139-614: Dark Forest may refer to: Dark Forest, (selva oscura) in the first line of Dante's Inferno Dark Forest (film) , a South Korean horror film "Dark Forest", episode of the TV show A Haunting Dark Forest, room in the television game show Legends of the Hidden Temple Dark Forest, afterlife in the Redwall fantasy novel series Dark Forest, forbidden area on
278-524: A contrapasso "functions not merely as a form of divine revenge , but rather as the fulfilment of a destiny freely chosen by each soul during his or her life". People who sinned, but prayed for forgiveness before their deaths are found not in Hell but in Purgatory , where they labour to become free of their sins. Those in Hell are people who tried to justify their sins and are unrepentant. Dante's Hell
417-422: A leone ( lion ), and a lupa ( she-wolf ). The three beasts, taken from Jeremiah 5:6, are thought to symbolize the three kinds of sin that bring the unrepentant soul into one of the three major divisions of Hell. According to John Ciardi , these are incontinence (the she-wolf); violence and bestiality (the lion); and fraud and malice (the leopard). It is now dawn of Good Friday , April 8, with
556-561: A Black Guelph from the prominent Adimari family. Little is known about Argenti, although Giovanni Boccaccio describes an incident in which he lost his temper; early commentators state that Argenti's brother seized some of Dante's property after his exile from Florence. Just as Argenti enabled the seizing of Dante's property, he himself is "seized" by all the other wrathful souls. When Dante responds "In weeping and in grieving, accursed spirit, may you long remain," Virgil blesses him with words used to describe Christ himself ( Luke 11:27). In
695-433: A Guelph who was the father of Dante's friend and fellow poet, Guido Cavalcanti . The political affiliation of these two men allows for a further discussion of Florentine politics. In response to a question from Dante about the "prophecy" he has received, Farinata explains that what the souls in Hell know of life on earth comes from seeing the future, not from any observation of the present. Consequently, when "the portal of
834-569: A heraldic device emblazoned on a leather purse around his neck ("On these their streaming eyes appeared to feast"). The coats of arms indicate that they came from prominent Florentine families; they indicate the presence of Catello di Rosso Gianfigliazzi , Ciappo Ubriachi , the Paduan Reginaldo degli Scrovegni (who predicts that his fellow Paduan Vitaliano di Iacopo Vitaliani will join him here), and Giovanni di Buiamonte . Dante then rejoins Virgil and, both mounted atop Geryon's back,
973-618: A Christian, Dante adds Circle 1 (Limbo) to Upper Hell and Circle 6 (Heresy) to Lower Hell, making 9 Circles in total; incorporating the Vestibule of the Futile, this leads to Hell containing 10 main divisions. This "9+1=10" structure is also found within the Purgatorio and Paradiso . Lower Hell is further subdivided: Circle 7 (Violence) is divided into three rings, Circle 8 (Fraud) is divided into ten bolge , and Circle 9 (Treachery)
1112-663: A Florentine contemporary identified as Ciacco , which means 'hog'. A character with the same nickname later appears in The Decameron of Giovanni Boccaccio , where his gluttonous behaviour is clearly portrayed. Ciacco speaks to Dante regarding strife in Florence between the "White" and "Black" Guelphs , which developed after the Guelph/Ghibelline strife ended with the complete defeat of the Ghibellines. In
1251-639: A Latin version, originating from before Jerome and distinct from that in the Vetus Latina , of the Greek Esdras ;A, now commonly termed 3 Ezra ; and also a Latin version of an Ezra Apocalypse, commonly termed 4 Ezra . God Schools Relations with: The Vulgate was given an official capacity by the Council of Trent (1545–1563) as the touchstone of the biblical canon concerning which parts of books are canonical. The Vulgate
1390-660: A century in an earlier Latin version (the Cyprianic Version), before it was superseded by the Vetus Latina version in the 4th century. Jerome, in his preface to the Vulgate gospels, commented that there were "as many [translations] as there are manuscripts"; subsequently repeating the witticism in his preface to the Book of Joshua. The base text for Jerome's revision of the gospels was a Vetus Latina text similar to
1529-567: A city. Among the Giants, Virgil identifies Nimrod (who tried to build the Tower of Babel ; he shouts out the unintelligible Raphèl mai amècche zabì almi ); Ephialtes (who with his brother Otus tried to storm Olympus during the Gigantomachy ; he has his arms chained up) and Briareus (who Dante claimed had challenged the gods); and Tityos and Typhon , who insulted Jupiter. Also here
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#17327661800871668-508: A complete revised New Testament text by 410 at the latest, when Pelagius quoted from it in his commentary on the letters of Paul . In Jerome's Vulgate, the Hebrew Book of Ezra–Nehemiah is translated as the single book of "Ezra". Jerome defends this in his Prologue to Ezra, although he had noted formerly in his Prologue to the Book of Kings that some Greeks and Latins had proposed that this book should be split in two. Jerome argues that
1807-652: A contemporary of Jerome, states in Book ;XVII ch. 43 of his The City of God that "in our own day the priest Jerome, a great scholar and master of all three tongues, has made a translation into Latin, not from Greek but directly from the original Hebrew." Nevertheless, Augustine still maintained that the Septuagint, alongside the Hebrew, witnessed the inspired text of Scripture and consequently pressed Jerome for complete copies of his Hexaplar Latin translation of
1946-470: A fictionalised version of Dante himself through Hell , guided by the ancient Roman poet Virgil . In the poem, Hell is depicted as nine concentric circles of torment located within the Earth; it is the "realm [...] of those who have rejected spiritual values by yielding to bestial appetites or violence, or by perverting their human intellect to fraud or malice against their fellowmen". As an allegory ,
2085-512: A general prologue to the whole Bible. Notably, this letter was printed at the head of the Gutenberg Bible . Jerome's letter promotes the study of each of the books of the Old and New Testaments listed by name (and excluding any mention of the deuterocanonical books ); and its dissemination had the effect of propagating the belief that the whole Vulgate text was Jerome's work. The prologue to
2224-526: A journey through the underworld . On the evening of Good Friday, Dante hesitates as he follows Virgil; Virgil explains that he has been sent by Beatrice , the symbol of Divine Love. Beatrice had been moved to aid Dante by the Virgin Mary (symbolic of compassion) and Saint Lucia (symbolic of illuminating Grace). Rachel , symbolic of the contemplative life, also appears in the heavenly scene recounted by Virgil. The two of them then begin their journey to
2363-524: A literal sense, this reflects the fact that souls in Hell are eternally fixed in the state they have chosen, but allegorically, it reflects Dante's beginning awareness of his own sin. In the distance, Dante perceives high towers that resemble fiery red mosques . Virgil informs him that they are approaching the City of Dis . Dis, itself surrounded by the Stygian marsh, contains Lower Hell within its walls. Dis
2502-645: A noun form of the verb rapere in 1 Thes 4:17). The word " publican " comes from the Latin publicanus (e.g., Mt 10:3), and the phrase " far be it " is a translation of the Latin expression absit. (e.g., Mt 16:22 in the King James Bible ). Other examples include apostolus , ecclesia , evangelium , Pascha , and angelus . In translating the 38 books of the Hebrew Bible ( Ezra–Nehemiah being counted as one book), Jerome
2641-536: A partnership between Johannes Gutenberg and banker John Fust (or Faust). At the time, a manuscript of the Vulgate was selling for approximately 500 guilders . Gutenberg's works appear to have been a commercial failure, and Fust sued for recovery of his 2026 guilder investment and was awarded complete possession of the Gutenberg plant. Arguably, the Reformation could not have been possible without
2780-538: A set of Priscillianist prologues to the gospels . The Latin biblical texts in use before Jerome's Vulgate are usually referred to collectively as the Vetus Latina , or "Vetus Latina Bible". "Vetus Latina" means that they are older than the Vulgate and written in Latin , not that they are written in Old Latin . Jerome himself uses the term "Latin Vulgate" for the Vetus Latina text, so intending to denote this version as
2919-605: A solution to the Fermi paradox that states that civilizations remain silent to prevent interstellar warfare Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Dark Forest . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dark_Forest&oldid=1132974820 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description
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#17327661800873058-594: A thousand years (c. AD 400–1530), the Vulgate was the most commonly used edition of the most influential text in Western European society. Indeed, for most Western Christians , especially Catholics , it was the only version of the Bible ever encountered, only truly being eclipsed in the mid-20th century. In about 1455, the first Vulgate published by the moveable type process was produced in Mainz by
3197-406: A wand, and rebukes those who opposed Dante. Allegorically, this reveals the fact that the poem is beginning to deal with sins that philosophy and humanism cannot fully understand. Virgil also mentions to Dante how Erichtho sent him to the lowest circle of Hell to bring back a spirit from there. In the sixth circle, heretics , such as Epicurus and his followers (who say "the soul dies with
3336-611: Is Antaeus , who did not join in the rebellion against the Olympian gods and therefore is not chained. At Virgil's persuasion, Antaeus takes the poets in his large palm and lowers them gently to the final level of Hell. At the base of the well, Dante finds himself within a large frozen lake: Cocytus , the Ninth Circle of Hell. Trapped in the ice, each according to his guilt, are punished sinners guilty of treachery against those with whom they had special relationships. The lake of ice
3475-471: Is Jerome's preference for the Hebraica veritas (i.e., Hebrew truth) over the Septuagint, a preference which he defended from his detractors. After Jerome had translated some parts of the Septuagint into Latin, he came to consider the text of the Septuagint as being faulty in itself, i.e. Jerome thought mistakes in the Septuagint text were not all mistakes made by copyists , but that some mistakes were part of
3614-491: Is a "monster with the general shape of a wyvern but with the tail of a scorpion , hairy arms, a gaudily-marked reptilian body, and the face of a just and honest man". The pleasant human face on this grotesque body evokes the insincere fraudster whose intentions "behind the face" are all monstrous, cold-blooded, and stinging with poison. Dante now finds himself in the Eighth Circle, called Malebolge ("Evil ditches"):
3753-406: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Dante%27s Inferno Inferno ( Italian: [iɱˈfɛrno] ; Italian for ' Hell ') is the first part of Italian writer Dante Alighieri 's 14th-century narrative poem The Divine Comedy . It is followed by Purgatorio and Paradiso . The Inferno describes the journey of
3892-410: Is divided into four concentric rings (or "rounds") of traitors corresponding, in order of seriousness, to betrayal of family ties, betrayal of community ties, betrayal of guests, and betrayal of lords . This is in contrast to the popular image of Hell as fiery; as Ciardi writes, "The treacheries of these souls were denials of love (which is God) and of all human warmth. Only the remorseless dead center of
4031-685: Is divided into four regions. Thus, Hell contains 24 divisions in total. Dante awakens to find that he has crossed the Acheron, and Virgil leads him to the first circle of the abyss, Limbo , where Virgil himself resides. The first circle contains the unbaptized and the virtuous pagans , who, although not sinful enough to warrant damnation, did not accept Christ. Dorothy L. Sayers writes, "After those who refused choice come those without opportunity of choice. They could not, that is, choose Christ; they could, and did, choose human virtue, and for that they have their reward." Limbo shares many characteristics with
4170-442: Is guarded by a figure Dante names as Pluto : this is Plutus , the deity of wealth in classical mythology. Although the two are often conflated, he is a distinct figure from Pluto (Dis), the classical ruler of the underworld. At the start of Canto VII, he menaces Virgil and Dante with the cryptic phrase Pape Satàn, pape Satàn aleppe , but Virgil protects Dante from him. Those whose attitude toward material goods deviated from
4309-416: Is held in bondage. The sinners of each circle are punished for eternity in a fashion fitting their crimes: each punishment is a contrapasso , a symbolic instance of poetic justice . For example, later in the poem, Dante and Virgil encounter fortune-tellers who must walk forward with their heads on backward, unable to see what is ahead, because they tried to see the future through forbidden means. Such
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4448-541: Is indeed one of at least five revised versions of the mid-4th century Vetus Latina Psalter, but compared to the other four, the revisions in the Roman Psalter are in clumsy Latin, and fail to follow Jerome's known translational principles, especially in respect of correcting harmonised readings. Nevertheless, it is clear from Jerome's correspondence (especially in his defence of the Gallican Psalter in
4587-409: Is intending to commit it. Suddenly, two spirits – Gianni Schicchi de' Cavalcanti and Myrrha , both punished as Imposters (Falsifiers of Persons) – run rabid through the pit. Schicchi sinks his teeth into the neck of an alchemist, Capocchio, and drags him away like prey. Griffolino explains how Myrrha disguised herself to commit incest with her father King Cinyras , while Schicchi impersonated
4726-531: Is less condemnable than malice or bestiality, and therefore these sinners are located in four circles of Upper Hell (Circles 2–5). These sinners endure lesser torments than do those consigned to Lower Hell, located within the walls of the City of Dis , for committing acts of violence and fraud – the latter of which involves, as Dorothy L. Sayers writes, "abuse of the specifically human faculty of reason". The deeper levels are organized into one circle for violence (Circle 7) and two circles for fraud (Circles 8 and 9). As
4865-475: Is one of the names of Pluto , the classical king of the underworld, in addition to being the name of the realm. The walls of Dis are guarded by fallen angels . Virgil is unable to convince them to let Dante and him enter. Dante is threatened by the Furies (consisting of Alecto , Megaera , and Tisiphone ) and Medusa . An angel sent from Heaven secures entry for the poets, opening the gate by touching it with
5004-414: Is piloted by Charon , who does not want to let Dante enter, for he is a living being. Virgil forces Charon to take him by declaring, Vuolsi così colà dove si puote / ciò che si vuole ("It is so willed there where is power to do / That which is willed"), referring to the fact that Dante is on his journey on divine grounds. The wailing and blasphemy of the damned souls entering Charon's boat contrast with
5143-449: Is rebuked by Virgil. As a result of his shame and repentance, Dante is forgiven by his guide. Sayers remarks that the descent through Malebolge "began with the sale of the sexual relationship, and went on to the sale of Church and State; now, the very money is itself corrupted, every affirmation has become perjury, and every identity a lie" so that every aspect of social interaction has been progressively destroyed. Dante and Virgil approach
5282-402: Is required to confess all of their sins to Minos, after which Minos sentences each soul to its torment by wrapping his tail around himself a number of times corresponding to the circle of Hell to which the soul must go. The role of Minos here is a combination of his classical role as condemner and unjust judge of the underworld and the role of classical Rhadamanthus , interrogator and confessor of
5421-669: Is structurally based on the ideas of Aristotle , but with "certain Christian symbolisms, exceptions, and misconstructions of Aristotle's text", and a further supplement from Cicero's De Officiis . Virgil reminds Dante (the character) of "Those pages where the Ethics tells of three / Conditions contrary to Heaven's will and rule / Incontinence, vice, and brute bestiality". Cicero, for his part, had divided sins between violence and fraud . By conflating Cicero's violence with Aristotle's bestiality, and his fraud with malice or vice, Dante
5560-584: Is the third and latest official Bible of the Catholic Church; it was published in 1979, and is a translation from modern critical editions of original language texts of the Bible. A number of manuscripts containing or reflecting the Vulgate survive today. Dating from the 8th century, the Codex Amiatinus is the earliest surviving manuscript of the complete Vulgate Bible. The Codex Fuldensis , dating from around 545, contains most of
5699-586: The Nicomachean Ethics and the Physics of Aristotle , with medieval interpretations. Virgil asserts that there are only two legitimate sources of wealth: natural resources ("Nature") and human labor and activity ("Art"). Usury , to be punished in the next circle, is therefore an offence against both; it is a kind of blasphemy, since it is an act of violence against Art, which is the child of Nature, and Nature derives from God. Virgil then indicates
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5838-693: The Amazons ), King Latinus and his daughter, Lavinia , Lucius Junius Brutus (who overthrew Tarquin to found the Roman Republic ), Lucretia , Julia , Marcia , and Cornelia Africana . Dante also sees Saladin , a Muslim military leader known for his battle against the Crusaders , as well as his generous, chivalrous, and merciful conduct. Dante next encounters a group of philosophers, including Aristotle with Socrates and Plato at his side, as well as Democritus , "Diogenes" (either Diogenes
5977-529: The Asphodel Meadows , and thus, the guiltless damned are punished by living in a deficient form of Heaven. Without baptism ("the portal of the faith that you embrace") they lacked the hope for something greater than rational minds can conceive. When Dante asked if anyone has ever left Limbo, Virgil states that he saw Jesus ("a Mighty One") descend into Limbo and take Adam , Abel , Noah , Moses , Abraham , David , Rachel , and others (see Limbo of
6116-864: The Codex Veronensis , with the text of the Gospel of John conforming more to that in the Codex Corbiensis . Jerome's work on the Gospels was a revision of the Vetus Latina versions, and not a new translation. "High priest" is rendered princeps sacerdotum in Vulgate Matthew; as summus sacerdos in Vulgate Mark; and as pontifex in Vulgate John. The Vetus Latina gospels had been translated from Greek originals of
6255-535: The Comma Johanneum was open to dispute. Later, in the 20th century, Pope Pius XII declared the Vulgate as "free from error whatsoever in matters of faith and morals" in his encyclical Divino Afflante Spiritu : Hence this special authority or as they say, authenticity of the Vulgate was not affirmed by the Council particularly for critical reasons, but rather because of its legitimate use in
6394-526: The Divine Comedy represents the journey of the soul toward God , with the Inferno describing the recognition and rejection of sin. The poem begins on the night of Maundy Thursday on March 24 (or April 7), 1300, shortly before the dawn of Good Friday . The narrator, Dante himself, is 35 years old, and thus "midway in the journey of our life" ( Nel mezzo del cammin di nostra vita ) – half of
6533-714: The Gallican Psalms , Song of Songs, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel, the minor prophets, the gospels. The final prologue is to the Pauline epistles and is better known as Primum quaeritur ; this prologue is considered not to have been written by Jerome. Related to these are Jerome's Notes on the Rest of Esther and his Prologue to the Hebrew Psalms . A theme of the Old Testament prologues
6672-738: The Hogwarts campus in the Harry Potter series The Dark Forest , Chinese science-fiction novel by Liu Cixin, sequel to The Three-Body Problem The Dark Forest , a novel by Hugh Walpole Dark Forest, afterlife in the Warriors series by Erin Hunter Dark Forest, themed area at the Alton Towers Resort darkforest , a Go playing computer program being developed by Facebook Dark forest hypothesis ,
6811-525: The Inferno. Dante and Virgil leave Limbo and enter the Second Circle – the first of the circles of Incontinence – where the punishments of Hell proper begin. It is described as "a part where no thing gleams". They find their way hindered by the serpentine Minos , who judges all of those condemned for active, deliberately willed sin to one of the lower circles. At this point in Inferno, every soul
6950-727: The Latin Church . The Clementine edition of the Vulgate became the standard Bible text of the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church, and remained so until 1979 when the Nova Vulgata was promulgated. The term Vulgate has been used to designate the Latin Bible only since the 16th century. An example of the use of this word in this sense at the time is the title of the 1538 edition of the Latin Bible by Erasmus : Biblia utriusque testamenti juxta vulgatam translationem . While
7089-778: The Roman Church . Later, of his own initiative, Jerome extended this work of revision and translation to include most of the books of the Bible . The Vulgate became progressively adopted as the Bible text within the Western Church . Over succeeding centuries, it eventually eclipsed the Vetus Latina . By the 13th century it had taken over from the former version the designation versio vulgata (the "version commonly used" ) or vulgata for short. The Vulgate also contains some Vetus Latina translations that Jerome did not work on. The Catholic Church affirmed
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#17327661800877228-641: The Vetus Latina text of the four Gospels from the best Greek texts. By the time of Damasus' death in 384, Jerome had completed this task, together with a more cursory revision from the Greek Common Septuagint of the Vetus Latina text of the Psalms in the Roman Psalter, a version which he later disowned and is now lost. How much of the rest of the New Testament he then revised is difficult to judge, but none of his work survived in
7367-717: The Vetus Latina , considered as being made by Pelagian circles or by Rufinus the Syrian , or by Rufinus of Aquileia . Several unrevised books of the Vetus Latina Old Testament also commonly became included in the Vulgate. These are: 1 and 2 Maccabees , Wisdom , Ecclesiasticus , Baruch and the Letter of Jeremiah . Having separately translated the book of Psalms from the Greek Hexapla Septuagint , Jerome translated all of
7506-576: The Western text-type . Comparison of Jerome's Gospel texts with those in Vetus Latina witnesses, suggests that his revision was concerned with substantially redacting their expanded "Western" phraseology in accordance with the Greek texts of better early Byzantine and Alexandrian witnesses. One major change Jerome introduced was to re-order the Latin Gospels. Most Vetus Latina gospel books followed
7645-482: The underworld . Feeling uncertain of his worthiness for the journey, Dante reflects on the paths of Aeneas and Paul, who were granted access to the realms of the afterlife, and doubts his own capability to undertake such a passage (Inf. 2.10-36). Dante passes through the gate of Hell, which bears an inscription ending with the phrase " Lasciate ogne speranza, voi ch'intrate ", most frequently translated as "Abandon all hope, ye who enter here". Dante and his guide hear
7784-517: The "Western" order of Matthew, John, Luke, Mark; Jerome adopted the "Greek" order of Matthew, Mark, Luke, John. His revisions became progressively less frequent and less consistent in the gospels presumably done later. In places Jerome adopted readings that did not correspond to a straightforward rendering either of the Vetus Latina or the Greek text, so reflecting a particular doctrinal interpretation; as in his rewording panem nostrum supersubstantialem at Matthew 6:11 . The unknown reviser of
7923-449: The 22-letter Hebrew alphabet. Alternatively, he numbered the books as 24, which he identifies with the 24 elders in the Book of Revelation casting their crowns before the Lamb . In the prologue to Ezra, he sets the "twenty-four elders" of the Hebrew Bible against the "Seventy interpreters" of the Septuagint. In addition, many medieval Vulgate manuscripts included Jerome's epistle number 53, to Paulinus bishop of Nola , as
8062-425: The 8th century. The Gutenberg Bible is a notable printed edition of the Vulgate by Johann Gutenberg in 1455. The Sixtine Vulgate (1590) is the first official Bible of the Catholic Church. The Clementine Vulgate (1592) is a standardized edition of the medieval Vulgate, and the second official Bible of the Catholic Church. The Stuttgart Vulgate is a 1969 critical edition of the Vulgate. The Nova Vulgata
8201-414: The 9th century the Vetus Latina texts of Baruch and the Letter of Jeremiah were introduced into the Vulgate in versions revised by Theodulf of Orleans and are found in a minority of early medieval Vulgate pandect bibles from that date onward. After 1300, when the booksellers of Paris began to produce commercial single volume Vulgate bibles in large numbers, these commonly included both Baruch and
8340-402: The Bible into vernacular languages. In English, the interlinear translation of the Lindisfarne Gospels as well as other Old English Bible translations , the translation of John Wycliffe , the Douay–Rheims Bible , the Confraternity Bible , and Ronald Knox 's translation were all made from the Vulgate. The Vulgate had significant cultural influence on literature for centuries, and thus
8479-438: The Central Well, at the bottom of which lies the Ninth and final Circle of Hell. The classical and biblical Giants – who perhaps symbolize pride and other spiritual flaws lying behind acts of treachery – stand perpetual guard inside the well-pit, their legs embedded in the banks of the Ninth Circle while their upper halves rise above the rim and are visible from the Malebolge. Dante initially mistakes them for great towers of
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#17327661800878618-497: The Church". Mixed with them are outcasts who took no side in the Rebellion of Angels . These souls are forever unclassified; they are neither in Hell nor out of it, but reside on the shores of the Acheron . Naked and futile, they race around through the mist in eternal pursuit of an elusive, wavering banner (symbolic of their pursuit of ever-shifting self-interest ) while relentlessly chased by swarms of wasps and hornets , who continually sting them. Loathsome maggots and worms at
8757-444: The Churches throughout so many centuries; by which use indeed the same is shown, in the sense in which the Church has understood and understands it, to be free from any error whatsoever in matters of faith and morals; so that, as the Church herself testifies and affirms, it may be quoted safely and without fear of error in disputations, in lectures and in preaching [...]" The inerrancy is with respect to faith and morals, as it says in
8896-404: The Cynic or Diogenes of Apollonia ), Anaxagoras , Thales , Empedocles , Heraclitus , and "Zeno" (either Zeno of Elea or Zeno of Citium ). He sees the scientist Dioscorides , the mythical Greek poets Orpheus and Linus , and Roman statesmen Marcus Tullius Cicero and Seneca . Dante sees the Alexandrian geometer Euclid and Ptolemy , the Alexandrian astronomer and geographer, as well as
9035-504: The Florentines. He also identifies other sodomites, including Priscian , Francesco d'Accorso , and Bishop Andrea de' Mozzi . The Poets begin to hear the waterfall that plunges over the Great Cliff into the Eighth Circle when three shades break from their company and greet them. They are Iacopo Rusticucci , Guido Guerra, and Tegghiaio Aldobrandi – all Florentines much admired by Dante. Rusticucci blames his "savage wife" for his torments. The sinners ask for news of Florence, and Dante laments
9174-399: The Ghibellines of Romagna , asking for news of his country. Dante replies with a tragic summary of the current state of the cities of Romagna. Guido then recounts his life: he advised Pope Boniface VIII to offer a false amnesty to the Colonna family , who, in 1297, had walled themselves inside the castle of Palestrina in the Lateran. When the Colonna accepted the terms and left the castle,
9313-526: The Letter of Jeremiah as the Book of Baruch . Also beginning in the 9th century, Vulgate manuscripts are found that split Jerome's combined translation from the Hebrew of Ezra and the Nehemiah into separate books called 1 Ezra and 2 Ezra. Bogaert argues that this practice arose from an intention to conform the Vulgate text to the authoritative canon lists of the 5th/6th century, where 'two books of Ezra' were commonly cited. Subsequently, many late medieval Vulgate bible manuscripts introduced
9452-426: The Old Testament, a request that Jerome ducked with the excuse that the originals had been lost "through someone's dishonesty". Prologues written by Jerome to some of his translations of parts of the Bible are to the Pentateuch , to Joshua , and to Kings (1–2 Kings and 1–2 Samuel) which is also called the Galeatum principium . Following these are prologues to Chronicles, Ezra, Tobit, Judith, Esther, Job,
9591-405: The Patriarchs ) into his all-forgiving arms and transport them to Heaven as the first human souls to be saved. The event, known as the Harrowing of Hell , supposedly occurred around AD 33 or 34. Dante encounters the poets Homer , Horace , Ovid , and Lucan , who include him in their number and make him "sixth in that high company". They reach the base of a great Castle – the dwelling place of
9730-513: The Pauline Epistles in the Vulgate defends the Pauline authorship of the Epistle to the Hebrews , directly contrary to Jerome's own views—a key argument in demonstrating that Jerome did not write it. The author of the Primum quaeritur is unknown, but it is first quoted by Pelagius in his commentary on the Pauline letters written before 410. As this work also quotes from the Vulgate revision of these letters, it has been proposed that Pelagius or one of his associates may have been responsible for
9869-413: The Pope razed it to the ground and left them without a refuge. Guido describes how St. Francis , founder of the Franciscan order, came to take his soul to Heaven, only to have a demon assert prior claim. Although Boniface had absolved Guido in advance for his evil advice, the demon points out the invalidity: absolution requires contrition , and a man cannot be contrite for a sin at the same time that he
10008-723: The Violent. Dante and Virgil descend a jumble of rocks that had once formed a cliff to reach the Seventh Circle from the Sixth Circle, having first to evade the Minotaur ( L'infamia di Creti , "the infamy of Crete ", line 12); at the sight of them, the Minotaur gnaws his flesh. Virgil assures the monster that Dante is not its hated enemy, Theseus . This causes the Minotaur to charge them as Dante and Virgil swiftly enter
10147-646: The Vulgate as its official Latin Bible at the Council of Trent (1545–1563), though there was no authoritative edition of the book at that time. The Vulgate did eventually receive an official edition to be promulgated among the Catholic Church as the Sixtine Vulgate (1590), then as the Clementine Vulgate (1592), and then as the Nova Vulgata (1979). The Vulgate is still currently used in
10286-631: The Vulgate contains Vetus Latina which are independent from Jerome's work. The Alcuinian pandects contain: The 13th-century Paris Bibles remove the Epistle to the Laodiceans , but add: Another text which is considered as part of the Vulgate is: Jerome did not embark on the work with the intention of creating a new version of the whole Bible, but the changing nature of his program can be tracked in his voluminous correspondence. He had been commissioned by Damasus I in 382 to revise
10425-516: The Vulgate text of these books. The revised text of the New Testament outside the Gospels is the work of other scholars. Rufinus of Aquileia has been suggested, as has Rufinus the Syrian (an associate of Pelagius ) and Pelagius himself, though without specific evidence for any of them; Pelagian groups have also been suggested as the revisers. This unknown reviser worked more thoroughly than Jerome had done, consistently using older Greek manuscript sources of Alexandrian text-type . They had published
10564-458: The above quote: "free from any error whatsoever in matters of faith and morals", and the inerrancy is not in a philological sense: [...] and so its authenticity is not specified primarily as critical, but rather as juridical. The Catholic Church has produced three official editions of the Vulgate: the Sixtine Vulgate , the Clementine Vulgate , and the Nova Vulgata (see below). For over
10703-450: The adulterous affair. The English poet John Keats , in his sonnet "On a Dream", imagines what Dante does not write, the point of view of Paolo: ... But to that second circle of sad hell, Where 'mid the gust, the whirlwind, and the flaw Of rain and hail-stones, lovers need not tell Their sorrows. Pale were the sweet lips I saw, Pale were the lips I kiss'd, and fair the form I floated with, about that melancholy storm. As he did at
10842-477: The anguished screams of the Uncommitted. These are the souls of people who in life took no sides; the opportunists who were for neither good nor evil, but instead were merely concerned with themselves. Among these Dante recognizes a figure who made the " great refusal ", implied to be Pope Celestine V , whose "cowardice (in selfish terror for his own welfare) served as the door through which so much evil entered
10981-640: The appropriate mean are punished in the fourth circle. They include the avaricious or miserly (including many "clergymen, and popes and cardinals"), who hoarded possessions, and the prodigal , who squandered them. The hoarders and spendthrifts joust , using great weights as weapons that they push with their chests: Here, too, I saw a nation of lost souls, far more than were above: they strained their chests against enormous weights, and with mad howls rolled them at one another. Then in haste they rolled them back, one party shouting out: "Why do you hoard?" and
11120-504: The biblical lifespan of 70 ( Psalm 89:10 in the Vulgate ; numbered as Psalm 90 :10 in the King James Bible ). The poet finds himself lost in a dark wood ( selva oscura ), astray from the "straight way" ( diritta via , also translatable as 'right way') of salvation. He sets out to climb directly up a small mountain, but his way is blocked by three beasts he cannot evade: a lonza (usually rendered as ' leopard ' or ' leopon '),
11259-553: The body") are trapped in flaming tombs. Dante holds discourse with a pair of Epicurian Florentines in one of the tombs: Farinata degli Uberti , a famous Ghibelline leader (following the Battle of Montaperti in September 1260, Farinata strongly protested the proposed destruction of Florence at the meeting of the victorious Ghibellines; he died in 1264 and was posthumously condemned for heresy in 1283); and Cavalcante de' Cavalcanti ,
11398-641: The boiling rivulet, Dante and Virgil progress across the burning plain. They pass a roving group of Sodomites, and Dante, to his surprise, recognizes Brunetto Latini . Dante addresses Brunetto with deep and sorrowful affection, "paying him the highest tribute offered to any sinner in the Inferno ", thus refuting suggestions that Dante only placed his enemies in Hell. Dante has great respect for Brunetto and feels spiritual indebtedness to him and his works ("you taught me how man makes himself eternal; / and while I live, my gratitude for that / must always be apparent in my words"); Brunetto prophesies Dante's bad treatment by
11537-536: The books of the Jewish Bible —the Hebrew book of Psalms included—from Hebrew himself. He also translated the books of Tobit and Judith from Aramaic versions, the additions to the Book of Esther from the Common Septuagint and the additions to the Book of Daniel from the Greek of Theodotion . The Vulgate is "a composite collection which cannot be identified with only Jerome's work," because
11676-553: The bottom, the sullen hatreds lie gurgling, unable even to express themselves for the rage that chokes them". As the last circle of Incontinence, the "savage self-frustration" of the Fifth Circle marks the end of "that which had its tender and romantic beginnings in the dalliance of indulged passion". Phlegyas reluctantly transports Dante and Virgil across the Styx in his skiff . On the way they are accosted by Filippo Argenti ,
11815-655: The common Latin rendering of the Greek Vulgate or Common Septuagint (which Jerome otherwise terms the "Seventy interpreters"). This remained the usual use of the term "Latin Vulgate" in the West for centuries. On occasion Jerome applies the term "Septuagint" ( Septuaginta ) to refer to the Hexaplar Septuagint, where he wishes to distinguish this from the Vulgata or Common Septuagint. The earliest known use of
11954-694: The council listed the books included in the canon, it qualified the books as being "entire with all their parts, as they have been used to be read in the Catholic Church , and as they are contained in the Vetus Latina vulgate edition". The fourth session of the Council specified 72 canonical books in the Bible: 45 in the Old Testament, 27 in the New Testament with Lamentations not being counted as separate from Jeremiah. On 2 June 1927, Pope Pius XI clarified this decree, allowing that
12093-560: The current state of the city. At the top of the falls, at Virgil's order, Dante removes a cord from about his waist and Virgil drops it over the edge; as if in answer, a large, distorted shape swims up through the filthy air of the abyss. The creature is Geryon , the Monster of Fraud; Virgil announces that they must fly down from the cliff on the monster's back. Dante goes alone to examine the Usurers: he does not recognize them, but each has
12232-547: The dead Buoso Donati to dictate a will giving himself several profitable bequests. Dante then encounters Master Adam of Brescia, one of the Counterfeiters (Falsifiers of Money): for manufacturing Florentine florins of 21 (rather than 24) carat gold , he was burned at the stake in 1281. He is punished by a loathsome dropsy -like disease, which gives him a bloated stomach , prevents him from moving, and an eternal, unbearable thirst . Master Adam points out two sinners of
12371-537: The development of the English language, especially in matters of religion. Many Latin words were taken from the Vulgate into English nearly unchanged in meaning or spelling: creatio (e.g. Genesis 1:1, Heb 9:11), salvatio (e.g. Is 37:32, Eph 2:5), justificatio (e.g. Rom 4:25, Heb 9:1), testamentum (e.g. Mt 26:28), sanctificatio (1 Ptr 1:2, 1 Cor 1:30), regeneratio (Mt 19:28), and raptura (from
12510-494: The diaspora of biblical knowledge that was permitted by the development of moveable type. Aside from its use in prayer, liturgy, and private study, the Vulgate served as inspiration for ecclesiastical art and architecture , hymns , countless paintings, and popular mystery plays . The fifth volume of Walton's London Polyglot of 1657 included several versions of the New Testament: in Greek, Latin (a Vulgate version and
12649-459: The end of Canto III, Dante – overcome by pity and anguish – describes his swoon: "I fainted, as if I had met my death. / And then I fell as a dead body falls". In the third circle, the gluttonous wallow in a vile, putrid slush produced by a ceaseless, foul, icy rain – "a great storm of putrefaction" – as punishment for subjecting their reason to a voracious appetite. Cerberus (described as il gran vermo , literally 'the great worm', line 22),
12788-549: The first of several political prophecies in the Inferno , Ciacco "predicts" the expulsion of the White Guelphs (Dante's party) from Florence by the Black Guelphs, aided by Pope Boniface VIII , which marked the start of Dante's long exile from the city . These events occurred in 1302, prior to when the poem was written but in the future at Easter time of 1300, the time in which the poem is set. The Fourth Circle
12927-696: The first translation of the Old Testament into Latin directly from the Hebrew Tanakh rather than from the Greek Septuagint. Jerome's extensive use of exegetical material written in Greek, as well as his use of the Aquiline and Theodotiontic columns of the Hexapla, along with the somewhat paraphrastic style in which he translated, makes it difficult to determine exactly how direct the conversion of Hebrew to Latin was. Augustine of Hippo ,
13066-812: The fourth class, the Perjurers (Falsifiers of Words). These are Potiphar's wife (punished for her false accusation of Joseph in Genesis 39:7–19 ) and Sinon , the Achaean spy who lied to the Trojans to convince them to take the Trojan Horse into their city ( Aeneid II, 57–194); Sinon is here rather than in Bolgia 8 because his advice was false as well as evil. Both suffer from a burning fever . Master Adam and Sinon exchange abuse, which Dante watches until he
13205-428: The future has been shut", it will no longer be possible for them to know anything. Farinata explains that also crammed within the tomb are Emperor Frederick II , commonly reputed to be an Epicurean, and Ottaviano degli Ubaldini , whom Dante refers to as il Cardinale . Dante reads an inscription on one of the tombs indicating it belongs to Pope Anastasius II – although some modern scholars hold that Dante erred in
13344-527: The grafters, an unidentified Navarrese (identified by early commentators as Ciampolo ), is seized by the demons, and Virgil questions him. The sinner speaks of his fellow grafters, Friar Gomita (a corrupt friar in Gallura eventually hanged by Nino Visconti – see Purgatorio VIII – for accepting bribes to let prisoners escape) and Michele Zanche (a corrupt Vicar of Logodoro under King Enzo of Sardinia ). He offers to lure some of his fellow sufferers into
13483-573: The great uncial codices of the mid-4th century, most similar to the Codex Sinaiticus . The reviser's changes generally conform very closely to this Greek text, even in matters of word order—to the extent that the resulting text may be only barely intelligible as Latin. After the Gospels, the most widely used and copied part of the Christian Bible is the Book of Psalms. Consequently, Damasus also commissioned Jerome to revise
13622-503: The hands of the demons, and when his plan is accepted he escapes back into the pitch. Alichino and Calcabrina start a brawl in mid-air and fall into the pitch themselves, and Barbariccia organizes a rescue party. Dante and Virgil take advantage of the confusion to slip away. Vanni hurls an obscenity at God and the serpents swarm over him. The centaur Cacus arrives to punish him; he has a fire-breathing dragon on his shoulders and snakes covering his equine back. (In Roman mythology, Cacus,
13761-405: The ice will serve to express their natures. As they denied God's love, so are they furthest removed from the light and warmth of His Sun. As they denied all human ties, so are they bound only by the unyielding ice." This final, deepest level of hell is reserved for traitors, betrayers and oathbreakers (its most famous inmate is Judas Iscariot ). In the very centre of Hell, condemned for committing
13900-505: The ice, fixed and suffering. He has three faces, each a different color: one red (the middle), one a pale yellow (the right), and one black (the left): Vulgate The Vulgate ( / ˈ v ʌ l ɡ eɪ t , - ɡ ə t / ) is a late-4th-century Latin translation of the Bible . It is largely the work of Jerome who, in 382, had been commissioned by Pope Damasus I to revise the Vetus Latina Gospels used by
14039-470: The joyful singing of the blessed souls arriving by ferry in the Purgatorio . The passage across the Acheron, however, is undescribed, since Dante faints and does not awaken until they reach the other side. Virgil proceeds to guide Dante through the nine circles of Hell. The circles are concentric , representing a gradual increase in wickedness , and culminating at the centre of the earth, where Satan
14178-495: The latter of whom is mentioned in Inferno XXX.44) first appears as a man, but exchanges forms with Francesco de' Cavalcanti, who bites Buoso in the form of a four-footed serpent. Puccio Sciancato remains unchanged for the time being. Consider well the seed that gave you birth: you were not made to live your lives as brutes, but to be followers of worth and knowledge. Dante is approached by Guido da Montefeltro , head of
14317-400: The least heinous of the sins and its punishment is the most benign within Hell proper. The "ruined slope" in this circle is thought to be a reference to the earthquake that occurred after the death of Christ. In this circle, Dante sees Semiramis , Dido , Cleopatra , Helen of Troy , Paris , Achilles , Tristan , and many others who were overcome by sexual love during their life. Due to
14456-505: The long and detailed Epistle 106) that he was familiar with the Roman Psalter text, and consequently it is assumed that this revision represents the Roman text as Jerome had found it. Wisdom , Ecclesiasticus , 1 and 2 Maccabees and Baruch (with the Letter of Jeremiah) are included in the Vulgate, and are purely Vetus Latina translations which Jerome did not touch. In
14595-461: The majority of the Vulgate's translation is traditionally attributed to Jerome (directly helped by Paula of Rome ), the Vulgate has a compound text that is not entirely Jerome's work. Jerome's translation of the four Gospels are revisions of Vetus Latina translations he did while having the Greek as reference. The Latin translations of the rest of the New Testament are revisions to
14734-428: The monstrous three-headed beast of Hell, ravenously guards the gluttons lying in the freezing mire, mauling and flaying them with his claws as they howl like dogs. Virgil obtains safe passage past the monster by filling its three mouths with mud. Dorothy L. Sayers writes that "the surrender to sin which began with mutual indulgence leads by an imperceptible degradation to solitary self-indulgence". The gluttons grovel in
14873-493: The monstrous, fire-breathing son of Vulcan , was killed by Hercules for raiding the hero's cattle; in Aeneid VIII, 193–267, Virgil did not describe him as a centaur). Dante then meets five noble thieves of Florence and observes their various transformations. Agnello Brunelleschi, in human form, is merged with the six-legged serpent that is Cianfa Donati. A figure named Buoso (perhaps either Buoso degli Abati or Buoso Donati,
15012-401: The mud by themselves, sightless and heedless of their neighbors, symbolizing the cold, selfish, and empty sensuality of their lives. Just as lust has revealed its true nature in the winds of the previous circle, here the slush reveals the true nature of sensuality – which includes not only overindulgence in food and drink, but also other kinds of addiction. In this circle, Dante converses with
15151-443: The nature of Fortune , who raises nations to greatness and later plunges them into poverty, as she shifts, "those empty goods from nation unto nation, clan to clan". This speech fills what would otherwise be a gap in the poem, since both groups are so absorbed in their activity that Virgil tells Dante that it would be pointless to try to speak to them – indeed, they have lost their individuality and been rendered "unrecognizable". In
15290-707: The original text itself as it was produced by the Seventy translators . Jerome believed that the Hebrew text more clearly prefigured Christ than the Greek of the Septuagint, since he believed some quotes of the Old Testament in the New Testament were not present in the Septuagint, but existed in the Hebrew version; Jerome gave some of those quotes in his prologue to the Pentateuch. In the Galeatum principium (a.k.a. Prologus Galeatus ), Jerome described an Old Testament canon of 22 books, which he found represented in
15429-478: The other: "Why do you waste?" Relating this sin of incontinence to the two that preceded it (lust and gluttony), Dorothy L. Sayers writes, "Mutual indulgence has already declined into selfish appetite; now, that appetite becomes aware of the incompatible and equally selfish appetites of other people. Indifference becomes mutual antagonism, imaged here by the antagonism between hoarding and squandering." The contrast between these two groups leads Virgil to discourse on
15568-675: The physicians Hippocrates and Galen . He also encounters Avicenna , a Persian polymath, and Averroes , a medieval Andalusian polymath known for his commentaries on Aristotle's works. Dante and Virgil depart from the four other poets and continue their journey. Although Dante implies that all virtuous non-Christians find themselves here, he later encounters two ( Cato of Utica and Statius ) in Purgatory and two ( Trajan and Ripheus ) in Heaven. In Purgatorio XXII, Virgil names several additional inhabitants of Limbo who were not mentioned in
15707-522: The poet obtained three major categories of sin, as symbolized by the three beasts that Dante encounters in Canto I: these are Incontinence , Violence/Bestiality, and Fraud/Malice. Sinners punished for incontinence (also known as wantonness) – the lustful, the gluttonous, the hoarders and wasters, and the wrathful and sullen – all demonstrated weakness in controlling their appetites, desires, and natural urges; according to Aristotle's Ethics , incontinence
15846-720: The presence of so many rulers among the lustful, the fifth Canto of Inferno has been called the "canto of the queens". Dante comes across Francesca da Rimini , who married the deformed Giovanni Malatesta (also known as "Gianciotto") for political purposes but fell in love with his younger brother Paolo Malatesta ; the two began to carry on an adulterous affair. Sometime between 1283 and 1286, Giovanni surprised them together in Francesca's bedroom and violently stabbed them both to death. Francesca explains: Love, which in gentlest hearts will soonest bloom seized my lover with passion for that sweet body from which I
15985-583: The psalter in use in Rome, to agree better with the Greek of the Common Septuagint. Jerome said he had done this cursorily when in Rome, but he later disowned this version, maintaining that copyists had reintroduced erroneous readings. Until the 20th century, it was commonly assumed that the surviving Roman Psalter represented Jerome's first attempted revision, but more recent scholarship—following de Bruyne—rejects this identification. The Roman Psalter
16124-526: The rest of the New Testament shows marked differences from Jerome, both in editorial practice and in their sources. Where Jerome sought to correct the Vetus Latina text with reference to the best recent Greek manuscripts, with a preference for those conforming to the Byzantine text-type, the Greek text underlying the revision of the rest of the New Testament demonstrates the Alexandrian text-type found in
16263-675: The revision of the Vulgate New Testament outside the Gospels. At any rate, it is reasonable to identify the author of the preface with the unknown reviser of the New Testament outside the gospels. Some manuscripts of the Pauline epistles contain short Marcionite prologues to each of the epistles indicating where they were written, with notes about where the recipients dwelt. Adolf von Harnack , citing De Bruyne, argued that these notes were written by Marcion of Sinope or one of his followers. Many early Vulgate manuscripts contain
16402-473: The said old and vulgate edition, which, by the lengthened usage of so many years, has been approved of in the Church, be, in public lectures, disputations, sermons and expositions, held as authentic; and that no one is to dare, or presume to reject it under any pretext whatever. The qualifier "Latin editions, now in circulation" and the use of "authentic" (not "inerrant") show the limits of this statement. When
16541-519: The seventh circle. Virgil explains the presence of shattered stones around them: they resulted from the great earthquake that shook the earth at the moment of Christ's death ( Matthew 27:51), at the time of the Harrowing of Hell. Ruins resulting from the same shock were previously seen at the beginning of Upper Hell (the entrance of the Second Circle , Canto V). Protected by the powers of
16680-409: The sinners' feet drink the putrid mixture of blood, pus, and tears that flows down their bodies, symbolizing the sting of their guilty conscience and the repugnance of sin. This may also be seen as a reflection of the spiritual stagnation in which they lived. After passing through the vestibule, Dante and Virgil reach the ferry that will take them across the river Acheron and to Hell proper. The ferry
16819-529: The story of the adultery between Lancelot and Guinevere in the Old French romance Lancelot du Lac . Francesca says, "Galeotto fu 'l libro e chi lo scrisse" . The word Galeotto means ' pander ', but is also the Italian term for Gallehaut , who acted as an intermediary between Lancelot and Guinevere, encouraging them on to love. John Ciardi renders line 137 as "That book, and he who wrote it,
16958-529: The sun rising in Aries . The beasts drive him back despairing into the darkness of error, a "lower place" ( basso loco ) where the sun is silent ( l sol tace ). However, Dante is rescued by a figure who announces that he was born sub Iulio (i.e., in the time of Julius Caesar ) and lived under Augustus : it is the shade of the Roman poet Virgil , author of the Aeneid , a Latin epic which also featured
17097-474: The swampy, stinking waters of the river Styx – the Fifth Circle – the actively wrathful fight each other viciously on the surface of the slime, while the sullen (the passively wrathful) lie beneath the water, withdrawn, "into a black sulkiness which can find no joy in God or man or the universe". At the surface of the foul Stygian marsh, Dorothy L. Sayers writes, "the active hatreds rend and snarl at one another; at
17236-511: The ten ditches. Dorothy L. Sayers writes that the Malebolge is "the image of the City in corruption: the progressive disintegration of every social relationship, personal and public. Sexuality, ecclesiastical and civil office, language, ownership, counsel, authority, psychic influence, and material interdependence – all the media of the community's interchange are perverted and falsified". One of
17375-543: The term Vulgata to describe the "new" Latin translation was made by Roger Bacon in the 13th century. The translations in the Vetus Latina had accumulated piecemeal over a century or more. They were not translated by a single person or institution, nor uniformly edited. The individual books varied in quality of translation and style, and different manuscripts and quotations witness wide variations in readings. Some books appear to have been translated several times. The book of Psalms , in particular, had circulated for over
17514-430: The terrible winds of a violent storm, without rest. This symbolizes the power of lust to blow needlessly and aimlessly: "as the lovers drifted into self-indulgence and were carried away by their passions, so now they drift for ever. The bright, voluptuous sin is now seen as it is – a howling darkness of helpless discomfort." Since lust involves mutual indulgence and is not, therefore, completely self-centered, Dante deems it
17653-750: The time through his unexplained awareness of the stars' positions. The "Wain", the Great Bear , now lies in the northwest over Caurus (the northwest wind). The constellation Pisces (the Fish) is just appearing over the horizon: it is the zodiacal sign preceding Aries (the Ram). Canto I notes that the sun is in Aries, and since the twelve zodiac signs rise at two-hour intervals, it must now be about two hours prior to sunrise: 4:00 a.m. on Holy Saturday , April 9. The Seventh Circle, divided into three rings, houses
17792-537: The two begin their descent from the great cliff in the Eighth Circle: the Hell of the Fraudulent and Malicious. Geryon, the winged monster who allows Dante and Virgil to descend a vast cliff to reach the Eighth Circle, was traditionally represented as a giant with three heads and three conjoined bodies. Dante's Geryon, meanwhile, is an image of fraud, combining human, bestial, and reptilian elements: Geryon
17931-417: The two books of Ezra found in the Septuagint and Vetus Latina , Esdras A and Esdras B, represented "variant examples" of a single Hebrew original. Hence, he does not translate Esdras A separately even though up until then it had been universally found in Greek and Vetus Latina Old Testaments, preceding Esdras B, the combined text of Ezra–Nehemiah. The Vulgate is usually credited as being
18070-545: The ultimate sin (personal treachery against God), is the Devil , referred to by Virgil as Dis (the Roman god of the underworld; the name "Dis" was often used for Pluto in antiquity, such as in Virgil's Aeneid ). The arch-traitor, Lucifer was once held by God to be fairest of the angels before his pride led him to rebel against God, resulting in his expulsion from Heaven. Lucifer is a giant, terrifying beast trapped waist-deep in
18209-508: The underworld. This mandatory confession makes it so every soul verbalizes and sanctions their own ranking amongst the condemned since these confessions are the sole grounds for their placement in hell. Dante is not forced to make this confession; instead, Virgil rebukes Minos, and he and Dante continue on. In the second circle of Hell are those overcome by lust . These "carnal malefactors" are condemned for allowing their appetites to sway their reason. These souls are buffeted back and forth by
18348-595: The upper half of the Hell of the Fraudulent and Malicious. The Eighth Circle is a large funnel of stone shaped like an amphitheatre around which run a series of ten deep, narrow, concentric ditches or trenches called bolge (singular: bolgia ). Within these ditches are punished those guilty of Simple Fraud. From the foot of the Great Cliff to the Well (which forms the neck of the funnel) are large spurs of rock, like umbrella ribs or spokes, which serve as bridges over
18487-457: The verse mentioning Anastasius ( "Anastasio papa guardo, / lo qual trasse Fotin de la via dritta" , lines 8–9), confusing the pope with the Byzantine emperor of the time, Anastasius I . Pausing for a moment before the steep descent to the foul-smelling seventh circle, Virgil explains the geography and rationale of Lower Hell, in which the sins of violence (or bestiality) and fraud (or malice) are punished. In his explanation, Virgil refers to
18626-619: The version by Arius Montanus ), Syriac, Ethiopic, and Arabic. It also included a version of the Gospels in Persian. The Vulgate Latin is used regularly in Thomas Hobbes ' Leviathan of 1651; in the Leviathan Hobbes "has a worrying tendency to treat the Vulgate as if it were the original". Before the publication of Pius XII 's Divino afflante Spiritu , the Vulgate was the source text used for many translations of
18765-605: The wisest men of antiquity – surrounded by seven gates, and a flowing brook. After passing through the seven gates, the group comes to an exquisite green meadow and Dante encounters the inhabitants of the Citadel. These include figures associated with the Trojans and their descendants (the Romans): Electra (mother of Troy's founder Dardanus ), Hector , Aeneas , Julius Caesar in his role as Roman general ("in his armor, falcon-eyed"), Camilla , Penthesilea (Queen of
18904-400: Was a pander." Inspired by Dante, author Giovanni Boccaccio invoked the name Prencipe Galeotto in the alternative title to The Decameron , a 14th-century collection of novellas. Ultimately, Francesca never makes a full confession to Dante. Rather than admit to her and Paolo's sins, the very reasons they reside in this circle of hell, she consistently takes an erroneously passive role in
19043-440: Was declared to "be held as authentic" by the Catholic Church by the Council of Trent. The Council of Trent cited long usage in support of the Vulgate's magisterial authority : Moreover, this sacred and holy Synod,—considering that no small utility may accrue to the Church of God, if it be made known which out of all the Latin editions, now in circulation, of the sacred books, is to be held as authentic,—ordains and declares, that
19182-465: Was relatively free in rendering their text into Latin, but it is possible to determine that the oldest surviving complete manuscripts of the Masoretic Text which date from nearly 600 years after Jerome, nevertheless transmit a consonantal Hebrew text very close to that used by Jerome. The Vulgate exists in many forms. The Codex Amiatinus is the oldest surviving complete manuscript from
19321-443: Was torn unshriven to my doom. Love, which permits no loved one not to love, took me so strongly with delight in him that we are one in Hell, as we were above. Love led us to one death. In the depths of Hell Caïna waits for him who took our lives ." This was the piteous tale they stopped to tell. Francesca further reports that she and Paolo yielded to their love when reading
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