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50-458: Darkhill Ironworks , and the neighbouring Titanic Steelworks , are internationally important industrial remains associated with the development of the iron and steel industries in the 19th century. Both are scheduled monuments . They are located on the edge of a small hamlet called Gorsty Knoll , just to the west of Parkend , in the Forest of Dean , Gloucestershire, England. Historically, Darkhill

100-463: A scheduled ancient monument , although the Act defines only ancient monument and scheduled monument . A monument can be: In Northern Ireland they are designated under separate legislation and are referred to as a scheduled historic monument (for those in private ownership) or a monument in state care (for those in public ownership). The first Act to enshrine legal protection for ancient monuments

150-409: A 90 horsepower steam engine and engine house were constructed alongside the works. A year later, a second pond at Cannop was also built to boost the water supply. By 1835 the site had grown to include workers’ cottages, casting houses, blacksmith’s and carpenter’s sheds, a counting house, offices, a beerhouse , and many other ancillary buildings. In 1849 a second steam engine was added. Business

200-465: A Sheffield steelmaker, who persuaded him that the future of steel production lay the rapidly expanding industrial centre of Sheffield . In 1871 the Titanic works were closed down and Mushet entered into a new agreement with Samuel Osborn. The agreement was straightforward, Osborn was given the sole right to manufacture R.M.S. and Mushet was to receive a royalty on every ton sold. To ensure secrecy some of

250-516: A condensed register nor to any single authority to take care of over the course of the last 130 years. The UK is a signatory to the Council of Europe 's Valletta Treaty which obliges it to have a legal system to protect archaeological heritage on land and under water. The body of designation legislation used for legally protecting heritage assets from damage and destruction is complex, and dates back to 1882. There have been many revisions since, and

300-484: A constant supply of water, and a 1.5 mile long leat constructed to transfer water to the top of a waterwheel , which was installed in 1827 to supply power for the blast. It was 51 ft in diameter and weighed 60 tons – reputedly the largest in Britain at that time. A second furnace was also erected in 1827. Despite the enormous effort expended in creating the supply of water, it proved inadequate and in 1828

350-504: A limited definition of what constitutes a monument. Features such as ritual landscapes , battlefields and flint scatters are difficult to schedule; recent amendment in Scotland (see below) has widened the definition to include "any site... comprising any thing, or group of things, that evidences previous human activity". The wide range of legislation means that the terminology describing how historic sites are protected varies according to

400-624: A new operation would be required to facilitate production. The alloy for which Robert held most aspiration was one using titanium ; so he named the new company The Titanic Steelworks and Iron Works Co. Ltd. , known as The Titanic Steelworks . It opened in October 1862, less than 250 yards from the old works of Darkhill. Three hundred men were employed there, but demand for the new alloys, and profits, did not meet expectations. Robert returned to his experiments and in 1868 he invented 'R Mushet's Special Steel' (R.M.S.). In 1870 Mushet met Samuel Osborn,

450-673: A scheduled monument lies with the Secretary of State for the Department for Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS). The Secretary of State keeps the list, or schedule, of these sites. The designation process was first devolved to Scotland and Wales in the 1970s and is now operated there by the Scottish Government and the Welsh Government respectively. The government bodies with responsibility for archaeology and

500-445: A site, defines a boundary around it and advises the Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport of its eligibility for inclusion on the schedule. In Wales Cadw is part of central government and act on behalf of the relevant ministers. In Scotland, since October 2015, Historic Environment Scotland has been a non-departmental public body advising Scottish Ministers. The 1979 Act makes it a criminal offence to: Despite perceptions to

550-473: A way to make good iron from local coke. To exploit his discovery, he re-opened Parkend Ironworks in 1824 and Cinderford Ironworks in 1829, greatly advancing the Forest of Dean iron industry. While it could be argued that David Mushet's most important contributions to metallurgy were made prior to 1818, credit must be given to him for laying the foundations at Darkhill, both literal and metaphorical, upon which

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600-468: The Bessemer Process by discovering the solution to early quality problems which beset the process. Mushet patented his method, but it was allowed to lapse. Later, Bessemer claimed to have independently stumbled across the same solution. and Mushet, without a valid patent, received little credit. Whether or not the patents could have been sustained is not known, but the value of Mushet's procedure

650-586: The King's Ironworks ; In 1612 James I contracted the Earl of Pembroke to build and run a blast furnace and forge at ‘Parke End’, bringing with it the first real settlement at what was to become the village of Parkend. The furnace was destroyed on the orders of Parliament , during the Civil War , in 1644. After the war, in 1653, Parliament instructed that another furnace should be built, a short distance downstream from

700-799: The National Trust , regional and local archaeological societies, Portable Antiquities Scheme Finds Liaison Officers, voluntary groups, property owners, land managers and farmers. Examples of scheduled historic monuments in Northern Ireland , as designated by the Department for Communities : Examples of scheduled monuments in Scotland , as designated by Historic Environment Scotland : Examples of scheduled monuments in Wales , as designated by Cadw : Parkend Ironworks Parkend Ironworks , also known as Parkend Furnace , in

750-502: The 1882 legislation was guided through Parliament by John Lubbock , who in 1871 had bought Avebury, Wiltshire , to ensure the survival of the stone circle. The first Inspector of Ancient Monuments, as set up by the act, was Augustus Pitt Rivers . At this point, only the inspector, answering directly to the First Commissioner of Works , was involved in surveying the scheduled sites and persuading landowners to offer sites to

800-491: The 1979 Act was never brought into effect in Scotland. It is a legal requirement to maintain the 'schedule' of monuments. In England the Department for Culture, Media and Sport keeps a register, or schedule, of nationally important sites which receive state protection. The National Heritage List for England now includes about 400,000 heritage sites, including scheduled monuments. This online searchable list can be found on

850-641: The Historic England web site. The list of Scottish monuments can be searched on the Historic Environment Scotland website, or through Pastmap. For Wales, the National Monuments Record of Wales (NMRW), has an online database called "Coflein" which contains the national collection of information about the historic environment of Wales. To be eligible for scheduling, a monument must be demonstrably of (in

900-714: The Marine (Scotland) Act 2010. It is intended that the marine scheduled monuments will be protected by this new Act. The Historic Environment (Amendment) (Scotland) Act, which amended the 1979 Act, was passed into law in 2011. Wider areas can be protected by designating their locations as Areas of Archaeological Importance (AAI) under the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Areas Act 1979. As of 2011, only five city centres in England have been designated as AAIs (Canterbury, Chester, Exeter, Hereford and York). This part of

950-592: The Titanic Steelworks were scheduled in November 2002. Included within the scheduled area are a section of tram-road, built to serve the furnaces, and a large lump of clinker, known as 'the bear'. The site is now preserved as an industrial archaeological site of international importance and is open to the public. Scheduled monument The various pieces of legislation that legally protect heritage assets from damage and destruction are grouped under

1000-682: The UK are also protected as World Heritage Sites . To add to the confusion, some heritage assets can be both listed buildings and scheduled monuments (e.g. Dunblane Cathedral ). World Heritage Sites, conservation areas and protected landscapes can also contain both scheduled monuments and listed buildings. Where a heritage asset is both scheduled and listed, many provisions of the listing legislation are dis-applied (for example those relating to building preservation notices). In England, Scotland and Wales, protection of monuments can also be given by another process, additional to or separate from scheduling, taking

1050-462: The UK government states that it remains committed to heritage protection legislation reform, even though the draft Heritage Protection Bill 2008, which proposed a single 'register' that included scheduled monuments and listed buildings, was abandoned to make room in the parliamentary legislative programme for measures to deal with the credit crunch. The scheduling system has been criticised by some as being cumbersome. In England and Wales it also has

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1100-541: The achievements of his son Robert were built. Both men were great experimenters, with Robert carrying out over ten thousand experiments in just ten years, during his time at the Forest Steel Works. Robert took out fifty four patents on his work, but a lack of income and commercial acumen meant that he was never to receive full recognition, financial or personal, for his achievements. Robert Mushet's first major contribution to metallurgy came in 1856 when perfected

1150-570: The condition of scheduled monuments is also reported through the Heritage at Risk survey. In 2008 this survey extended to include all listed buildings , scheduled monuments, registered parks and gardens, registered battlefields, protected wreck sites and conservation areas. The register is compiled by survey by a range of heritage groups including Natural England, the Forestry Commission, local authorities, national park authorities,

1200-628: The construction of the Severn Bridge . Darkhill Ironworks was finally sold by the brothers in 1864, to Samuel Morgan. By 1874 it was owned by the Severn & Wye Railway & Canal Co, who used part of the site to run their new railway across. In 1981 Darkhill was sold back to the Crown. The first coke-fired blast furnace had been constructed in 1709, at Coalbrookdale in Shropshire, but it

1250-1130: The contrary, only a very small proportion of applications for scheduled monument consent are refused. In Scotland in the ten years from 1995 to 2005, out of 2,156 applications, only 16 were refused. Development close to a scheduled monument which might damage its setting is also a material consideration in the planning system. Historic England, Historic Environment Scotland and Cadw monitor the condition of scheduled monuments. They encourage owners to maintain scheduled monuments in good condition by using sympathetic land uses, for example restricting stock levels or controlling undergrowth which can damage archaeology below ground. Historic Environment Scotland, Cadw, Historic England and Natural England also offer owners advice on how to manage their monuments. There are some grant incentive schemes for owners, including schemes run by Historic England and by Natural England for farmers and land managers. Historic Environment Scotland, Historic England and Cadw, occasionally award grants to support management agreements for monuments, and in some cases can help with major repairs. In England,

1300-404: The end of their usable life – but they were scrapped in 1873. In a second key advance in metallurgy Mushet invented 'R Mushet's Special Steel' (R.M.S.) in 1868. It was both the first true tool steel and the first air-hardening steel . It revolutionised the design of machine tools and the progress of industrial metalworking, and was the forerunner of High speed steel . Darkhill Ironworks and

1350-526: The first. Being located in a royal forest , control of the furnace returned to the Crown after the restoration of the monarchy in 1660. It ceased production, and was demolished, in 1674. Iron was first successfully smelted with coke in 1709 at Coalbrookdale , in Shropshire . Despite there being extensive coal measures in the Forest of Dean, local coal did not produce coke that was ideal for smelting and Forest ironmasters were reluctant to invest in

1400-596: The historic environment in Britain are: Historic England in England, Cadw in Wales, and Historic Environment Scotland in Scotland. The processes for application and monitoring scheduled monuments is administered in England by Historic England; in Wales by Cadw on behalf of the Senedd (Welsh Parliament); and in Scotland by Historic Environment Scotland on behalf of the Scottish Ministers. In Northern Ireland,

1450-557: The legislation to include medieval monuments. Pressure grew for stronger legislation. In a speech in 1907, Robert Hunter, chairman of the National Trust, observed that only a further 18 sites had been added to the original list of 68. 'Scheduling' in the modern sense only became possible with the passing of the Ancient Monuments Consolidation and Amendment Act 1913 . When Pitt Rivers died in 1900 he

1500-662: The monument into state ownership or placing it under guardianship, classifying it as a guardianship monument under the terms of Section 12 of the 1979 Act (as amended by the National Heritage Act 1983 in England, and by the Historic Environment (Amendment) (Scotland) Act 2011) (e.g. St Rule's Church in St Andrews). The latter meaning that the owner retains possession, while the appropriate national heritage body maintains it and (usually) opens it to

1550-419: The new technology. It was not until the last decade of the 18th century that coke-fired furnaces began to make an appearance, with Parkend, and its many coalmines, once again considered an ideal location for iron production. It was one of three coke-fired ironworks, Cinderford and Whitecliff being the others, that were built almost simultaneously in the Forest. Work commenced on Parkend Ironworks in 1799. It

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1600-441: The owner's freehold title or other legal interests in the land, nor does it give the general public any new rights of public access. The process of scheduling does not automatically imply that the monument is being poorly managed or that it is under threat, nor does it impose a legal obligation to undertake any additional management of the monument. In England and Wales the authority for designating, re-designating and de-designating

1650-534: The public. All monuments in guardianship on the passing of the 1979 Act were automatically included in the 'schedule'. Scheduling is not usually applied to underwater sites although historic wrecks can be protected under the Protection of Wrecks Act 1973 , although three maritime sites have been designated as scheduled monuments. In Scotland new powers for protection of the marine heritage, better integrated with other maritime conservation powers, have been given by

1700-575: The site. Although he did produce significant quantities of iron for sale, the larger part of the works was given over to research and experimental production. In 1845 David retired to Monmouth and conveyed Darkhill to his three sons, with the youngest, Robert Mushet , becoming the manager. The sons constantly quarrelled and just six weeks after their father’s death they attempted to sell Darkhill, and other works bequeathed to them, at auction in July 1847. Either there were no takers, or as seems more likely, it

1750-493: The specialised processes were still carried out in the Forest of Dean, overseen by Mushet himself, while Mushet's two sons Henry and Edward moved to Sheffield to oversee its manufacture. Samuel Osborn & Company went on to become the second largest steel firm in Sheffield. The Titanic company was wound up in 1874. By the 1960s the buildings had lost their roofs and many were bulldozed – the material being used as hardcore in

1800-401: The state. The act also established the concept of guardianship, in which a site might remain in private ownership, but the monument itself become the responsibility of the state, as guardian. However the legislation could not compel landowners, as that level of state interference with private property was not politically possible. The Ancient Monuments Protection Act 1900 extended the scope of

1850-502: The tens of thousands of scheduled monuments in the UK, most are inconspicuous archaeological sites, but some are large ruins . According to the 1979 Act, a monument cannot be a structure which is occupied as a dwelling, used as a place of worship or a protected shipwreck . Scheduled monuments are defined in the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Areas Act 1979 . In England, Wales and Scotland they are often referred to as

1900-625: The term " designation ". The protection provided to scheduled monuments is given under the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Areas Act 1979 , which is a different law from that used for listed buildings (which fall within the town and country planning system). A heritage asset is a part of the historic environment that is valued because of its historic, archaeological, architectural or artistic interest. Only some of these are judged to be important enough to have extra legal protection through designation. There are about 20,000 scheduled monuments in England representing about 37,000 heritage assets. Of

1950-480: The term "Scheduled Historic Monument" is used. These sites protected under Article 3 of the Historic Monuments and Archaeological Objects (Northern Ireland) Order 1995. The schedule contains over 1,900 sites, and is maintained by the Department for Communities . There is no positive distinction yet for a single method of registering sites of heritage. The long tradition of legal issues did not lead to

2000-498: The terms of the 1979 Act) "national importance". Non-statutory criteria are provided to guide the assessment. In England these are: The Scottish criteria were revised after public consultation between 2006 and 2008. There is no appeal against the scheduling process and adding a monument to the schedule may be a process requiring a great deal of research and consideration. The process can be accelerated for sites under threat, however. In England, Historic England gathers information on

2050-418: The type of heritage asset. Monuments are "scheduled", buildings are "listed", whilst battlefields, parks and gardens are "registered", and historic wrecks are "protected". Historic urban spaces receive protection through designation as " conservation areas ", and historic landscapes are designated through national park and Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB) legislation. In addition, there are areas in

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2100-492: The village of Parkend , in the Forest of Dean , Gloucestershire , England , was a coke -fired furnace built in 1799. Most of the works were demolished between 1890 and 1908, but the engine house survived and is arguably the best preserved example of its kind to be found in the United Kingdom . During the 17th century Parkend had been, at different times, the location of two charcoal -fired Crown furnaces, known as

2150-419: Was almost a century later before they began to make an appearance in the Forest of Dean. Despite the presence of both extensive iron-ore reserves and coal measures , Forest of Dean coal did not produce coke which was ideal for smelting and local ironmasters were reluctant to invest in the new technology. Around 1820, however, Moses Teague, whilst borrowing the cupola furnace at Darkhill Ironworks, discovered

2200-420: Was booming and in 1871 a third furnace was also added; a ‘ hot blast ’ design which was the very latest technology at that time. Just four years later, however, the iron trade went into recession and the ironworks closed in 1877. Most of the works were demolished between 1890 and 1908, but the engine house and some ancillary buildings survived to become the country’s first Forester Training School in 1910. During

2250-479: Was not immediately replaced as Inspector. Charles Peers, a professional architect, was appointed as Inspector in 1910 in the Office of Works becoming Chief Inspector in 1913. The job title 'Inspector' is still in use. Scheduling offers protection because it makes it illegal to undertake a great range of 'works' within a designated area, without first obtaining 'scheduled monument consent'. However, it does not affect

2300-763: Was shown by its near universal adoption in conjunction with the Bessemer Process. In 1857, steel for the first steel railway lines was made at Darkhill and rolled at the Ebbw Vale Iron Company's works. They were laid near Derby railway station , on a heavily used section of track, where the Midland Railway had been replacing the iron rails every three to five months. After ten years of use, Robert Mushet's new rails showed no sign of wear. Aware of their historic importance, Robert Mushet made repeated requests for their return once they reached

2350-521: Was sometimes written Dark Hill . The noted Scottish metallurgist David Mushet moved to the Forest of Dean in February 1810 to take up full-time management of Whitecliff Ironworks in Coleford – although he quickly disengaged himself from the business for reasons that are not known. In 1818/19 he built a coke -fired 'experimental furnace' at Darkhill, marking the start of industrial activity on

2400-674: Was the Ancient Monuments Protection Act 1882 . This identified an initial list of 68 prehistoric sites that were given a degree of legal protection (25 sites in England, three in Wales, 22 in Scotland and 18 in Ireland). This was the result of strenuous representation by William Morris and the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings , which had been founded in 1877. Following various previous attempts,

2450-421: Was the third coke-fired ironworks to be built in the Forest of Dean, but was beset by technical problems and ceased production around 1807. Around 1820, Moses Teague discovered a way to make good iron from local coke, while working at Darkhill Ironworks . To exploit his discovery he formed the 'Forest of Dean Iron Co' and re-opened Parkend Ironworks in 1824. The lower pond at Cannop was built in 1825 to provide

2500-627: Was withdrawn from sale. In September 1847 the brothers agreed to dissolve their partnership and the main furnace was probably never again in blast. Robert, now free of family ties, went into partnership with a Birmingham merchant named Thomas Deykin Clare. Trading as R Mushet & Co., they opened a 'small experimental steelworks' on the upper terrace of Darkhill in 1848, called the Forest Steel Works. Robert produced some steel here, and some finished tools, but more importantly he made great progress in his experiments with steel alloys and it became clear that

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