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110-485: The largest group of Jewish imagery from the ancient world, the 3rd century synagogue at Dura-Europos , has the hand of God in five different scenes, including the Sacrifice of Isaac , and no doubt this was one of the many iconographic features taken over by Christian art from what seems to have been a vigorous tradition of Jewish narrative art. Here and elsewhere it often represents the bath Kol (literally "daughter of

220-547: A Latin letter "X". This is formed by crossing the thumb and little finger inside the palm, with only the forefinger and next one extended, or a variant of this. Especially in Roman mosaics, but also in some German imperial commissions, for example on the Lothair Cross , the hand is clenched around a wreath that goes upwards, and behind which the arm then disappears, forming a tidy circular motif. Especially in these examples,

330-585: A background. These wreaths resemble a diadem , with thin metal leaves being attached to an ornamental band. Wreaths also appear stamped into Etruscan medallions. The plants shown making the wreaths in Etruscan jewelry include ivy, oak, olive leaves, myrtle, laurel, wheat and vines. Wreaths were worn as crowns by Etruscan rulers. The Etruscan symbolism continued to be used in Ancient Greece and Rome. Roman magistrates also wore golden wreaths as crowns, as

440-671: A border, or a victor's wreath (left). A cloud is mentioned as the source of the voice of God in the gospel accounts of the Transfiguration of Jesus (see below). Several of the examples in the Dura Europos synagogue (see below) show a good part of the forearm as well as the hand, which is not found in surviving Christian examples, and most show an open palm, sometimes with the fingers spread out. Later examples in Jewish art are closer in form to Christian styles. In Christian art,

550-499: A cow, which is the special sacrificial red heifer . A dorsal band decorates its body. The two animals just to the left of Aaron, a bull and a ram, are atonement sacrifices for Aaron to be made on Yom Kippur . The ceiling was believed to have been created between 244 CE and 245 CE; it was part of the retransformation from which the Dura-Europos synagogue derived. It was around 7m tall and had dimensions of 13.65m x 7.68m, like

660-471: A custom that is sometimes done liturgically, through a hanging of the greens ceremony. The Advent wreath was first used by Lutherans in Germany in the 16th century, and in 1839, Lutheran priest Johann Hinrich Wichern used a wreath made from a cart wheel to educate children about the meaning and purpose of Christmas , as well as to help them count its approach, thus giving rise to the modern version of

770-460: A forecourt and house of assembly with painted walls depicting people and animals, and a Torah shrine in the western wall facing Jerusalem . It was built backing on to the city wall, which was important in its survival. The last phase of construction was dated by an Aramaic inscription to 244 CE, making it one of the oldest synagogues in the world . It was unique among the many ancient synagogues that have emerged from archaeological excavations as

880-444: A fruitful harvest in the coming year. In recent years, wreaths have experienced a significant surge in popularity as versatile home decor items. No longer confined to seasonal displays or special occasions, wreaths are now commonly used year-round to enhance interior and exterior spaces. From vibrant floral wreaths adorning front doors to minimalist greenery wreaths adorning walls, their versatility and customizable nature have captured

990-401: A green dot in the middle of each. On the second and the fourth panels, the outer frame is decorated with red and pink bands, and alternating red dots and strokes against the white background, with bead-and-reel designs on the corners. On the corners of the strips, there are three-petal like strokes. Inside the frame, there are wavy green and dark green curvy lines of different thickness drawn from

1100-415: A lily stem indicating Saint Catherine's purity outweighs the crown and sceptre of worldly pomp. The similar but essentially unrelated arm-reliquary was a popular form during the medieval period when the hand was most used. Typically these are in precious metal, showing the hand and most of the forearm, pointing up erect from a flat base where the arm stopped. They contained relics , usually from that part of

1210-574: A long history of observing Saint Lucy's Day (St. Lucia's Day). "St. Lucia's crowns", made of a brass wreath holding candles, are part of the customs associated with this holiday. A wreath laying ceremony is a traditional practice during which funeral wreaths are laid at a grave or memorial site. It is done as a formal sign of respect towards a particular tribute (e.g. Tomb of the Unknown Soldier ). These are formal ceremonies that involve high ranking dignitaries such as heads of state . Once

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1320-456: A long-standing tradition. Olive wreath was the prize for the winner at the ancient Olympic Games . In Christianity , wreaths are used to observe the Advent season, in preparation for Christmastide and Epiphanytide , as well as to celebrate the latter two liturgical seasons . These wreaths, as with other Advent and Christmas decorations, are often set up on the first Sunday of Advent ,

1430-617: A much wider range. In many scenes one or more angels, acting as the messengers of God, may appear instead of the hand. A virtually unique mosaic depiction of the Ark of the Covenant (806) at Germigny-des-Prés , also features the hand of God. In Christian art the hand will often actually represent the hand of God the Son , or the Logos; this is demonstrated when later depictions start to substitute for

1540-535: A placement at the right hand of God . Later rabbinic literature also contains a number of references. There are three occasions in the gospels when the voice of God is heard, and the hand often represents this in visual art. Gertrud Schiller distinguishes three functions of the hand in Christian art: as symbol of either God's presence or the voice of God, or signifying God's acceptance of a sacrifice. The hand of God, which encompasses God's arm and fingers as well,

1650-613: A portable amulet -type object in Christian use. It is found from the 4th century on in the Catacombs of Rome , including paintings of Moses receiving the Law and the Sacrifice of Isaac . There are numerous references to the hand, or arm, of God in the Hebrew Bible , most clearly metaphorical in the way that remains current in modern English, but some capable of a literal interpretation. They are usually distinguished from references to

1760-474: A prayer for protection and blessing upon the growing harvest." The symbolism of wreaths has been used at funerals since at least the time of Ancient Greece, to represent a circle of eternal life. Evergreen wreaths were laid at the burial place of early Christian virgin martyrs in Europe, the evergreen representing the victory of the eternal spirit over death. In early modern England, a wreath custom existed for

1870-406: A sea-goat; others are thought to represent Capricorn and Pisces. Another theme was the evil eye; an example is a tile featuring a double-lidded eye with a snake on either side. The same tile also had a scab, which was thought to be a scorpion, and three nails above the eye, with the inscription " IAO ". Several tiles, both inscribed and pictorials, had mystical and symbolic meanings. Even though it

1980-544: A specific prototype. The tiles saved were mainly in Greek; the prototype was the tile painted black, with a black and red leafy wreath on it, where text was confined. One of the first tiles discovered, in Greek, reads "(Samuel [son] of Yedaya, elder of the Jews founded [the building])", naming Archisynagogue Samuel as the 'founder' in 245 AD. Often names were mentioned, and it suggested that they were donors or people involved in

2090-464: A symbolic testament to their lineage back to Rome's early Etruscan rulers. Roman magistrates also used several other prominent Etruscan symbols in addition to a golden wreath crown: fasces , a curule chair, a purple toga , and an ivory rod. In the Greco-Roman world , wreaths were used as an adornment that could represent a person's occupation, rank, their achievements and status. The wreath that

2200-487: A term coined in the World War II era, which was decorated with fringe and embroidered to commemorate life and sacrifice. This practice is still in place today, and wreath sashes now commonly adorn doors of homes to celebrate numerous holidays. Harvest wreaths, a common household decoration today, are a custom with ancient roots in Europe. The creation of harvest wreaths in Europe can be traced back to ancient times, and

2310-669: A voice") or voice of God, a use also taken over into Christian art. The hand may also relate to older traditions in various other religions in the Ancient Near East . In the art of the Amarna period in Egypt under Akhenaten , the rays of the Aten sun-disk end in small hands to suggest the bounty of the supreme deity. Like the hamsa amulet , the hand is sometimes shown alone on buildings, although it does not seem to have existed as

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2420-547: A wreath is laid, the person who lays the wreath goes a few steps back to bow/salute the memorial. During wreath laying ceremonies of a military nature, bugle calls such as " Last Post ", " Taps ", or " Sunset " are played. In the Netherlands, wreath laying ( Dutch : Kranslegging ) is usually held during the National Remembrance Day celebrations on 4 May. During state visits, a wreath is laid out at

2530-411: Is an assortment of flowers , leaves , fruits , twigs , or various materials that is constructed to form a ring shape. In English-speaking countries, wreaths are used typically as household ornaments, most commonly as an Advent and Christmas decoration . They are also used in ceremonial events in many cultures around the globe. They can be worn as a chaplet around the head, or as a garland around

2640-409: Is associated with animistic spiritual beliefs. In Ancient Greece, the harvest wreath was a sacred amulet, using wheat or other harvested plants, woven together with red and white wool thread. The harvest wreath would be hung by the door year-round. Harvest wreaths were an important symbol to the community in Ancient Greece, not merely to the farmer and his family. The festivals devoted to Dionysus ,

2750-470: Is debated, some scholars claim that the entirety of the ceiling symbolizes heaven and eternal immortality. However, some uncertainty remains due to the paint not being recognizable on the tile after sun exposure. A total of 234 tiles were discovered and brought back at the time of discovery. However, there may be more that were destroyed and different designs that had not been discovered.   The inscribed tiles were written in Greek or Aramaic and followed

2860-561: Is depicted standing just to the right of the door of the tent of meeting, denoted by the Greek alphabet inscription ΑΡΩΝ ("ARON"). He is dressed in contemporary Persian or Sassanid style, but with the same colors mentioned in the Book of Exodus: gold, blue, and purple. The Ephod worn by the high priest as described in the Bible is not shown. To the bottom left, there is a young priest leading

2970-437: Is followed with a celebration and feast. A wreath may be used as a headdress made from leaves, flowers and branches. It is typically worn in festive occasions and on holy days. Wreaths originally were made for use with pagan rituals in Europe, and were associated with the changing seasons and fertility. Christianity appropriated the symbolism of the wreath based upon its Roman association with honour and moral virtue. During

3080-480: Is located in the first north-south row, and the second east-west row north of the Decumanus Maximus : it is therefore bordered to the west by the street along the rampart, between the towers 19 and 20, and on the other sides respectively by streets A to the east, 2 to the south and 4 to the north. It was originally a residential block comprising up to ten separate units (designated by the letters A to I on

3190-544: Is nevertheless no archaeological trace of a religious organization before the installation of the synagogue. The synagogue is a building belonging to the L7 block of Dura Europos: the city was organized according to a Hippodamian plan of regular rectangular blocks of 35–70 m (115–230 ft) since its development by the Seleucids , which archaeologists have arbitrarily numbered for more convenient reference. This islet L7

3300-432: Is often compared to aerial mosaics, similar to coffered ceilings that supported the tiles, which were already discovered in western societies, such as Roman and Hellenistic cities. The original placement of the tiles, between 244 CE and 245 CE, has not been clearly stated, but each tile was around 0.37 to 0.42 m2 and about 0.045 m in depth. They were formed out of terracotta, which was heated, then decorated and plastered to

3410-680: Is one of the most frequently employed anthropomorphisms of the Hebrew Bible. References to the hand of God occur numerous times in the Pentateuch alone, particularly in regards to the unfolding narrative of the Israelites' exodus from Egypt (cf. Exodus 3:19–20, Exodus 14: 3, 8, 31). There are no references to the hand of God as an active agent or witness in the New Testament, though there are several to Jesus standing or sitting by

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3520-427: Is portrayed as the leader of the Israelites who are shown not as civilians or slaves, but as an armed military force. In this context, Moses' powerful stance and comparatively large size present him as the military leader of the Israelites. His long club-like rod or staff and bearded visage have been compared to a relief of Hercules from the 2nd-century Durene temple of Zeus , built during the 114 CE Roman occupation of

3630-542: Is positioned strategically in the upper center of the composition, directly above the ram that the angel of God instructs Abraham to sacrifice in place of Isaac. In the Susiya synagogue, the hand of God appears on the defaced remains of a marble bimah screen that perhaps once illustrated a biblical scene such as Moses Receiving the Law or the Binding of Isaac . Though the hand was subjected to intense iconoclastic hacking,

3740-494: Is seen lowering his staff over the Red Sea, causing its parted waters to close and engulf the pursuing Egyptian army. Here he is facing to the right of the painting. And finally, Moses is seen looking to the left at his safely absconded Israelites, holding his staff at his side, pointed downward. The synagogue paintings' portrayal of Moses and the Israelites each contain influences from the concurrent Roman military culture. Moses

3850-451: Is used to represent divine intervention or approval in several paintings. There have been scholarly debates questioning the wall paintings' influence over later Jewish and/or Christian iconography, which have been held due to the relevance of such early depictions of the biblical narrative. Depictions of Moses and the Book of Exodus occupy significant swathes of space in the paintings on

3960-645: The Midsummer wreath had to be picked early in the morning before the dew had dried; the belief was that once the dew dried, the magical properties of the plants evaporated with the dew. Midsummer celebrations are still observed in Germany and Scandinavia as well, with Maypoles and wreaths playing a prominent role, similar to England. By the Renaissance period, wreaths became symbols of political and religious alliances in England. Protestant reformers such as

4070-521: The Oschophoria and Anthesteria , included a ritual procession called the eiresîonê . A harvest wreath was carried to Pyanopsia and Thargelia by young boys, who would sing during the journey. The laurel or olive wreath would be hung at the door, and then offerings were made to Helios and the Hours. It was hoped that this ritual would bring protection against crop failure and plagues. In Poland,

4180-523: The Parthian and then Sasanian Empires , the exilarch , necessarily of Davidic descent. The towns of Sura and Nehardea were home to Talmudic academies whose fame can even exceed that of Palestine's, thanks to the respective influence of Abba Arika (Rav) and Rabbi Chila . Important caravan town on the Euphrates , Dura Europos very likely had a Jewish community from the 2 or 1 centuries AD. There

4290-586: The Sistine Chapel ceiling , breaks clear of God's encircling robe above the wrist, and is shown against a plain background in a way reminiscent of many examples of the earlier motif. The motif did not disappear in later iconography, and enjoyed a revival in the 15th century as the range of religious subjects greatly expanded and depiction of God the Father became controversial again among Protestants. The prints of Daniel Hopfer and others make frequent use of

4400-441: The catacombs " using a candle-lit wreath to "light her way and leave her hands free to carry as much food as possible"; as such, on this day, many young Christian girls dress as Saint Lucy, wearing a wreath on their head. Decorative wreaths originated in Ancient Greece, they were used to promote healthy crop harvests, it would be made from the previous years harvest (such as wheat) and would be hung on people's doors in hope for

4510-622: The coming of Christ , with the former being used to mark the beginning of the Christian Church's liturgical year and both serving as décor during Advent and Christmas festivities. While Advent wreaths are erected on stands or placed on tables, Christmas wreaths are often hung on doors or walls. Within Advent, the Church observes Saint Lucy's Day , the memorial of Saint Lucy , who is said to have brought "food and aid to Christians hiding in

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4620-595: The friezes from the Dura synagogue with those of the mithraeum , the Christian baptistery, and the temple of the Palmyrene gods. Scholars think the paintings were used as an instructional display to educate and teach the history and laws of the religion. Some think that this synagogue was painted in order to compete with the many other religions practiced in Dura-Europos; the new (and considerably smaller) Christian Dura-Europos church appears to have opened shortly before

4730-546: The right hand of God in God's heavenly court, a conventional term for the place of honour beside a host or senior family member. For example, when Stephen is filled with the "holy spirit" he looks to heaven and sees Jesus standing by the right hand of God (Acts 7:55). There are three occasions in the Gospels when the voice of God is heard, and the hand of God often represents this in visual art. Anthropomorphic aggadot regarding

4840-618: The "Main de Justice" ("Hand of Justice"), part of the traditional French Coronation Regalia , which was a sceptre in the form of a short gold rod surmounted by an ivory hand in the blessing gesture. The object now in the Louvre is a recreation, made for Napoleon or a restored Bourbon king, of the original, which was destroyed in the French Revolution , although the original ivory hand has survived (now displayed separately). Engraved gems are used for an authentic medieval feel. Here

4950-517: The 12th century. From the 14th century, and earlier in some contexts, full figures of God the Father became increasingly common in Western art, though still controversial and rare in the Orthodox world. Naturally such figures all have hands, which use the blessing and other gestures in a variety of ways. It may be noted that the most famous of all such uses, Michelangelo 's creating hand of God in

5060-465: The 14th century, by which time the dove, sometimes accompanied by a small image of God the Father, has become more common. The hand appears at the top of a number of Late Antique apse mosaics in Rome and Ravenna, above a variety of compositions that feature either Christ or the cross, some covered by the regular contexts mentioned above, but others not. The motif is then repeated in much later mosaics from

5170-566: The Advent wreath. For every Sunday of Advent, starting with the fourth Sunday before Christmas, he would put a white candle in the wreath and for every day in between he would use a red candle. The use of the Advent wreath has since spread from the Lutheran Church to many Christian denominations , and some of these traditions, such as the Catholic Church and Moravian Church , have introduced unique variations to it. All of

5280-496: The Advent wreaths, however, have four candles, and many of them have a white candle in the centre, the Christ candle, which is lit on Christmas Day . Advent and Christmas wreaths are constructed of evergreens to represent everlasting life brought through Jesus and the circular shape of the wreath represents God, with no beginning and no end. Advent and Christmas wreaths are now a popular symbol in preparation for and to celebrate

5390-499: The Confessor . The hand sometimes appears (see gallery) in scenes of the murder of martyrs like St Thomas Becket , clearly indicating neither involvement nor approval of the deed, but approval of the saint. In the dedication miniature shown, the blessing hand seems pointed neither at Emperor Henry II , nor St Gregory or the abbot, but at the copy of Gregory's book – the same copy that contains this miniature. This looser usage of

5500-478: The Dura-Europos synagogue was active was not long as it was buried as part of the Roman defense against Sasanian troops in 256 A.D. The Dura-Europos Synagogue remains the earliest example of Jewish artwork available for study. It contains not only Hellenistic and Roman influences, but Sasanian as well. The layout of the paintings suggest that they were inspired by a copybook with examples and formulae. While there are similarities to other works of antiquity,

5610-629: The Eastern Empire. This theme is not then seen in Byzantine art until the late 10th century, when it appears in coins of John I Tzimisces (969–976), long after it was common in the West. In later Byzantine miniatures figures the hand is often replaced by a full figure of Christ (in these examples much smaller than the Emperor) placing a crown on the head. A similar symbolism was represented by

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5720-563: The Father , whose depiction had become acceptable in Western Christianity , although not in Eastern Orthodox or Jewish art. The motif of the hand, with no body attached, provides a problem for the artist in how to terminate it. In Christian narrative images the hand most often emerges from a small cloud, at or near the top of the image, but in iconic contexts it may appear cut off in the picture space, or spring from

5830-500: The Father would have been considered a grave violation of the Second Commandment. According to conventional art historical interpretation, the representation of the hand of God in early Christian art thus developed as a necessary and symbolic compromise to the highly anti-anthropomorphic tenor of the Second Commandment, though anthropomorphic interpretations are certainly plausible. In early Christian and Byzantine art ,

5940-742: The Hand a small half-length portrait of Christ as Logos in a similar circular frame. It is nearly always Christ in the East, but in the West God the Father will sometimes be shown in this way. However, in many contexts the person of the Trinity intended cannot be confirmed from the image alone, except in those images, like the Baptism of Christ , where Jesus the Incarnate Christ is also present, where

6050-545: The Middle Ages, Christian art featured depictions of the Virgin Mary and various saints crowned with wreaths, much as figures from Roman and Greek mythology were depicted wearing wreaths, as well as Roman and Greek rulers and heroes. Wreath customs in Europe have survived over many centuries. The observance of May Day in England includes Maypole festivities, culminating in a race by young unmarried men to climb to

6160-833: The National Monument in Amsterdam . In Russia, it is tradition to lay wreaths at war memorials on Days of Military Honour and commemorative military holidays, such as Defender of the Fatherland Day and Victory Day . One of the more notable laying of wreaths takes place at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Moscow's Alexander Garden , where the President of Russia , the Prime Minister of Russia , members of

6270-573: The Puritans saw wreaths and the holidays they were associated with, such as May Day, as being pagan corrupting influences that destroyed healthy Christian morality. Soldiers confiscated wreaths in Oxford on May Day of 1648. During the Interregnum following the overthrow of Charles I of England , wreaths symbolized Royalist sympathies. In Bath, Somerset , the coronation of Charles II of England

6380-482: The Roman Catholic, Lutheran, and Anglican traditions) bless Corpus Christi wreaths that are made of flowers. Wreaths and bouquets are often "attached to flags and banners, to houses, and to the arches of green boughs that span the streets." In Christian homes, these wreaths are suspended on walls or displayed on doors and in windows. Corpus Christi wreaths are also "put up in gardens, fields, and pastures, with

6490-529: The Tabernacle as a tent, but rather was inspired by Roman temples , and includes a cella , pediment and capitals of the Corinthian order . The local Jewish population did not mind illustrating the Tabernacle based on Roman civil architecture for unknown reasons. Coins showing similar structures were found in Dura-Europos, and the painter might have used them as models. In this particular work, Aaron

6600-464: The Victorians. Wreaths are commonly laid at the tombs of soldiers and at memorial cenotaphs during Memorial Day and Remembrance Day ceremonies. Wreaths may also be laid in memory of persons lost at sea, either from an accident or due to navy action. In a memorial service at sea, the wreath is lowered to the water and set adrift. Funeral wreaths were also commonly adorned with a "wreath sash",

6710-576: The Virgin from before the Byzantine iconoclasm , an apse mosaic (lost in 1922) from Nicaea , also shows the hand above a standing Virgin. Few similar uses of the hand are seen in later Virgins, though the iconographically adventurous Byzantine Chludov Psalter (9th century) has a small miniature showing the hand and dove above a Virgin & Child. The hand occasionally appears in Western Annunciations , even as late as Simone Martini in

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6820-433: The Western Wall of the synagogue - of the 12 discrete paintings identified in the Hopkins schematic, 3 center on the narrative of Moses' life, with a total of 7 depictions of Moses across the western wall. Some paintings contain multiple representations of Moses within one distinct scene. The painting of Moses leading the Israelites out of Egypt features multiple Moses figures, much like the painting labeled WC4 . Between

6930-507: The above ceiling. Imprints of brick and wooden beams were located on the ceiling tile at the time of the synagogue's build and made the tiles' placement clearer. The tiles are consistent with either pictorial images or inscriptions being displayed. There were about 20 different pictorial tiles that were repeated across the ceiling. They varied from sea animals, land animals, grains, and vegetation to faces and females. Often displayed are female faces, which have been counted to recur 23 times on

7040-426: The assembly hall. It was later found out that the previous synagogue was also decorated similarly, including tiles decorated with fruits, shapes, and flowers. However, the Dura-Europos synagogue's ceiling was made up of even smaller tiles than the previous ceiling; it occupied a larger space and had a wider variety of tile inscriptions. The synagogue's ceiling is made up of repeated tiles and inscriptions. The ceiling

7150-420: The attention of interior designers and homeowners alike. The rise of do-it-yourself crafting and online marketplaces has also contributed to the accessibility of wreath-making materials and designs, allowing individuals to express their creativity and personalize their living spaces with these charming and visually appealing accents. On the eve of the Feast of Corpus Christi , Christian clergy (chiefly those from

7260-413: The body of the saint, and it was the saint's hand that was represented. The hand of God appears in several examples from the small surviving body of figurative Jewish religious art. It is especially prominent in the wall paintings of the third-century Dura Europos synagogue , and also seen in the nave mosaic of the sixth century Beth Alpha synagogue, and on a sixth-seventh century bimah screen found at

7370-455: The building have decorative painting with no figures. Some of the paintings have figures whose eyes have been scratched out, especially those in Persian costume. Scholars cannot agree on the subjects of some scenes, because of damage, or the lack of comparative examples. The scenes depicted are drawn from the Hebrew Bible and include many narrative scenes, and some single figure "portraits"—58 scenes in total, probably representing about 60% of

7480-421: The ceiling and usually follow a particular pattern. The available prototypes are considered goddesses such as "Flora" or "Demeter-Persephone." Female faces were among the most popular pictorial tiles. Other popular pictorial types include vegetation, which consists of about 41 roses/flowers, a centaur, and pinecones, among others. Other tiles have a goat's head attached to a fishtail, which is often classified as

7590-418: The city. The mass of Israelites positioned to his left carry shields and spears. Their shields are layered and overlapped over one another to form a physical barrier, much like the Roman shield wall formations of the phalanx and the testudo . Behind the Israelite soldiers stand figures representing the twelve Elders of Israel, each holding a pole with a square banner or flag, resembling the Roman vexillum ,

7700-445: The creation, reconstruction, or decoration of the synagogue; it is not clear what their roles were, but their involvement is evident. Because of the paintings adorning the walls, the synagogue was at first mistaken for a Greek temple, though this was quickly corrected by the vice-director of excavations Robert du Mesnil du Buisson in Les peintures de la synagogue de Doura-Europos (Rome, 1939). Mesnil also made detailed comparisons of

7810-426: The differences between each work bear too much difference in order for one to be considered influential. There have been attempts to link these works, but they have proven largely unsuccessful. The Leon Bible , as an example, which was written ca. 960, had in common with Dura-Europos the scene of the sacrifice of Isaac . However, the León Bible showed key differences. Their position in the León Bible shows them facing

7920-462: The first Moses's legs is an inscription in Aramaic reading, "Moses, when he went out from Egypt and cleft the sea." This inscription firmly identifies the murals as depicting the story of Moses leading the Israelites across the Red Sea from the Book of Exodus. First (on the right) Moses is seen raising a club-like staff and facing to the left, leading an army of Israelites behind him. Second, Moses

8030-447: The five panels, one and five are a pair and two and four are another pair: they are all designed by the same fashion. For the first and the fifth panel, the artists used black diagonal lines to divide triangular patterned designs. Opposing triangles on the top and the bottom of the panel has red stripes and are inscribed with peltae. Opposing triangles on the sides of the panels are decorated with brown-lined irregular concentric shapes, with

8140-531: The forearm as well. In the Beth Alpha synagogue, the hand of God appears on the Binding of Isaac panel on the northern entryway of the synagogue's nave mosaic floor. The hand of God appearing in the Beth Alpha Binding of Isaac mosaic panel is depicted as a disembodied hand emerging from a fiery ball of smoke, "directing the drama and its outcome" according to Meyer Schapiro . The hand of God

8250-693: The fourth-fifth century Susiya synagogue. In the Dura Europos synagogue, the hand of God appears ten times, in five out of the twenty-nine biblically themed wall paintings including the Binding of Isaac , Moses and the Burning Bush , Exodus and Crossing of the Red Sea , Elijah Reviving the Child of the Widow of Zarepheth , and Ezekiel in the Valley of Dry Bones . In several examples the hand includes

8360-414: The front face of the arch is particularly significant. The spandrels formed a rectangle that is 1.47m wide and 1.06m high, framed by a pink border that is 0.04m–0.05m wide. On the left side of the front face is a representation of a menorah, and on the right side was a depiction of the sacrifice of Isaac. Depicted in the central position was a columned building with an arched doorway. The paintings cover

8470-684: The funerals of "young maidens". A young woman of the same age as the one being mourned would lead the funeral procession, carrying a wreath of white flowers to represent the purity of the deceased, and "that eternal crown of glory reserved for her in heaven". By the Victorian era, the symbolism of flowers had grown to become an elaborate language, and the symbolism of funeral wreaths was no exception. Flowers represented life and resurrection. Specific flowers were used in funeral wreaths to represent particular sentiments. Cypress and willow were used for crafting wreath frames, and were associated with mourning by

8580-584: The hand in a variety of contexts, and the personal emblem of John Calvin was a heart held in the Hand. Very free use of the motif is made in prints relating to the religious and political fall-out of the Reformation over the next two centuries, in prints on the Dutch Revolt for example. In a high Rococo setting at the Windberg Abbey , Lower Bavaria , the Hand of God holds scales in which

8690-528: The hand is clearly that of God the Father. Later Eastern Orthodox images often identify Hands as the Logos with the usual monogram used in icons . The hand often blesses rulers from above, especially in Carolingian and Ottonian works, and coins. The hand may hold a wreath or crown over the ruler's head, or place it on the head. A posthumous coin of Constantine the Great (the "deification issue") had shown

8800-479: The hand may show the sleeve of a garment, sometimes of two layers, as at San Clemente, Rome . In blessing forms the hand often has a halo , which also may provide a convenient termination point. This may or may not be a cruciform halo, indicating the divinity, and specifically the Logos , or Pre-existing Christ (see below). The hand is regularly seen in depictions of certain scenes, though it may occur on occasion in

8910-421: The hand of God appear frequently in the corpus of rabbinic literature and expand upon anthropomorphic biblical narratives. In Christian art, the hand of God has traditionally been understood as an artistic metaphor that is not intended to indicate that the deity was physically present or seen in any subject depicted. In the late antique and early medieval periods, the representation of the full-bodied figure of God

9020-430: The hand of God is seen appearing from above in a fairly restricted number of narrative contexts, often in a blessing gesture, but sometimes performing an action. Gertrud Schiller distinguishes three functions of the hand in Christian art: as symbol of either God's presence or the voice of God, or signifying God's acceptance of a sacrifice. In later Christian works it tends to be replaced by a fully realized figure of God

9130-405: The hand of God usually occupies the form of a blessing gesture, if they are not performing an action, though some just show an open hand. The normal blessing gesture is to point with the index and next finger, with the other fingers curled back and thumb relaxed. There is also a more complicated Byzantine gesture that attempts to represent the Greek letter chi , Christ 's initial, which looks like

9240-461: The hand reaching down to pull up a veiled figure of Constantine in a quadriga , in a famously mixed message that combined pagan conventions, where an eagle drew deified emperors up to the heavens, with Christian iconography. From the late 4th century coins of Late Antique rulers such as Arcadius (and his empress), Galla Placidia and others show them being crowned by it – it was in fact mostly used for empresses, and often only appears on issues from

9350-417: The hand remained in use far longer than in the Western church, and is still found in modern icons, normally emerging from circular bands. Apart from the narrative scenes mentioned above it is especially often found in icons of military saints , and in some Russian icons is identified by the usual inscription as belonging to Jesus Christ. In other versions of the same composition a small figure of Christ of about

9460-523: The hand represents the justice-dispensing power of God as being literally in the hands of the king. The hand can also be shown with images of saints, either actioning a miracle associated with a saint – in Catholic theology it is God who performs all miracles – or above an iconic scene. In the Bayeux Tapestry the hand appears over Westminster Abbey in the scene showing the funeral of Edward

9570-476: The harvest wreath ( wieniec ) is a central symbol of the Harvest Festival, Dozynki . Wreaths are made of different shapes and sizes, using harvested grain plants, fruit and nuts. The wreath is then brought to a church for a blessing by a priest. The tradition includes a procession to the family home from the church, with a girl or young woman leading the procession and carrying the wreath. The procession

9680-495: The iconoclasts left some vestiges of the thumb and the receding fingers intact. A thumbnail has been carved into the thumb. Foerster asserts that the hand of God originally held a Torah scroll, identifying the small piece of raised marble located between the thumb and fingers as a Torah scroll. The hand of God appears in the early 14th-century Haggadah , the Birds' Head Haggadah , produced in Germany. Two hands of God appear underneath

9790-418: The map below), one of which was dedicated to the needs of the Jewish community and transformed into a building of worship. This location on the outskirts of the city, as well as modesty of the first building, are often used as an argument to emphasize the small size of the community. With the expansions and reconstructions made necessary by its development, the synagogue ended up becoming the central nucleus and

9900-503: The military standards of the Roman army . Below the painting of Moses and the Israelites is a painting of a temple, portrayed explicitly as a contemporary Roman-style temple. The temple's pediment is low and is decorated with a rinceau design, often and originally found in Roman buildings. The temple also features Corinthian columns, characteristic of both earlier Hellenistic and contemporary Roman architecture . At either end of each of

10010-598: The most commonly used symbols to address achievement throughout Greece and Rome. Laurel wreaths were used to crown victorious athletes at the original Olympic Games and are still worn in Italy by university students who just graduated. Other types of plants used to make wreath crowns also had symbolic meaning. For example, oak leaves symbolized wisdom, and were associated with Zeus , who according to Greek mythology made his decisions while resting in an oak grove. The Twelve Tables , dating to 450 BC, refer to funeral wreaths as

10120-537: The most important building of a small Jewish quarter. The last state of the building, with its famous frescoes, is thus the second phase of the second synagogue to occupy the place. The decoration of the Torah shrine consists of two elements. The first one includes, "the uppermost step of the niche-block, the columns of the facade, and the intrados of the archivolt." The second one involves important religious scenes, objects and pictures of Jewish worship. The interior of

10230-628: The motif reaches its peak in Romanesque art, where it occasionally appears in all sorts of contexts – indicating the "right" speaker in a miniature of a disputation , or as the only decoration at the top of a monastic charter . A number of Anglo-Saxon coins of Edward the Elder and Æthelred the Unready has a large hand dominating their reverse sides, although religious symbols were rarely so prominent on Anglo-Saxon coins. In Eastern Orthodox icons

10340-493: The neck. The word wreath comes from Middle English wrethe and from Old English writha 'band'. Wreaths were a design used in ancient times in southern Europe . The most well-known are pieces of Etruscan civilization jewelry, made of gold or other precious metals. Symbols from Greek myths often appear in the designs, embossed in precious metal at the ends of the wreath. Ancient Roman writers referred to Etruscan corona sutilis , which were wreaths with their leaves sewn onto

10450-433: The niche consists of three parts: the conch had a light-blue color that faded all at once after the excavation. The outer surface of the shell is a rich green color. The columns and the bottom of the niche are painted to look like marble revetments. The bottom of the niche consists of five rectangular panels that are framed on top and bottom by pink bands, and there are red vertical bands to separate them from each other. Out of

10560-529: The original number. They include the Binding of Isaac and other Genesis stories, Moses receiving the Tablets of the Law , Moses leading the Hebrews out of Egypt , Moses at the burning bush , the visions of Ezekiel , a figure of Enoch or possibly Abraham , the water miracle in the desert , the return of Ark from the temple of Dagon , Ezra with the scrolls and many others. The Hand of God motif

10670-533: The same size as the hand takes its place, which is also seen in many Western works from about 1000 onwards. The earliest surviving icon of the Virgin Mary , of about 600 from Saint Catherine's Monastery , has an often overlooked hand, suggesting to Robin Cormack that the emphasis of the subject is on the Incarnation rather than a simple Virgin and Child . Another of the very few major Eastern works showing

10780-667: The structure was preserved virtually intact, and it had extensive figurative wall-paintings, which came as a considerable surprise to scholars. These paintings are now displayed in the National Museum of Damascus . Dura-Europos was a small garrison and trading city on the river Euphrates , and usually on the frontier between the Eastern Roman Empire and the Parthian and finally the Sassanid Empires of Persia . It changed hands at various points but

10890-595: The surviving paintings were begun in the synagogue. The large-scale pictorial art in the synagogue came as a surprise to scholars, although they already suspected that there was a tradition of Jewish narrative religious art at this period, which at the time of the discovery were thought to have all been lost, leaving only traces in later Christian art. The discovery of the synagogue helps to dispel narrow interpretations of Judaism's historical prohibition of visual images. The synagogue of Dura-Europos offers negligible influence on later Christian and Jewish artwork. The time that

11000-533: The synagogue and a number of other buildings there appear to have been destroyed, possibly in 2014. The presence of a Jewish community in Dura Europos long preceded the construction of the synagogue. The cities of Mesopotamia had flourishing Jewish communities, whose members descended both from exiles during the time of Nebuchadnezzar II and from refugees from the Jewish–Roman wars under Vespasian and Hadrian . The Jewish diaspora had an official representative in

11110-523: The temple's two pediments are acroteria in the form of winged victory or Nike figures. Both the architectural ornament of the acroteria and the Nike symbol stem are characteristic of Hellenistic and contemporary Roman architecture. Located on the western wall of the synagogue, just left of the Torah niche , is a mural depicting the Tabernacle . The artist did not follow the biblical description of

11220-485: The text of the Dayenu song, dispensing the manna from heaven. The Birds' Head Haggadah is a particularly important visual source from the medieval period, as it is the earliest surviving example of a medieval illuminated Hebrew Haggadah. Dura-Europos synagogue The Dura-Europos synagogue was an ancient Jewish former synagogue discovered in 1932 at Dura-Europos , Syria . The former synagogue contained

11330-403: The top left and right corners of the panel towards the middle. The central panel of the niche consists of a veined black diamond with a yellow circle in the middle. The diamond is framed with the same bead-and-reel design that surrounded the second and the fourth panels. The four triangles that are on the side of the diamond are decorated in brown colors. The figural decoration above the niche on

11440-585: The top of the Maypole to capture the May Day wreath perched at the top of the pole. The winner of this contest would wear the wreath as his crown, and would be recognized as the May Day King for the rest of the holiday. Plants traditionally used to make Midsummer wreaths and garlands include white lilies, green birch , fennel , St. John's Wort , wormwood , vervain and flax . The flowers used in making

11550-620: The viewer, whereas Dura Europos they are not. In the León Bible, the Hand of God bestows the benedictio latina , whereas in Dura-Europos it makes an appearance with no such manuscript. The Dura painting shows Abraham's hand free of Isaac 's hair, whereas in the León miniature, it is grasping it. Finally, in the Dura painting Abraham is using a knife as opposed to the sword he uses in the León Bible. Wreath A wreath ( / r iː θ / )

11660-416: The walls of the main "Assembly Room", using three levels of pictures over a dado frieze of symbols in most places, reaching a height of about 7 metres. Stylistically they are provincial versions of contemporary Graeco-Roman style and technique; several different artists seem to have worked on them. Technically they are not fresco (paint fused into wet plaster) but tempera over plaster. Earlier parts of

11770-403: Was Roman from 165 AD. Before the final Persian destruction of the town in 256–257 AD, parts of the synagogue which abutted the main city wall were apparently requisitioned and filled with sand as a defensive measure. The city was abandoned after its fall and never resettled, and the lower walls of the rooms remained buried and largely intact until excavated. The short measure of time during which it

11880-490: Was commonly used was the laurel wreath . The use of this wreath comes from the Greek myth involving Apollo , Zeus' son and the god of life and light, who fell in love with the nymph Daphne . When he pursued her she fled and asked the river god Peneus to help her. Peneus turned her into a laurel tree. From that day, Apollo wore a wreath of laurel on his head. Laurel wreaths became associated with what Apollo embodied; victory, achievement and status and would later become one of

11990-400: Was marked with a procession of 400 maidens in white and green, carrying "gilded crowns, crowns made of flowers, and wreaths made of laurel mixed with tulips", and led by the mayor's wife. Saint Lucy is traditionally depicted in Christian artwork wearing a wreath as a crown, and on the wreath stand lit candles symbolizing the light of the world represented by Christ. Sweden in particular has

12100-578: Was used ensured that it would have limited impact upon Jewish or Christian art. The excavations also discovered very important wall-paintings from places of worship of Christianity at the Dura-Europos church . In addition, there were wall paintings edifying Mithraism , and fragmentary Christian texts in Hebrew . In the Syrian Civil War , the site was occupied by ISIL , and what was left of

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