The Dextroscope is a medical equipment system that creates a virtual reality (VR) environment in which surgeons can plan neurosurgical and other surgical procedures.
95-532: The Dextroscope is designed to show a patient's 3D anatomical relationships and pathology in great detail. Although its main purpose is for planning surgery, the dextroscope has also proven useful in research in cardiology , radiology and medical education. The Dextroscope started as a research project in the mid-90s at the Kent Ridge Digital Labs research institute (part of Singapore's Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR)). It
190-408: A biopsy of nervous tissue is taken from the brain or spinal cord to aid in diagnosis. Biopsy is usually requested after a mass is detected by medical imaging . With autopsies, the principal work of the neuropathologist is to help in the post-mortem diagnosis of various conditions that affect the central nervous system. Biopsies can also consist of the skin. Epidermal nerve fiber density testing (ENFD)
285-446: A combination known as general pathology. Cytopathology (sometimes referred to as "cytology") is a branch of pathology that studies and diagnoses diseases on the cellular level. It is usually used to aid in the diagnosis of cancer, but also helps in the diagnosis of certain infectious diseases and other inflammatory conditions as well as thyroid lesions, diseases involving sterile body cavities (peritoneal, pleural, and cerebrospinal), and
380-438: A conclusive diagnosis, and a skin biopsy is taken to be examined under the microscope using usual histological tests. In some cases, additional specialized testing needs to be performed on biopsies, including immunofluorescence , immunohistochemistry , electron microscopy , flow cytometry , and molecular-pathologic analysis. One of the greatest challenges of dermatopathology is its scope. More than 1500 different disorders of
475-525: A fixative that stabilizes the tissues to prevent decay. The most common fixative is formalin , although frozen section fixing is also common. To see the tissue under a microscope, the sections are stained with one or more pigments. The aim of staining is to reveal cellular components; counterstains are used to provide contrast. Histochemistry refers to the science of using chemical reactions between laboratory chemicals and components within tissue. The histological slides are then interpreted diagnostically and
570-549: A formal area of specialty was not fully developed until the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with the advent of detailed study of microbiology . In the 19th century, physicians had begun to understand that disease-causing pathogens, or "germs" (a catch-all for disease-causing, or pathogenic, microbes, such as bacteria , viruses , fungi , amoebae , molds , protists , and prions ) existed and were capable of reproduction and multiplication, replacing earlier beliefs in humors or even spiritual agents, that had dominated for much of
665-471: A general examination or an autopsy ). Anatomical pathology is itself divided into subfields, the main divisions being surgical pathology , cytopathology , and forensic pathology . Anatomical pathology is one of two main divisions of the medical practice of pathology, the other being clinical pathology, the diagnosis of disease through the laboratory analysis of bodily fluids and tissues. Sometimes, pathologists practice both anatomical and clinical pathology,
760-471: A great variety of deep-brain and skull base tumors ( pituitary adenomas , craniopharyngiomas , arachnoid cysts , colloid cysts , cavernomas , hemangioblastomas , chordomas , epidermoids , gliomas , jugular schwannomas , aqueductal stenosis, stenosis of Monro foramen, hippocampal sclerosis ). Brain and spine pathology, such as cervical fractures of the spine, syringomyelia , and sacral nerve root neurinomas have been evaluated. For other uses of
855-433: A number of distinct but inter-related medical specialties that diagnose disease, mostly through analysis of tissue and human cell samples. Idiomatically, "a pathology" may also refer to the predicted or actual progression of particular diseases (as in the statement "the many different forms of cancer have diverse pathologies", in which case a more proper choice of word would be " pathophysiologies "). The suffix pathy
950-437: A number of visual and microscopic tests and an especially large variety of tests of the biophysical properties of tissue samples involving automated analysers and cultures . Sometimes the general term "laboratory medicine specialist" is used to refer to those working in clinical pathology, including medical doctors, Ph.D.s and doctors of pharmacology. Immunopathology , the study of an organism's immune response to infection,
1045-543: A pathologist generally requires specialty -training after medical school , but individual nations vary some in the medical licensing required of pathologists. In the United States, pathologists are physicians ( D.O. or M.D. ) who have completed a four-year undergraduate program, four years of medical school training, and three to four years of postgraduate training in the form of a pathology residency . Training may be within two primary specialties, as recognized by
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#17327936713421140-416: A significant portion of all general pathology practice is concerned with cancer , the practice of oncology makes extensive use of both anatomical and clinical pathology in diagnosis and treatment. In particular, biopsy, resection , and blood tests are all examples of pathology work that is essential for the diagnoses of many kinds of cancer and for the staging of cancerous masses . In a similar fashion,
1235-425: A suspicious lesion , whereas excisional biopsies remove the entire lesion, and are similar to therapeutic surgical resections. Excisional biopsies of skin lesions and gastrointestinal polyps are very common. The pathologist's interpretation of a biopsy is critical to establishing the diagnosis of a benign or malignant tumor, and can differentiate between different types and grades of cancer, as well as determining
1330-459: A vast array of species, but with a significantly smaller number of practitioners, so understanding of disease in non-human animals, especially as regards veterinary practice , varies considerably by species. Nevertheless, significant amounts of pathology research are conducted on animals, for two primary reasons: 1) The origins of diseases are typically zoonotic in nature, and many infectious pathogens have animal vectors and, as such, understanding
1425-489: A way that surgeons are familiar with. This demonstration capability makes it also useful as a base for medical educators in which to convey 3D information to students. In order to reach a larger group of people in a classroom or auditorium, a version was manufactured called Dextrobeam . The Dextroscope was installed, (among other medical and research institutions) at: The Dextroscope was a pre-operative planning system which created 3D patient-specific virtual models. To bring
1520-459: A wide range of other body sites. Cytopathology is generally used on samples of free cells or tissue fragments (in contrast to histopathology, which studies whole tissues) and cytopathologic tests are sometimes called smear tests because the samples may be smeared across a glass microscope slide for subsequent staining and microscopic examination. However, cytology samples may be prepared in other ways, including cytocentrifugation . Dermatopathology
1615-418: A wide variety of diseases, including those caused by fungi , oomycetes , bacteria , viruses , viroids , virus-like organisms, phytoplasmas , protozoa , nematodes and parasitic plants . Damage caused by insects , mites , vertebrate , and other small herbivores is not considered a part of the domain of plant pathology. The field is connected to plant disease epidemiology and especially concerned with
1710-441: A “danger zone” though. The clinically important layer is the aponeurosis. Scalp lacerations through this layer mean that the "anchoring" of the superficial layers is lost and gaping of the wound occurs which would require suturing. This can be achieved with simple or vertical mattress sutures using a non-absorbable material, which are subsequently removed at around days 7–10. All the current hair transplantation techniques utilize
1805-496: Is a more recently developed neuropathology test in which a punch skin biopsy is taken to identify small fiber neuropathies by analyzing the nerve fibers of the skin. This test is becoming available in select labs as well as many universities; it replaces the traditional nerve biopsy test as less invasive . Pulmonary pathology is a subspecialty of anatomic (and especially surgical) pathology that deals with diagnosis and characterization of neoplastic and non-neoplastic diseases of
1900-445: Is a small piece of tissue removed primarily for surgical pathology analysis, most often in order to render a definitive diagnosis. Types of biopsies include core biopsies, which are obtained through the use of large-bore needles, sometimes under the guidance of radiological techniques such as ultrasound , CT scan , or magnetic resonance imaging . Incisional biopsies are obtained through diagnostic surgical procedures that remove part of
1995-428: Is a subspecialty of anatomic pathology that focuses on the skin and the rest of the integumentary system as an organ. It is unique, in that there are two paths a physician can take to obtain the specialization. All general pathologists and general dermatologists train in the pathology of the skin, so the term dermatopathologist denotes either of these who has reached a certain level of accreditation and experience; in
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#17327936713422090-403: Is able to reach inside and manipulate the image interior. The Dextroscope provides virtual tools to manipulate the 3D image. The surgeon can use them within the virtual person to extract surgically relevant structures like the cortex or a tumor , extract blood vessels , or to adjust the color and transparency of displayed structures to see deep inside the patient. The surgeon can simulated
2185-404: Is also heavily, and increasingly, informed upon by neuroscience and other of the biological cognitive sciences . Mental or social disorders or behaviours seen as generally unhealthy or excessive in a given individual, to the point where they cause harm or severe disruption to the person's lifestyle, are often called "pathological" (e.g., pathological gambling or pathological liar ). Although
2280-534: Is also possible to take a Royal College of Pathologists diploma in forensic pathology, dermatopathology, or cytopathology, recognising additional specialist training and expertise and to get specialist accreditation in forensic pathology, pediatric pathology , and neuropathology. All postgraduate medical training and education in the UK is overseen by the General Medical Council. In France, pathology
2375-411: Is considered a subfield of anatomical pathology. A physician who specializes in neuropathology, usually by completing a fellowship after a residency in anatomical or general pathology, is called a neuropathologist. In day-to-day clinical practice, a neuropathologist generates diagnoses for patients. If a disease of the nervous system is suspected, and the diagnosis cannot be made by less invasive methods,
2470-439: Is divided into a number of subdisciplines within the distinct but deeply interconnected aims of biological research and medical practice . Biomedical research into disease incorporates the work of a vast variety of life science specialists, whereas, in most parts of the world, to be licensed to practice pathology as a medical specialty, one has to complete medical school and secure a license to practice medicine. Structurally,
2565-595: Is named) having developed methods of diagnosis and prognosis for a number of diseases. The medical practices of the Romans and those of the Byzantines continued from these Greek roots, but, as with many areas of scientific inquiry, growth in understanding of medicine stagnated somewhat after the Classical Era , but continued to slowly develop throughout numerous cultures. Notably, many advances were made in
2660-456: Is often applied in a context that is as much scientific as directly medical and encompasses the development of molecular and genetic approaches to the diagnosis and classification of human diseases, the design and validation of predictive biomarkers for treatment response and disease progression, and the susceptibility of individuals of different genetic constitution to particular disorders. The crossover between molecular pathology and epidemiology
2755-715: Is represented by a related field " molecular pathological epidemiology ". Molecular pathology is commonly used in diagnosis of cancer and infectious diseases. Molecular Pathology is primarily used to detect cancers such as melanoma, brainstem glioma, brain tumors as well as many other types of cancer and infectious diseases. Techniques are numerous but include quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR), multiplex PCR , DNA microarray , in situ hybridization , DNA sequencing , antibody-based immunofluorescence tissue assays, molecular profiling of pathogens, and analysis of bacterial genes for antimicrobial resistance . Techniques used are based on analyzing samples of DNA and RNA. Pathology
2850-411: Is separated into two distinct specialties, anatomical pathology, and clinical pathology. Residencies for both lasts four years. Residency in anatomical pathology is open to physicians only, while clinical pathology is open to both physicians and pharmacists . At the end of the second year of clinical pathology residency, residents can choose between general clinical pathology and a specialization in one of
2945-427: Is sometimes considered to fall within the domain of clinical pathology. Hematopathology is the study of diseases of blood cells (including constituents such as white blood cells , red blood cells , and platelets ) and the tissues, and organs comprising the hematopoietic system. The term hematopoietic system refers to tissues and organs that produce and/or primarily host hematopoietic cells and includes bone marrow ,
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3040-427: Is sometimes used to indicate a state of disease in cases of both physical ailment (as in cardiomyopathy ) and psychological conditions (such as psychopathy ). A physician practicing pathology is called a pathologist . As a field of general inquiry and research, pathology addresses components of disease: cause, mechanisms of development ( pathogenesis ), structural alterations of cells (morphologic changes), and
3135-530: Is the best and most definitive evidence of disease (or lack thereof) in cases where tissue is surgically removed from a patient. These determinations are usually accomplished by a combination of gross (i.e., macroscopic) and histologic (i.e., microscopic) examination of the tissue, and may involve evaluations of molecular properties of the tissue by immunohistochemistry or other laboratory tests. There are two major types of specimens submitted for surgical pathology analysis: biopsies and surgical resections. A biopsy
3230-423: Is the generating of visual representations of the interior of a body for clinical analysis and medical intervention. Medical imaging reveals details of internal physiology that help medical professionals plan appropriate treatments for tissue infection and trauma. Medical imaging is also central in supplying the biometric data necessary to establish baseline features of anatomy and physiology so as to increase
3325-445: Is the one known as micro grafting because it produces naturalistic results. It is akin to follicular unit extraction , although less advanced. A knife with multiple blades is used to remove tissue from donor areas. The removed tissue is then fragmented into smaller chunks under direct vision inspection (i.e., without a microscope). The scalp is a common site for the development of tumours including: The scalp plays an important role in
3420-409: Is the study of disease . The word pathology also refers to the study of disease in general, incorporating a wide range of biology research fields and medical practices. However, when used in the context of modern medical treatment, the term is often used in a narrower fashion to refer to processes and tests that fall within the contemporary medical field of "general pathology", an area that includes
3515-505: Is to classify mental illness, elucidate its underlying causes, and guide clinical psychiatric treatment accordingly. Although diagnosis and classification of mental norms and disorders is largely the purview of psychiatry—the results of which are guidelines such as the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders , which attempt to classify mental disease mostly on behavioural evidence, though not without controversy —the field
3610-615: Is widely used for gene therapy and disease diagnosis. Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology is one of nine dental specialties recognized by the American Dental Association , and is sometimes considered a specialty of both dentistry and pathology. Oral Pathologists must complete three years of post doctoral training in an accredited program and subsequently obtain diplomate status from the American Board of Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology. The specialty focuses on
3705-495: The Ancient Greek roots pathos ( πάθος ), meaning "experience" or "suffering", and -logia ( -λογία ), meaning "study of". The term is of early 16th-century origin, and became increasingly popularized after the 1530s. The study of pathology, including the detailed examination of the body, including dissection and inquiry into specific maladies, dates back to antiquity. Rudimentary understanding of many conditions
3800-697: The Bracco Group ), a company spun-off from the Kent Ridge Digital Labs research institute in Singapore. They received USA FDA 510(K) - class II (2002) clearance, CE Marking - class I (2002), China SFDA Registration - class II (2004) and Taiwan Registration - type P (Radiology) (2007). For a comprehensive overview of the Dextroscope refer to the Springer International Publishing book chaper. Pathology Pathology
3895-417: The aesthetics of the face. Androgenic alopecia , or male pattern hair loss, is a common cause of concern to men. It may be treated with varying rates success by medication (e.g. finasteride , minoxidil ) or hair transplantation. If the scalp is heavy and loose, a common change with ageing , the forehead may be low, heavy and deeply lined. The brow lift procedure aims to address these concerns. Scalping
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3990-436: The face at the front, and by the neck at the sides and back. The scientific study of hair and scalp is called trichology . The scalp is usually described as having five layers, which can be remembered using the mnemonic 'SCALP': The blood supply of the scalp is via five pairs of arteries, three from the external carotid and two from the internal carotid : Because the walls of the blood vessels are firmly attached to
4085-407: The horticulture of species that are of high importance to the human diet or other human utility. Scalp The scalp is the area of the head where head hair grows. It is made up of skin, layers of connective and fibrous tissues, and the membrane of the skull. Anatomically, the scalp is part of the epicranium , a collection of structures covering the cranium . The scalp is bordered by
4180-409: The kidneys . In a medical setting, renal pathologists work closely with nephrologists and transplant surgeons , who typically obtain diagnostic specimens via percutaneous renal biopsy. The renal pathologist must synthesize findings from traditional microscope histology, electron microscopy , and immunofluorescence to obtain a definitive diagnosis. Medical renal diseases may affect the glomerulus ,
4275-416: The lungs and thoracic pleura . Diagnostic specimens are often obtained via bronchoscopic transbronchial biopsy, CT -guided percutaneous biopsy, or video-assisted thoracic surgery . These tests can be necessary to diagnose between infection, inflammation , or fibrotic conditions. Renal pathology is a subspecialty of anatomic pathology that deals with the diagnosis and characterization of disease of
4370-488: The lymph nodes , thymus , spleen , and other lymphoid tissues. In the United States, hematopathology is a board certified subspecialty (licensed under the American Board of Pathology) practiced by those physicians who have completed a general pathology residency (anatomic, clinical, or combined) and an additional year of fellowship training in hematology. The hematopathologist reviews biopsies of lymph nodes, bone marrows and other tissues involved by an infiltrate of cells of
4465-475: The tubules and interstitium , the vessels, or a combination of these compartments. Surgical pathology is one of the primary areas of practice for most anatomical pathologists. Surgical pathology involves the gross and microscopic examination of surgical specimens, as well as biopsies submitted by surgeons and non-surgeons such as general internists , medical subspecialists , dermatologists , and interventional radiologists . Often an excised tissue sample
4560-488: The 17th century, the study of rudimentary microscopy was underway and examination of tissues had led British Royal Society member Robert Hooke to coin the word " cell ", setting the stage for later germ theory . Modern pathology began to develop as a distinct field of inquiry during the 19th Century through natural philosophers and physicians that studied disease and the informal study of what they termed "pathological anatomy" or "morbid anatomy". However, pathology as
4655-534: The American Board of Pathology: [anatomical pathology and clinical pathology, each of which requires separate board certification. The American Osteopathic Board of Pathology also recognizes four primary specialties: anatomic pathology, dermatopathology, forensic pathology, and laboratory medicine . Pathologists may pursue specialised fellowship training within one or more subspecialties of either anatomical or clinical pathology. Some of these subspecialties permit additional board certification, while others do not. In
4750-557: The Dextroscope 3D interaction console and manipulates the Virtual Patient using both hands, similar to real life. Using stereoscopic visualisations displayed via a mirror, the surgeon sees the Virtual Patient floating behind the mirror but within easy reach of the hands. The surgeon uses flexible 3D hand movements to rotate and manipulate the object of interest. The Dextroscope allows virtual segmentation of organs and structures, making accurate 3D measurements, etc. In one hand
4845-573: The Dextroscope in neurosurgery refer to . The Dextroscope has been applied also outside of neurosurgery to benefit any patient presenting a surgical challenge: an anatomical or structural complexity that requires planning of the surgical (or interventional) approach, for example, ENT orthopedic, trauma and cranio-facial surgery , cardiac surgery and liver resection . Dextroscope is not just for surgeons – radiologists use it, too. The rapid growth in multi-modal diagnostic imaging data routinely available has increased their workload tremendously. Using
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#17327936713424940-403: The Dextroscope, radiologists can reconstruct multimodal models from high volumes of 2D slices – hence facilitating a better understanding of the 3D anatomical structures and helping with the diagnosis. Furthermore, the Dextroscope virtual reality environment helps bridge the gap between radiology and surgery - by allowing the radiologist to easily demonstrate to surgeons important 3D structures in
5035-487: The US, either a general pathologist or a dermatologist can undergo a 1 to 2 year fellowship in the field of dermatopathology. The completion of this fellowship allows one to take a subspecialty board examination, and becomes a board certified dermatopathologist. Dermatologists are able to recognize most skin diseases based on their appearances, anatomic distributions, and behavior. Sometimes, however, those criteria do not lead to
5130-696: The United Kingdom, pathologists are physicians licensed by the UK General Medical Council . The training to become a pathologist is under the oversight of the Royal College of Pathologists . After four to six years of undergraduate medical study, trainees proceed to a two-year foundation program. Full-time training in histopathology currently lasts between five and five and a half years and includes specialist training in surgical pathology, cytopathology, and autopsy pathology. It
5225-429: The accuracy with which early or fine-detail abnormalities are detected. These diagnostic techniques are often performed in combination with general pathology procedures and are themselves often essential to developing new understanding of the pathogenesis of a given disease and tracking the progress of disease in specific medical cases. Examples of important subdivisions in medical imaging include radiology (which uses
5320-429: The activity of specific molecular pathways in the tumor. Surgical resection specimens are obtained by the therapeutic surgical removal of an entire diseased area or organ (and occasionally multiple organs). These procedures are often intended as definitive surgical treatment of a disease in which the diagnosis is already known or strongly suspected, but pathological analysis of these specimens remains important in confirming
5415-462: The anterior half drain to the parotid nodes. The lymph eventually reaches the submandibular and deep cervical nodes. The 'danger area of the scalp' is the area of loose connective tissue. This is because pus and blood spread easily within it, and can pass into the cranial cavity along the emissary veins. Therefore, infection can spread from the scalp to the meninges, which could lead to meningitis. further studies are needed to conclude that it’s actually
5510-423: The basis of the involved sample types (comparing, for example, cytopathology , hematopathology , and histopathology ), organs (as in renal pathology ), and physiological systems ( oral pathology ), as well as on the basis of the focus of the examination (as with forensic pathology ). Pathology is a significant field in modern medical diagnosis and medical research . The Latin term pathology derives from
5605-399: The consequences of changes (clinical manifestations). In common medical practice, general pathology is mostly concerned with analyzing known clinical abnormalities that are markers or precursors for both infectious and non-infectious disease, and is conducted by experts in one of two major specialties, anatomical pathology and clinical pathology . Further divisions in specialty exist on
5700-525: The diagnosis, clinical management and investigation of diseases that affect the oral cavity and surrounding maxillofacial structures including but not limited to odontogenic , infectious, epithelial , salivary gland , bone and soft tissue pathologies. It also significantly intersects with the field of dental pathology . Although concerned with a broad variety of diseases of the oral cavity, they have roles distinct from otorhinolaryngologists ("ear, nose, and throat" specialists), and speech pathologists ,
5795-442: The disciplines, but they can not practice anatomical pathology, nor can anatomical pathology residents practice clinical pathology. Though separate fields in terms of medical practice, a number of areas of inquiry in medicine and medical science either overlap greatly with general pathology, work in tandem with it, or contribute significantly to the understanding of the pathology of a given disease or its course in an individual. As
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#17327936713425890-420: The examination of a biopsy or surgical specimen by a pathologist, after the specimen has been processed and histological sections have been placed onto glass slides. This contrasts with the methods of cytopathology, which uses free cells or tissue fragments. Histopathological examination of tissues starts with surgery , biopsy , or autopsy. The tissue is removed from the body of an organism and then placed in
5985-401: The extent of the structure manually). A virtual ‘pick’ tool allows the user to pick a segmented object and uncouple it from its surroundings for closer inspection. A measurement tool provides accurate measurement of straight and curving 3D structures such as the scalp , and measure angles, such as those between vessels or bony structures (for example, when planning the insertion of a screw into
6080-454: The fibrous tissue of the superficial fascial layer, cut ends of vessels here do not readily retract; even a small scalp wound may bleed profusely. Venous drainage The veins of the scalp accompany the arteries and thus have similar names, e.g. Supratrochlear and supraorbital veins, which unite at the medial angle of the eye, and form the angular vein, which further continues as the facial vein. The superficial temporal vein descends in front of
6175-504: The hematopoietic system. In addition, the hematopathologist may be in charge of flow cytometric and/or molecular hematopathology studies. Molecular pathology is focused upon the study and diagnosis of disease through the examination of molecules within organs, tissues or bodily fluids . Molecular pathology is multidisciplinary by nature and shares some aspects of practice with both anatomic pathology and clinical pathology, molecular biology , biochemistry , proteomics and genetics . It
6270-425: The human host. To determine causes of diseases, medical experts used the most common and widely accepted assumptions or symptoms of their times, a general principle of approach that persists in modern medicine. Modern medicine was particularly advanced by further developments of the microscope to analyze tissues, to which Rudolf Virchow gave a significant contribution, leading to a slew of research developments. By
6365-431: The identity of a corpse. The requirements for becoming a licensed practitioner of forensic pathology varies from country to country (and even within a given nation ) but typically a minimal requirement is a medical doctorate with a specialty in general or anatomical pathology with subsequent study in forensic medicine. The methods forensic scientists use to determine death include examination of tissue specimens to identify
6460-490: The imaging technologies of X-ray radiography ) magnetic resonance imaging , medical ultrasonography (or ultrasound), endoscopy , elastography , tactile imaging , thermography , medical photography , nuclear medicine and functional imaging techniques such as positron emission tomography . Though they do not strictly relay images, readings from diagnostics tests involving electroencephalography , magnetoencephalography , and electrocardiography often give hints as to
6555-435: The largest body of research in veterinary pathology. Animal testing remains a controversial practice, even in cases where it is used to research treatment for human disease. As in human medical pathology, the practice of veterinary pathology is customarily divided into the two main fields of anatomical and clinical pathology. Although the pathogens and their mechanics differ greatly from those of animals, plants are subject to
6650-431: The late 1920s to early 1930s pathology was deemed a medical specialty. Combined with developments in the understanding of general physiology , by the beginning of the 20th century, the study of pathology had begun to split into a number of distinct fields, resulting in the development of a large number of modern specialties within pathology and related disciplines of diagnostic medicine . The modern practice of pathology
6745-435: The latter of which helps diagnose many neurological or neuromuscular conditions relevant to speech phonology or swallowing . Owing to the availability of the oral cavity to non-invasive examination, many conditions in the study of oral disease can be diagnosed, or at least suspected, from gross examination, but biopsies, cell smears, and other tissue analysis remain important diagnostic tools in oral pathology. Becoming
6840-448: The mechanisms of action for these pathogens in non-human hosts is essential to the understanding and application of epidemiology and 2) those animals that share physiological and genetic traits with humans can be used as surrogates for the study of the disease and potential treatments as well as the effects of various synthetic products. For this reason, as well as their roles as livestock and companion animals , mammals generally have
6935-551: The medieval era of Islam (see Medicine in medieval Islam ), during which numerous texts of complex pathologies were developed, also based on the Greek tradition. Even so, growth in complex understanding of disease mostly languished until knowledge and experimentation again began to proliferate in the Renaissance , Enlightenment , and Baroque eras, following the resurgence of the empirical method at new centers of scholarship. By
7030-465: The patient data into the operating room, in particular to neurosurgery, the DEX-Ray augmented reality neurosurgical navigation system was developed in 2006-2008. DEX-Ray overlaid 3D virtual patient information over a video stream obtained from a proprietary handheld tracked video probe designed by the company. This allowed image guidance by displaying co-registered planning data over the real images of
7125-642: The patient seen by the video camera, so that the clinician had 'see-through' visualization on the patient's head, and helped plan the craniotomy and guide during the intervention. The DEX-Ray was clinically tested at the Singapore National Neuroscience Institute (Singapore) and at the Hospital Clinic Barcelona (Spain). It was not released as a commercial product. The Dextroscope and Dextrobeam were products of Volume Interactions Pte Ltd (a member of
7220-494: The patient's existing hair. The aim of the surgical procedure is to use such hair as efficiently as possible. The right candidates for this type of surgery are individuals who still have healthy hair on the sides and the back of the head in order that hair for the transplant may be harvested from those areas. Different techniques are utilized in order to obtain the desired cosmetic results; factors considered may include hair color, texture, curliness, etc. The most utilized technique
7315-518: The presence or absence of natural disease and other microscopic findings, interpretations of toxicology on body tissues and fluids to determine the chemical cause of overdoses, poisonings or other cases involving toxic agents, and examinations of physical trauma . Forensic pathology is a major component in the trans-disciplinary field of forensic science . Histopathology refers to the microscopic examination of various forms of human tissue . Specifically, in clinical medicine, histopathology refers to
7410-477: The previous 1,500 years in European medicine. With the new understanding of causative agents, physicians began to compare the characteristics of one germ's symptoms as they developed within an affected individual to another germ's characteristics and symptoms. This approach led to the foundational understanding that diseases are able to replicate themselves, and that they can have many profound and varied effects on
7505-485: The previous diagnosis. Clinical pathology is a medical specialty that is concerned with the diagnosis of disease based on the laboratory analysis of bodily fluids such as blood and urine , as well as tissues, using the tools of chemistry , clinical microbiology , hematology and molecular pathology. Clinical pathologists work in close collaboration with medical technologists , hospital administrations, and referring physicians. Clinical pathologists learn to administer
7600-400: The removal of bone using a simulated skull drilling tool. Typical structures that can be segmented are tumors, blood vessels, aneurysms , parts of the skull base, and organs . Segmentation is done either automatically (when the structures are demarcated clearly by their outstanding image intensity - such as the cortex) or through user interaction (using for example an outlining tool to define
7695-508: The resulting pathology report describes the histological findings and the opinion of the pathologist. In the case of cancer, this represents the tissue diagnosis required for most treatment protocols. Neuropathology is the study of disease of nervous system tissue, usually in the form of either surgical biopsies or sometimes whole brains in the case of autopsy. Neuropathology is a subspecialty of anatomic pathology, neurology , and neurosurgery . In many English-speaking countries, neuropathology
7790-423: The scalp, specifically, the occipitofrontalis muscle, is split into two main factions: the frontal belly or frontalis muscle is supplied by the temporal branch of facial nerve , while the occipital belly or occipitalis is supplied by the posterior auricular branch of facial nerve . Lymphatic channels from the posterior half of the scalp drain to occipital and posterior auricular nodes. Lymphatic channels from
7885-607: The skin exist, including cutaneous eruptions (" rashes ") and neoplasms . Therefore, dermatopathologists must maintain a broad base of knowledge in clinical dermatology, and be familiar with several other specialty areas in Medicine. Forensic pathology focuses on determining the cause of death by post-mortem examination of a corpse or partial remains. An autopsy is typically performed by a coroner or medical examiner, often during criminal investigations; in this role, coroners and medical examiners are also frequently asked to confirm
7980-455: The spine). The use of the Dextroscope has been reported for several neurosurgical clinical scenarios; - cerebral arteriovenous malformations - aneurysms - cranial nerve decompression (in cases of trigeminal neuralgia and hemifacial spasm) - meningiomas (convexity, falcine or parasagittal) - ependymomas or subependymomas - craniopagus twin separation - transnasal approaches - key-hole approaches - epilepsy - and
8075-517: The state and function of certain tissues in the brain and heart respectively. Pathology informatics is a subfield of health informatics . It is the use of information technology in pathology. It encompasses pathology laboratory operations, data analysis, and the interpretation of pathology-related information. Key aspects of pathology informatics include: Psychopathology is the study of mental illness , particularly of severe disorders. Informed heavily by both psychology and neurology , its purpose
8170-474: The study of disease is divided into many different fields that study or diagnose markers for disease using methods and technologies particular to specific scales, organs , and tissue types. Anatomical pathology ( Commonwealth ) or anatomic pathology ( United States ) is a medical specialty that is concerned with the diagnosis of disease based on the gross , microscopic , chemical, immunologic and molecular examination of organs, tissues, and whole bodies (as in
8265-419: The surface of the mirror. Instead he/she sees a virtual handle and stylus calibrated to appear in exactly the same position as the real handle and stylus. The virtual handle can serve as a drill tool, measurement tool, cutter, etc. The Dextroscope allows surgeons to interact with and manipulate the Virtual Patient, such as simulating inter-operative viewpoints or the removal of bone and soft tissue. The surgeon
8360-408: The surgeon holds a handle with a switch that, when pressed, allows the 3D image to be moved freely as if it were an object held in real space. The other hand holds a pencil shaped stylus that the surgeon uses to select tools from a virtual control panel and perform detailed manipulations on the 3D image. The surgeon does not see the stylus, handle or his/her hands directly, as they are hidden behind
8455-452: The tissue and blood analysis techniques of general pathology are of central significance to the investigation of serious infectious disease and as such inform significantly upon the fields of epidemiology , etiology , immunology , and parasitology . General pathology methods are of great importance to biomedical research into disease, wherein they are sometimes referred to as "experimental" or "investigative" pathology . Medical imaging
8550-418: The tragus, enters the parotid gland, and then joins the maxillary vein to form the retromandibular vein. The anterior part of it unites with the facial vein to form the common facial vein, which drains into jugular vein, and ultimately to the subclavian vein. The occipital vein terminates to the sub-occipital plexus. There are other veins, like the emissary vein and frontal diploic vein, which also contribute to
8645-474: The vast majority of lab work and research in pathology concerns the development of disease in humans, pathology is of significance throughout the biological sciences. Two main catch-all fields exist to represent most complex organisms capable of serving as host to a pathogen or other form of disease: veterinary pathology (concerned with all non-human species of kingdom of Animalia ) and phytopathology , which studies disease in plants. Veterinary pathology covers
8740-432: The venous drainage. Innervation is the connection of nerves to the scalp: the sensory and motor nerves innervating the scalp. The scalp is innervated by the following: The innervation of scalp can be remembered using the mnemonic 'Z-GLASS' for Z ygomaticotemporal nerve, G reater occipital nerve, L esser occipital nerve, A uriculotemporal nerve, S upratrochlear nerve, and S upraorbital nerve. The motor innervation of
8835-686: Was designed to be a practical variation of Virtual Reality which introduced an alternative to the prevalent trend of full immersion of the 1990s. Instead of immersing the whole user into a virtual reality, it just immersed the neurosurgeon into the patient data. The Dextroscope allows its user to interact intuitively with a Virtual Patient . This Virtual Patient is composed of computer-generated 3D multi-modal images obtained from any DICOM tomographic data including CT , MRI , MRA , MRV , functional MRI and CTA , PET , SPECT and Tractography . The Dextroscope can work with any multi-modality combination, supporting polygonal meshes as well. The surgeon sits at
8930-499: Was initially named the Virtual Workbench and underwent commercialization in 2000 by the company Volume Interactions Pte Ltd with the name Dextroscope. The Dextroscope was selected in 2021 by A*STAR as one of the 30 innovations and inventions that pushed scientific boundaries, made an economic impact or improved lives over its 30 years history ( A*STAR@30: 30 Innovations and Inventions Over Three Decades ). The Dextroscope
9025-512: Was present in most early societies and is attested to in the records of the earliest historical societies , including those of the Middle East , India , and China . By the Hellenic period of ancient Greece , a concerted causal study of disease was underway (see Medicine in ancient Greece ), with many notable early physicians (such as Hippocrates , for whom the modern Hippocratic Oath
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