , Eurocontrol , the Assembly of European Regions , and
1665-539: Is heir apparent to the Norwegian throne, and Victoria herself has a female heir apparent in her elder child, Princess Estelle . Victoria was not heir apparent from birth (in 1977), but gained the status in 1980 following a change in the Swedish Act of Succession . Her younger brother Carl Philip (born 1979) was thus heir apparent for a few months (and is a rare example of an heir apparent losing this status without
1776-626: Is often called Sirr-i-Akbar ("The Greatest Mystery"), where he states boldly, in the introduction, his speculative hypothesis that the work referred to in the Qur'an as the " Kitab al-maknun " or the hidden book , is none other than the Upanishads . His most famous work, Majma-ul-Bahrain ("The Confluence of the Two Seas"), was also devoted to a revelation of the mystical and pluralistic affinities between Sufic and Vedantic speculation. The book
1887-597: The Armenian Highlands . Each of the aforementioned nations and confederacies participated in the ethnogenesis of the Armenians . A large cuneiform lapidary inscription found in Yerevan established that the modern capital of Armenia was founded in the summer of 782 BC by King Argishti I . Yerevan is one of the world's oldest continuously inhabited cities . After the fall of the state of Urartu at
1998-572: The Armenian genocide . The genocide was implemented in two phases: the wholesale killing of the able-bodied male population through massacre and subjection of army conscripts to forced labour, followed by the deportation of women, children, the elderly and infirm on death marches leading to the Syrian desert . Driven forward by military escorts, the deportees were deprived of food and water and subjected to periodic robbery, rape, and massacre. There
2109-824: The Babylonian king Bel in 2492 BC and established his nation in the Ararat region. The further origin of the name is uncertain. It is also further postulated that the name Hay comes from one of the two confederated, Hittite vassal states – the Ḫayaša -Azzi (1600–1200 BC). The exonym Armenia is attested in the Old Persian Behistun Inscription (515 BC) as Armina ( 𐎠𐎼𐎷𐎡𐎴 ). The Ancient Greek terms Ἀρμενία ( Armenía ) and Ἀρμένιοι ( Arménioi , "Armenians") are first mentioned by Hecataeus of Miletus ( c. 550 BC – c. 476 BC ). Xenophon ,
2220-646: The Bagratid Kingdom of Armenia was restored in the 9th century before falling in 1045. Cilician Armenia , an Armenian principality and later a kingdom, was located on the coast of the Mediterranean Sea between the 11th and 14th centuries. Between the 16th and 19th centuries, the traditional Armenian homeland composed of Eastern Armenia and Western Armenia came under the rule of the Ottoman and Persian empires, repeatedly ruled by either of
2331-648: The Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 . At the time, Russian-controlled Eastern Armenia , Georgia, and Azerbaijan attempted to bond together in the Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic . This federation, however, lasted from only February to May 1918, when all three parties decided to dissolve it. As a result, the Dashnaktsutyun government of Eastern Armenia declared its independence on 28 May as
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#17327806852912442-799: The Bronze Age and earlier, dating to about 4000 BC. Archaeological surveys in 2010 and 2011 at the Areni-1 cave complex have resulted in the discovery of the world's earliest known leather shoe , skirt, and wine-producing facility . Several Bronze Age cultures and states flourished in the area of Greater Armenia, including the Trialeti-Vanadzor culture , Hayasa-Azzi , and Mitanni (located in southwestern historical Armenia), all of which are believed to have had Indo-European populations. The Nairi confederation and its successor, Urartu , successively established their sovereignty over
2553-791: The Caucasus and Persian campaigns . The new government in Istanbul began to look on the Armenians with distrust and suspicion because the Imperial Russian Army contained a contingent of Armenian volunteers . On 24 April 1915, Armenian intellectuals were arrested by Ottoman authorities and, with the Tehcir Law (29 May 1915), eventually a large proportion of Armenians living in Anatolia perished in what has become known as
2664-862: The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development . Armenia is also a member of certain regional groups throughout Eurasia , including the Asian Development Bank , the Collective Security Treaty Organization , the Eurasian Economic Union , and the Eurasian Development Bank . Armenia supported the once de facto independent Republic of Artsakh (Nagorno-Karabakh), which was proclaimed in 1991 on territory internationally recognized as part of Azerbaijan , until
2775-475: The First Republic of Armenia under the leadership of Aram Manukian . The First Republic's short-lived independence was fraught with war, territorial disputes , large-scale rebellions , and a mass influx of refugees from Western Armenia, bringing with them disease and starvation. The Entente Powers sought to help the newly founded Armenian state through relief funds and other forms of support. At
2886-640: The Hayasa-Azzi , Shupria and Nairi . By at least 600 BC, an archaic form of Proto-Armenian , an Indo-European language, had diffused into the Armenian Highlands. The first Armenian state of Urartu was established in 860 BC, and by the 6th century BC it was replaced by the Satrapy of Armenia . The Kingdom of Armenia reached its height under Tigranes the Great in the 1st century BC and in
2997-593: The Indian Archaeological Society . Heir-apparent Works An heir apparent is a person who is first in an order of succession and cannot be displaced from inheriting by the birth of another person. A person who is first in the current order of succession but could be displaced by the birth of a more eligible heir is known as heir presumptive . Today these terms most commonly describe heirs to hereditary titles (e.g. titles of nobility) or offices, especially when only inheritable by
3108-576: The Kara Koyunlu , Timurid dynasty and Ağ Qoyunlu , which continued from the 13th century until the 15th century. After incessant invasions, each bringing destruction to the country, with time Armenia became weakened. In the 16th century, the Ottoman Empire and the Safavid dynasty of Iran divided Armenia. From the early 16th century, both Western Armenia and Eastern Armenia fell to
3219-558: The Kingdom of France , and Tsesarevich in Imperial Russia . The term is also applied metaphorically to an expected successor to any position of power, e.g. a political or corporate leader. This article primarily describes the term heir apparent in a hereditary system regulated by laws of primogeniture —it may be less applicable to cases where a monarch has a say in naming the heir (performed either while alive, e.g. crowning
3330-453: The Rann of Kachchh and reached Kathiawar , where he met Shah Nawaz Khan, the governor of the province of Gujarat who opened the treasury to Dara Shikoh and helped him to recruit a new army. He occupied Surat and advanced towards Ajmer. Foiled in his hopes of persuading the fickle but powerful Rajput feudatory, Maharaja Jaswant Singh of Marwar, to support his cause, Dara Shikoh decided to make
3441-623: The Republic of Armenia , is a landlocked country in the Armenian Highlands of West Asia . It is a part of the Caucasus region and is bordered by Turkey to the west, Georgia to the north and Azerbaijan to the east, and Iran and the Azerbaijani exclave of Nakhchivan to the south. Yerevan is the capital , largest city and financial center . Armenia is a unitary , multi-party, democratic nation-state with an ancient cultural heritage. The Armenian Highlands has been home to
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3552-721: The Republic of Mountainous Armenia by Armenian forces under command of Garegin Nzhdeh on 26 April, which fought off both Soviet and Turkish intrusions in the Zangezur region of southern Armenia. After Soviet agreements to include the Syunik Province in Armenia's borders, the rebellion ended and the Red Army took control of the region on 13 July. Armenia was annexed by the Red Army and along with Georgia and Azerbaijan ,
3663-655: The Sasanian Empire , it seems, becoming the first officially Christian state, ten years before the Roman Empire granted Christianity an official toleration under Galerius , and 36 years before Constantine the Great was baptised. Prior to this, during the latter part of the Parthian period, Armenia was a predominantly Zoroastrian country. After the fall of the Kingdom of Armenia in 428, most of Armenia
3774-785: The Umayyad Caliphate . The principality was ruled by the Prince of Armenia, and recognised by the Caliph and the Byzantine Emperor . It was part of the administrative division/emirate Arminiya created by the Arabs, which also included parts of Georgia and Caucasian Albania , and had its centre in the Armenian city, Dvin . Arminiya lasted until 884, when it regained its independence from the weakened Abbasid Caliphate under Ashot I of Armenia . The reemergent Armenian kingdom
3885-892: The tomb of his wife Nadira Begum in Lahore, the Shrine of Mian Mir also in Lahore, the Dara Shikoh Library in Delhi, the Akhund Mullah Shah Masjid in Srinagar in Kashmir and the Pari Mahal garden palace (also in Srinagar in Kashmir). After the defeat, Dara Shikoh retreated from Agra to Delhi and thence to Lahore. His next destination was Multan and then to Thatta ( Sindh ). From Sindh, he crossed
3996-543: The "Red Sultan" or "Bloody Sultan". During the 1890s, the Armenian Revolutionary Federation , commonly known as Dashnaktsutyun , became active within the Ottoman Empire with the aim of unifying the various small groups in the empire that were advocating for reform and defending Armenian villages from massacres that were widespread in some of the Armenian-populated areas of the empire. Dashnaktsutyun members also formed Armenian fedayi groups that defended Armenian civilians through armed resistance. The Dashnaks also worked for
4107-420: The 1813 Treaty of Gulistan and the 1828 Treaty of Turkmenchay , following the Russo-Persian War (1804–13) and the Russo-Persian War (1826–28) , respectively, the Qajar dynasty of Iran was forced to irrevocably cede Eastern Armenia , consisting of the Erivan and Karabakh Khanates , to Imperial Russia . This period is known as Russian Armenia . While Western Armenia still remained under Ottoman rule,
4218-422: The 19th century, Eastern Armenia was ruled by the successive Safavid, Afsharid and Qajar empires, while Western Armenia remained under Ottoman rule. From 1604, Abbas I of Iran implemented a " scorched earth " policy in the region to protect his north-western frontier against any invading Ottoman forces , a policy that involved a forced resettlement of masses of Armenians outside of their homelands. In
4329-536: The Armenian diaspora have been campaigning for official recognition of the events as genocide for over 30 years. These events are traditionally commemorated yearly on 24 April, the Armenian Martyr Day, or the Day of the Armenian genocide. Although the Russian Caucasus Army of Imperial forces commanded by Nikolai Yudenich and Armenians in volunteer units and Armenian militia led by Andranik Ozanian and Tovmas Nazarbekian succeeded in gaining most of Western Armenia during World War I, their gains were lost with
4440-572: The Armenians were granted considerable autonomy within their own enclaves and lived in relative harmony with other groups in the empire (including the ruling Turks). However, as Christians under a strict Muslim social structure , Armenians faced pervasive discrimination. In response to 1894 Sasun rebellion , Sultan Abdul Hamid II organised state-sponsored massacres against the Armenians between 1894 and 1896, resulting in an estimated death toll of 80,000 to 300,000 people. The Hamidian massacres , as they came to be known, gave Hamid international infamy as
4551-504: The Byzantine Empire conquered Bagratid Armenia. Soon, the other Armenian states fell under Byzantine control as well. The Byzantine rule was short-lived, as in 1071 the Seljuk Empire defeated the Byzantines and conquered Armenia at the Battle of Manzikert , establishing the Seljuk Empire. To escape death or servitude at the hands of those who had assassinated his relative, Gagik II of Armenia , King of Ani , an Armenian named Ruben I, Prince of Armenia , went with some of his countrymen into
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4662-492: The English or British throne; several times an heir apparent has died, but each example has either been childless or left a son or sons. However, there have been several female heirs apparent to British peerages (e.g. Frances Ward, 6th Baroness Dudley , and Henrietta Wentworth, 6th Baroness Wentworth ). In one special case, however, England and Scotland had a female heir apparent. The Revolution settlement that established William and Mary as joint monarchs in 1689 only gave
4773-412: The Grandeur of Darius", respectively. Historian Ebba Koch favours 'Shukoh'. Dara Shikoh had thirteen siblings of whom six survived to adulthood: Jahanara Begum , Shah Shuja , Roshanara Begum , Aurangzeb , Murad Bakhsh , and Gauhara Begum . He shared a close relationship with his sister, Jahanara. As part of his formal education, Dara studied the Quran , history, Persian poetry and calligraphy. He
4884-605: The Great , becoming the most powerful kingdom of its time east of the Roman Republic . In the next centuries, Armenia was in the Persian Empire 's sphere of influence during the reign of Tiridates I , the founder of the Arsacid dynasty of Armenia , which itself was a branch of the Parthian Empire . Throughout its history, the kingdom of Armenia enjoyed both periods of independence and periods of autonomy subject to contemporary empires. Its strategic location between two continents has subjected it to invasions by many peoples, including Assyria (under Ashurbanipal , at around 669–627 BC,
4995-449: The Mughal court, has written down the details of Dara Shikoh's death. According to him, upon Dara's capture, Aurangzeb ordered his men to have his head brought up to him and he inspected it thoroughly to ensure that it was Dara indeed. He then further mutilated the head with his sword three times. After which, he ordered the head to be put in a box and presented to his ailing father, Shah Jahan, with clear instructions to be delivered only when
5106-472: The Russian Empire ceased to exist, leading to the establishment of the First Republic of Armenia . By 1920, the state was incorporated into the Soviet Union as the Armenian SSR . The modern Republic of Armenia became independent in 1991 during the dissolution of the Soviet Union . Armenia is a developing country and ranks 85th on the Human Development Index (2021). Its economy is primarily based on industrial output and mineral extraction. While Armenia
5217-403: The Safavid Empire. Owing to the century long Turco-Iranian geopolitical rivalry that would last in West Asia, significant parts of the region were frequently fought over between the two rivalling empires during the Ottoman–Persian Wars . From the mid 16th century with the Peace of Amasya , and decisively from the first half of the 17th century with the Treaty of Zuhab until the first half of
5328-426: The School of Archaeology B.M. Pande, and retired ASI Director of Epigraphy (Arabic and Persian) Dr. G.S. Khwaja. These experts have recognized Singh's research as credible, aligning with historical and architectural evidence. Comments from other members, except for Former ASI Director (Archaeology) Syed Jamal Hassan, are not publicly known as the report has not yet been released. Dr. Hassan has expressed doubts, citing
5439-421: The School of Archaeology of Archaeological Survey of India, Shri B.M. Pande has said that "Dara's grave has been identified." Several internationally renowned historians specializing in medieval Mughal India have also supported Singh’s claim. Padma Bhushan Irfan Habib , Professor Emeritus at Aligarh Muslim University, stated, "I am not an archaeologist or indeed an architect myself, but as far as I can comprehend,
5550-399: The Sèvres treaty. Simultaneously, the Soviet Eleventh Army , under the command of Grigoriy Ordzhonikidze , invaded Armenia at Karavansarai (present-day Ijevan ) on 29 November. By 4 December, Ordzhonikidze's forces entered Yerevan and the short-lived Armenian republic collapsed. After the fall of the republic, the February Uprising soon took place in 1921, and led to the establishment of
5661-464: The Urumu, who in the 12th century BC attempted to invade Assyria from the north with their allies the Mushki and the Kaskians . The Urumu apparently settled in the vicinity of Sason, lending their name to the regions of Arme and the nearby lands of Urme and Inner Urumu. Given that this was an exonym , it may have meant "wasteland, dense forest", cf. armutu (wasteland), armaḫḫu (thicket, thick woods), armāniš (tree). The southerners considered
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#17327806852915772-428: The adoption of absolute primogeniture by most of the Western European monarchies, examples of female heirs apparent include Crown Princess Victoria of Sweden, Princess Catharina-Amalia of the Netherlands, and Princess Elisabeth of Belgium; they are, respectively, the oldest children of Kings Carl XVI Gustaf , Willem-Alexander , and Philippe . Princess Ingrid Alexandra of Norway is heir apparent to her father, who
5883-411: The aftermath of the 1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War and occupied the old city of Alexandropol (present-day Gyumri ). The violent conflict finally concluded with the Treaty of Alexandropol on 2 December 1920. The treaty forced Armenia to disarm most of its military forces , cede all former Ottoman territory granted to it by the Treaty of Sèvres , and to give up all the "Wilsonian Armenia" granted to it at
5994-450: The architectural features, the meaning of the exact placement of the tomb—and visited the site several times to be certain of his search. At the end of it, he has given proof of the grave's location with no reasonable doubt left." Farhat Nasreen, Head of the Department of History at Jamia Millia Islamia, praised the research, saying, "His research is very fascinating; it is remarkable that through his relentless hard work, he has solved one of
6105-412: The architectural style of the cenotaphs, which he argues aligns with the period of Dara Shikoh’s death. On 26 February 2020, the Government of India, through the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), initiated a project to identify Dara Shikoh’s grave from among the 140 graves in the 120 chambers inside Humayun's Tomb. The effort is considered challenging due to the absence of identifying inscriptions on
6216-423: The beginning of the 6th century BC, the Armenian Highlands were for some time under the hegemony of the Medes , and after that they were part of the Achaemenid Empire . Armenia was part of the Achaemenid state from the second half of the 6th century BC until the second half of the 4th century BC divided into two satrapies - XIII (western part, with the capital in Melitene ) and XVIII (northeastern part). During
6327-403: The biggest mysteries." Prof. S.H. Qasemi, former Head of the Department of Persian at the University of Delhi, expressed his agreement with Singh's findings, stating, "I have myself gone through the reference to Dara Shukoh's burial in the Alamgirnama and also saw the location identified by Sanjeev in Humayun's Tomb. I can confirm that the location of the grave identified by him completely matches
6438-426: The boundaries of Assyria reached as far as Armenia and the Caucasus Mountains ), Medes , Achaemenid Empire , Greeks , Parthians , Romans , Sasanian Empire , Byzantine Empire , Arabs , Seljuk Empire , Mongols , Ottoman Empire , the successive Safavid , Afsharid , and Qajar dynasties of Iran, and the Russians. Religion in ancient Armenia was historically related to a set of beliefs that, in Persia, led to
6549-406: The deaths of as many as 20,000–30,000 Armenians. The Armenians living in the empire hoped that the Committee of Union and Progress would change their second-class status. The Armenian reform package (1914) was presented as a solution by appointing an inspector general over Armenian issues. The outbreak of World War I led to confrontation between the Ottoman Empire and the Russian Empire in
6660-550: The description of Dara Shukoh’s burial place in the Alamgirnama." Singh has delivered lectures on his findings and research regarding the grave of Dara Shikoh at various esteemed institutions, including Jamia Millia Islamia (JMI), the India International Centre (IIC), and the Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts . His research paper, "दारा शुकोह की क़ब्र की खोज - एक अध्ययन" (In the Search of Dara Shukoh’s Tomb - A Study), has been published in Purapravah, an international journal of archaeology and history published in Hindi by
6771-491: The early 1630s just before his marriage, showing two ascetics in yogic postures, probably meant to be a pair of yogis, Vaishnava and Shaiva. These paintings are attributed to the artist Govardhan. The album also contains numerous pictures of Muslim ascetics and divines and the pictures obviously reflect Dara Shikoh's interest in religion and philosophy. Dara Shikoh is also credited with the commissioning of several exquisite, still extant, examples of Mughal architecture – among them
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#17327806852916882-433: The emergence of Zoroastrianism . It particularly focused on the worship of Mithra and also included a pantheon of gods such as Aramazd , Vahagn , Anahit , and Astghik . The country used the solar Armenian calendar , which consisted of 12 months. Christianity spread into the country in the early 4th century AD. Tiridates III of Armenia (238–314) made Christianity the state religion in 301, partly, in defiance of
6993-443: The end of the war, the victorious powers sought to divide up the Ottoman Empire. Signed between the Allied and Associated Powers and Ottoman Empire at Sèvres on 10 August 1920, the Treaty of Sèvres promised to maintain the existence of the Armenian republic and to attach the former territories of Western Armenia to it. Because the new borders of Armenia were to be drawn by United States President Woodrow Wilson , Western Armenia
7104-416: The four sons of Aram, Uz founded Trachonitis and Damascus : this country lies between Palestine and Celesyria . Ul founded Armenia; and Gather the Bactrians ; and Mesa the Mesaneans; it is now called Charax Spasini . The first human traces are supported by the presence of Acheulean tools, generally close to the obsidian outcrops more than 1 million years ago. The most recent and important excavation
7215-448: The gorges of the Taurus Mountains and then into Tarsus of Cilicia . The Byzantine governor of the palace gave them shelter where the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia was eventually established on 6 January 1198 under Leo I, King of Armenia , a descendant of Prince Ruben. Cilicia was a strong ally of the European Crusaders , and saw itself as a bastion of Christendom in the East. Cilicia's significance in Armenian history and statehood
7326-424: The graves. At least five of the seven members have acknowledged and supported Sanjeev Kumar Singh’s research, agreeing that he has correctly identified the grave of Dara Shikoh. The members supporting Singh's findings include retired ASI Additional Director General Dr. B.R. Mani, retired ASI Joint Director General Dr. K.N. Dikshit, retired ASI Director Northern Region Padma Shri K. K. Muhammed , retired ASI Director of
7437-419: The grounds of Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University , Kashmiri Gate , Delhi , and is now run as a museum by Archaeological Survey of India after being renovated. He was also a patron of fine arts, music and dancing, a trait frowned upon by his younger sibling Muhiuddin, later the Emperor Aurangzeb. The 'Dara Shikoh' is a collection of paintings and calligraphy assembled from the 1630s until his death. It
7548-429: The harmony of Sufi philosophy in Islam and Vedanta philosophy in Hinduism. A great patron of the arts, he was also more inclined towards philosophy and mysticism rather than military pursuits. The course of the history of the Indian subcontinent , had Dara Shikoh prevailed over Aurangzeb, has been a matter of some conjecture among historians. Muhammad Dara Shikoh was born on 11 March 1615 in Ajmer , Rajasthan . He
7659-523: The heir apparent for the remainder of William's reign. She eventually succeeded him as Queen of England, Scotland, and Ireland. The position of an heir apparent is normally unshakable: it can be assumed they will inherit. Sometimes, however, extraordinary events—such as the death or the deposition of the parent—intervene. In some jurisdictions, an heir apparent can automatically lose that status by breaching certain constitutional rules. Today, for example: Armenia Armenia , officially
7770-429: The heir as a rex iunior , or through the monarch's will ). In a hereditary system governed by some form of primogeniture , an heir apparent is easily identifiable as the person whose position as first in the line of succession to a title or office is secure, regardless of future births. An heir presumptive , by contrast, can always be "bumped down" in the succession by the birth of somebody more closely related in
7881-420: The identification of Dara Shikoh's grave seems to be quite definitive and should secure general acceptance." Former Head of the History Department at Jawaharlal Nehru University, Prof. Harbans Mukhia , commented, "He appears to have definitively and decisively located the grave of Dara Shikoh, which was always known to be located in Humayun's Tomb. He has examined his quarry from every angle—the textual evidence,
7992-414: The important sites of the Early Bronze Age is Shengavit Settlement , It was located on the site of today's capital of Armenia, Yerevan . Such things were discovered in Armenia, for example, the oldest shoe , oldest wagon , oldest skirt , and the oldest wine-making facility . Armenia lies in the highlands surrounding the mountains of Ararat . There is evidence of an early civilisation in Armenia in
8103-513: The lack of inscriptions and confirming references. Following a Right to Information query in 2021, the ASI responded that it had not yet found Dara Shikoh's grave. In March 2021, the then culture Minister Mr. Prahlad Sigh Patel stated in the Rajya Sabha that the committee was studying Dara Shikoh’s heritage, but the final report is still awaited. However, Senior Archaeologist and former Director of
8214-812: The land of Mesopotamia between the Tigris and the Euphrates to the north of the Chaldees to the border of the mountains of Asshur and the land of 'Arara'. Jubilees 8:21 also apportions the Mountains of Ararat to Shem , which Jubilees 9:5 expounds to be apportioned to Aram . The historian Flavius Josephus also states in his Antiquities of the Jews , Aram had the Aramites, which the Greeks called Syrians ;... Of
8325-712: The late 6th century BC, the first geographical entity that was called Armenia by neighbouring populations was established under the Orontid Dynasty within the Achaemenid Empire , as part of the latter's territories. The kingdom became fully sovereign from the sphere of influence of the Seleucid Empire in 190 BC under King Artaxias I and begun the rule of the Artaxiad dynasty . Armenia reached its height between 95 and 66 BC under Tigranes
8436-426: The life time of his mother Mumtaz Mahal, Dara Shikoh was betrothed to his half-cousin, Princess Nadira Banu Begum , the daughter of his paternal uncle Sultan Parvez Mirza . He married her on 1 February 1633 at Agra amidst great celebrations, pomp and grandeur. By all accounts, Dara and Nadira were devoted to each other and Dara's love for Nadira was so profound that unlike the usual practice of polygyny prevalent at
8547-449: The name Hayastan trace back to much earlier dates and were first attested in c. 5th century in the works of Agathangelos , Faustus of Byzantium , Ghazar Parpetsi , Koryun , and Sebeos . The name has traditionally been derived from Hayk ( Հայկ ), the legendary patriarch of the Armenians and a great-great-grandson of Noah , who, according to the 5th-century AD author Moses of Chorene (Movsis Khorenatsi) , defeated
8658-461: The news to Aurangzeb that he has captured Dara Shikoh. Aurangzeb sent his army to Malik Jeevan's place. Aurangzeb's army captured Dara Shikoh on 10 June 1659. Dara Shikoh was brought to Delhi, placed on a filthy elephant and paraded through the streets of the capital in chains. Dara Shikoh's fate was decided by the political threat he posed as a prince popular with the common people – a convocation of nobles and clergy, called by Aurangzeb in response to
8769-420: The next apparent successor. But even in legal systems that apply male-preference primogeniture, female heirs apparent are by no means impossible: if a male heir apparent dies leaving no sons but at least one daughter, then the eldest daughter would replace her father as heir apparent to whatever throne or title is concerned, but only when it has become clear that the widow of the deceased is not pregnant. Then, as
8880-581: The north-western chamber beneath the dome of Humayun’s Tomb marks Dara Shikoh's grave. His claim is based on the Alamgirnama, a biography of Aurangzeb, which mentions that Dara Shikoh was buried below the dome of Humayun’s Tomb, alongside Akbar’s sons, Danyal and Murad. The relevant passage from the Alamgirnama was translated for Singh by Prof. Aleem Ashraf Khan, Head of the Persian Department at Delhi University. Additionally, Singh has studied
8991-564: The northern forests to be the abode of dangerous beasts. According to the histories of both Moses of Chorene and Michael Chamchian, Armenia derives from the name of Aram , a lineal descendant of Hayk. In the Hebrew Bible / Old Testament , the Table of Nations lists Aram as the son of Shem , to whom the Book of Jubilees attests, And for Aram there came forth the fourth portion, all
9102-476: The old King sat for his dinner in his prison. The guards were also instructed to inform Shah Jahan that, "King Aurangzeb, your son, sends this plate to let him (Shah Jahan) see that he does not forget him". Shah Jahan instantly became happy (not knowing what was in store in the box) and uttered, “Blessed be God that my son still remembers me". Upon opening the box, Shah Jahan became horrified and fell unconscious . The exact burial location of Dara Shikoh remained
9213-758: The patronage of the Georgian Kingdom . The Orbelian Dynasty shared control with the Zakarids in various parts of the country, especially in Syunik and Vayots Dzor , while the House of Hasan-Jalalyan controlled provinces of Artsakh and Utik as the Kingdom of Artsakh. During the 1230s, the Mongol Empire conquered Zakarid Armenia and then the remainder of Armenia. The Mongolian invasions were soon followed by those of other Central Asian tribes, such as
9324-540: The perceived danger of insurrection in Delhi, declared him a threat to the public peace and an apostate from Islam. He was killed by four of Aurangzeb's henchmen in front of his terrified son on the night of 30 August 1659 (9 September Gregorian). After death the remains of Dara Shikoh were buried in an unidentified grave in Humayun's tomb in Delhi at the age of 59 . Niccolao Manucci , the Venetian traveler who worked in
9435-458: The power to continue the succession through issue to Mary II, elder daughter of the previous king, James II . William, by contrast, was to reign for life only, and his (hypothetical) children by a wife other than Mary would be placed in his original place (as Mary's first cousin) in the line of succession—after Mary's younger sister Anne . Thus, after Mary's death William continued to reign, but he had no power to beget direct heirs, and Anne became
9546-468: The representative of her father's line she would assume a place ahead of any more distant relatives. For example, had George, Prince of Wales (the future George IV) predeceased his father, King George III , between 1796 and 1817, the former's daughter, Princess Charlotte , being his only legitimate child, would have become heir apparent to the British throne. Such a situation has not to date occurred with
9657-582: The republic's dissolution in September 2023. The original native Armenian name for the country was Հայք ( [[[wikt:Հայք|Hayk’]]] Error: {{Lang}}: Non-latn text/Latn script subtag mismatch ( help ) ); however, it is currently rarely used. The contemporary name Հայաստան ( Hayastan ) became popular in the Middle Ages by addition of the Persian suffix -stan (place). However the origins of
9768-569: The research conducted by Arnold J. Toynbee , an estimated 600,000 Armenians died during deportation from 1915 to 1916. This figure, however, accounts for solely the first year of the Genocide and does not take into account those who died or were killed after the report was compiled on 24 May 1916. The International Association of Genocide Scholars places the death toll at "more than a million". The total number of people killed has been most widely estimated at between 1 and 1.5 million. Armenia and
9879-401: The right to a place somewhere in the order of succession, but when it comes to what that place is, a female will rank behind her brothers regardless of their ages or her age. Thus, normally, even an only daughter will not be heir apparent, since at any time a brother might be born who, though younger, would assume that position. Hence, she is an heir presumptive. For example, Queen Elizabeth II
9990-437: The time, he never contracted any other marriage. The imperial couple had seven children together; among them three sons, Sulaiman Shikoh , Mumtaz Shikoh , and Sipihr Shikoh , and a daughter, Jahanzeb Banu Begum , survived to play important roles in future events. A great patron of the arts, Dara ordered for the compilation of some refined artwork into an album which is now famous by the name of 'Dara Shikhoh Album.' This album
10101-671: The two over the centuries. By the 19th century, Eastern Armenia had been conquered by the Russian Empire , while most of the western parts of the traditional Armenian homeland remained under Ottoman rule. During World War I , up to 1.5 million Armenians living in their ancestral lands in the Ottoman Empire were systematically exterminated in the Armenian genocide . In 1918, following the Russian Revolution , all non-Russian countries declared their independence after
10212-484: The war of succession which ensued after Shah Jahan's illness in 1657, Dara was defeated by his younger brother Prince Muhiuddin (later, the Emperor Aurangzeb ). He was executed in 1659 on Aurangzeb's orders in a bitter struggle for the imperial throne. Dara was a liberal-minded unorthodox Muslim as opposed to the orthodox Aurangzeb; he authored the work The Confluence of the Two Seas , which argues for
10323-593: The wider goal of creating a "free, independent and unified" Armenia, although they sometimes set aside this goal in favour of a more realistic approach, such as advocating autonomy. The Ottoman Empire began to collapse, and in 1908, the Young Turk Revolution overthrew the government of Sultan Hamid. In April 1909, the Adana massacre occurred in the Adana Vilayet of the Ottoman Empire resulting in
10434-589: The year 301 became the first state in the world to adopt Christianity as its official religion . Armenia still recognises the Armenian Apostolic Church , the world's oldest national church , as the country's primary religious establishment. The ancient Armenian kingdom was split between the Byzantine and Sasanian Empires around the early 5th century. Under the Bagratuni dynasty ,
10545-618: Was a liberal-minded unorthodox Muslim unlike his father and his younger brother Aurangzeb. Persian was Dara's native language, but he also learned Hindi , Arabic and later Sanskrit . In October 1627, Dara's grandfather Emperor Jahangir died, and his father ascended the throne in January 1628 taking the regnal name ' Shah Jahan '. In 1633, Dara was appointed as the Vali-ahad (heir-apparent) to his father. He, along with his older sister Jahanara, were Shah Jahan's favourite children. During
10656-612: Was also referred to as " Wilsonian Armenia ". In addition, just days prior, on 5 August 1920, Mihran Damadian of the Armenian National Union, the de facto Armenian administration in Cilicia, declared the independence of Cilicia as an Armenian autonomous republic under French protectorate. There was even consideration of making Armenia a mandate under the protection of the United States. The treaty, however,
10767-432: Was appointed as subahdar (governor) of Allahabad . He was promoted to a command of 30,000-foot and 20,000 horse on 18 April 1648, and was appointed Governor of the province of Gujarat on 3 July. On 6 September 1657, the illness of emperor Shah Jahan triggered a desperate struggle for power among the four Mughal princes, though realistically only Dara Shikoh and Aurangzeb had a chance of emerging victorious. Shah Shuja
10878-818: Was authored as a short treatise in Persian in 1654–55. In 1006 A.H, the prince had commissioned a translation of Yoga Vasistha , after both Vasistha and Rama appeared before Dara Shikoh and embraced him in his dream. Translation was undertaken by Nizam al-Din Panipati this translation came to be known as the Jug-Basisht , which has since become popular in Persia among intellectuals interested in Indo-Persian culture . The Safavid -era mystic Mir Findiriski (d. 1641) commented on selected passages of Jug-Basisht . The library established by Dara Shikoh still exists on
10989-567: Was divided up into three separate entities ( Armenian SSR , Azerbaijan SSR , and Georgian SSR ). Armenians enjoyed a period of relative stability within USSR in contrast to the turbulent final years of the Ottoman Empire. The situation was difficult for the church, which struggled with secular policies of USSR . After the death of Vladimir Lenin , Joseph Stalin , the general secretary of the Communist Party , gradually established himself as
11100-482: Was heir presumptive during the reign of her father, King George VI ; had George fathered a legitimate son, then that child would have displaced Elizabeth in the line of succession and become heir apparent. However, a granddaughter could for example be heir apparent if she were the only daughter of the deceased eldest son of the sovereign (e.g. Queen Elizabeth II would have been heir apparent to George V if her oldest uncle and father both had died before their father). In
11211-672: Was incorporated as a marzpanate within the Sasanian Empire . Following the Battle of Avarayr in 451, Christian Armenians maintained their religion and Armenia gained autonomy. The Sassanid Empire was conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate in the mid 7th century, reuniting Armenian lands previously taken by the Byzantine Empire , and Armenia subsequently emerged as Arminiya , an autonomous principality under
11322-821: Was incorporated into the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics as part of the Transcaucasian SFSR (TSFSR) on 4 March 1922. With this annexation, the Treaty of Alexandropol was superseded by the Turkish-Soviet Treaty of Kars . In the agreement, Turkey allowed the Soviet Union to assume control over Adjara with the port city of Batumi in return for sovereignty over the cities of Kars , Ardahan , and Iğdır , all of which were part of Russian Armenia. The TSFSR existed from 1922 to 1936, when it
11433-424: Was local Armenian resistance in the region, developed against the activities of the Ottoman Empire. The events of 1915 to 1917 are regarded by Armenians and the vast majority of Western historians to have been state-sponsored mass killings, or genocide. Turkish authorities deny the genocide took place to this day. The Armenian Genocide is acknowledged to have been one of the first modern genocides . According to
11544-417: Was pregnant at the moment of his death, since such a posthumous child, regardless of its sex, would have displaced Victoria from the throne. Adelaide was 44 at the time, so pregnancy was possible even if unlikely. Daughters (and their lines) may inherit titles that descend according to male-preference primogeniture, but only in default of sons (and their heirs). That is, both female and male offspring have
11655-510: Was presented by Dara to his "dearest intimate friend" Nadira in 1641. Dara had at least two concubines, Gul Safeh (also known as Rana Dil) and Udaipuri Mahal (a Georgian or Armenian slave girl). Udaipuri later became a part of Aurangzeb's harem after her master's defeat. On 10 September 1642, Shah Jahan formally confirmed Dara Shikoh as his heir, granting him the title of Shahzada-e-Buland Iqbal ("Prince of High Fortune") and promoting him to command of 20,000-foot and 20,000 horse. In 1645, he
11766-486: Was presented to his wife Nadira Banu in 1641–42 and remained with her until her death after which the album was taken into the royal library and the inscriptions connecting it with Dara Shikoh were deliberately erased; however not everything was vandalised and many calligraphy scripts and paintings still bear his mark. Among the existing paintings from the Dara Shikoh Album, are two facing pages, compiled in
11877-589: Was rejected by the Turkish National Movement , and never came into effect. The movement used the treaty as the occasion to declare itself the rightful government of Turkey , replacing the monarchy based in Istanbul with a republic based in Ankara . In 1920, Turkish nationalist forces invaded the fledgling Armenian republic from the east. Turkish forces under the command of Kazım Karabekir captured Armenian territories that Russia had annexed in
11988-594: Was ruled by the Bagratuni dynasty and lasted until 1045. In time, several areas of the Bagratid Armenia separated as independent kingdoms and principalities such as the Kingdom of Vaspurakan ruled by the House of Artsruni in the south, Kingdom of Syunik in the east, or Kingdom of Artsakh on the territory of modern Nagorno-Karabakh , while still recognising the supremacy of the Bagratid kings. In 1045,
12099-699: Was so widely respected among all communities that he was invited to lay the foundation stone of the Golden Temple in Amritsar by the Sikhs. Dara Shikoh subsequently developed a friendship with the seventh Sikh Guru, Guru Har Rai . Dara Shikoh devoted much effort towards finding a common mystical language between Islam and Hinduism . Towards this goal he completed the translation of fifty Upanishads from their original Sanskrit into Persian in 1657 so that they could be studied by Muslim scholars. His translation
12210-525: Was the first son and third child of Prince Shahib-ud-din Muhammad Khurram and his second wife, Mumtaz Mahal . The prince was named by his father. 'Dara' means owner of wealth or star in Persian while the second part of the prince's name is commonly spelled in two ways: Shikoh ( terror ) or Shukoh ( majesty or grandeur ). Thus, Dara's full name can be translated as "Of the Terror of Darius" or "Of
12321-571: Was the first to make his move, declaring himself Mughal Emperor in Bengal and marched towards Agra from the east. Murad Baksh allied himself with Aurangzeb . Dara Shikoh is widely renowned as an enlightened paragon of the harmonious coexistence of heterodox traditions on the Indian subcontinent. He was an erudite champion of mystical religious speculation and a poetic diviner of syncretic cultural interaction among people of all faiths. This made him
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