127-471: DeGraffenreid is a surname. People with the surname include: Emma DeGraffenreid, plaintiff of a 1976 employment discrimination lawsuit cited in the development of the theory of intersectionality Gordon DeGraffenreid , American football coach Kenneth E. deGraffenreid , American university professor Reese C. De Graffenreid (1859–1902), American politician from Texas Veronica Degraffenreid , Secretary of
254-455: A different standard than those of male politicians, and for speaking about her in crudely sexual terms. She was criticised for systemic misogyny, because earlier in the day her Labour Party had passed legislation cutting $ 728 million in welfare benefits to single mothers. Gillard's usage of the word "misogyny" promoted re-evaluations of the word's published definitions. The Macquarie Dictionary revised its definition in 2012 to better match
381-470: A disease ; a dislike of something that is good. It is this issue of conflicted or alternating emotions that was philosophically contentious to the ancient writers. Ricardo Salles suggests that the general stoic view was that "[a] man may not only alternate between philogyny and misogyny, philanthropy and misanthropy, but be prompted to each by the other." In the Routledge philosophy guidebook to Plato and
508-603: A disease —an anti-social condition—in that it ran contrary to their perceptions of the value of women as wives and of the family as the foundation of society. These points are widely noted in the secondary literature. According to the Oxford English Dictionary the word entered English because of an anonymous proto-feminist play, Swetnam the Woman-Hater , published in 1620 in England. The play
635-524: A "distinctive work/family nexus that in turn influences the overall patterns of black political economy". For example, anti-miscegenation laws effectively suppressed the upward economic mobility of black women. The intersectionality of race and gender has been shown to have a visible impact on the labor market. "Sociological research clearly shows that accounting for education, experience, and skill does not fully explain significant differences in labor market outcomes." The three main domains in which we see
762-470: A certain example where immigrant women's lives are threatened by their abusive citizen spouses. In A primer on intersectionality , the authors argue that earlier immigration reform (which required spouses who immigrated to the US to marry American citizens to remain properly married for two years before they were eligible to receive permanent resident status) provided "no exceptions for battered women who often faced
889-507: A channel to address political and social disparities. Intersectionality recognizes these issues which were ignored by early social justice movements. Many recent academics, such as Leslie McCall , have argued that the introduction of the intersectionality theory was vital to sociology and that before the development of the theory, there was little research that specifically addressed the experiences of people who are subjected to multiple forms of oppression within society. An example of this idea
1016-756: A critical framework in addressing issues such as reproductive justice, where the intersection of race, class, and gender shapes women of color's access to healthcare and family planning resources. For example, the work of Loretta Ross and the SisterSong Collective has emphasized how policies disproportionately affect Black, Indigenous, and Latina women, highlighting the importance of applying an intersectional lens in policy-making. This ensures that systematic disparities are identified and addressed to create equitable healthcare policies and resources for marginalized communities. However, little good-quality quantitative research has been done to support or undermine
1143-539: A hatred of women, such as is displayed in the Woman-hater of Atilius; or the hatred of the whole human species, as Timon is reported to have done, whom they call the Misanthrope. Of the same kind is inhospitality. And all these diseases proceed from a certain dread of such things as they hate and avoid. In summary, despite considering women as generally inferior to men, Greek literature considered misogyny to be
1270-499: A homogeneous category who shared the same life experiences. However, once established that the forms of oppression experienced by white middle-class women were different from those experienced by black, poor, or disabled women, feminists began seeking ways to understand how gender, race, and class combine to "determine the female destiny". The concept of intersectionality is intended to illuminate dynamics that have often been overlooked by feminist theory and movements. Racial inequality
1397-561: A lost play of Euripides in which the merits of a dutiful wife are praised. According to Tieleman other surviving use of the Ancient Greek word is by Chrysippus , in a fragment from On affections , quoted by Galen in Hippocrates on Affections . Here, misogyny is the first in a short list of three "disaffections"—women ( misogunia ), wine ( misoinia , μισοινία) and humanity ( misanthrōpia , μισανθρωπία). Chrysippus' point
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#17327762228861524-449: A manner perpetuating patriarchal arrangements. According to sociologist Allan G. Johnson , "misogyny is a cultural attitude of hatred for females because they are female". Johnson argues that: Misogyny .... is a central part of sexist prejudice and ideology and, as such, is an important basis for the oppression of females in male-dominated societies. Misogyny is manifested in many different ways, from jokes to pornography to violence to
1651-471: A moral tract known as On Marriage ( c . 150 BC) by the stoic philosopher Antipater of Tarsus . Antipater argues that marriage is the foundation of the state, and considers it to be based on divine ( polytheistic ) decree. He uses misogunia to describe the sort of writing the tragedian Euripides eschews, stating that he "reject[s] the hatred of women in his writing" (ἀποθέμενος τὴν ἐν τῷ γράφειν μισογυνίαν). He then offers an example of this, quoting from
1778-629: A more nuanced analysis that recognizes caste as a central axis of inequality. These adaptations illustrate, how intersectionality, far from being a static theory, continues to evolve as a powerful tool for addressing region-specific systems of exclusion and privilege. Postcolonial feminists and transnational feminists criticize intersectionality as a concept emanating from WEIRD (Western, educated, industrialized, rich, democratic) societies that unduly universalizes women's experiences. Postcolonial feminists have worked to revise Western conceptualizations of intersectionality that assume all women experience
1905-484: A multifaceted connection between race, gender, and other systems that work together to oppress, while also allowing privilege in other areas. Intersectionality is relative because it displays how race, gender, and other components "intersect" to shape the experiences of individuals. Crenshaw used intersectionality to denote how race, class, gender, and other systems combine to shape the experiences of many by making room for privilege. Crenshaw used intersectionality to display
2032-431: A pattern in which the wife is to emulate the church's submission to Christ and the husband is to emulate Christ's love for the church." In Christian Men Who Hate Women , clinical psychologist Margaret J. Rinck has written that Christian social culture often allows a misogynist "misuse of the biblical ideal of submission". However, she argues that this a distortion of the "healthy relationship of mutual submission" which
2159-439: A peaceful, autonomous existence as a companion to the gods before the creation of women. When Prometheus decides to steal the secret of fire from the gods, Zeus becomes infuriated and decides to punish humankind with an "evil thing for their delight". This "evil thing" is Pandora , the first woman, who carried a jar (usually described—incorrectly—as a box) which she was told to never open. Epimetheus (the brother of Prometheus)
2286-435: A person as unacceptable based on a certain, unachieved criterion. Intersectional theories in relation to gender recognize that each person has their own mix of identities which combine to create them, and where these identities "meet in the middle" therein lies each person's intersectionality. These intersections lie between components such as class, race, religion, ethnicity, ability, income, indignity, and any other part of
2413-601: A person's identity which shapes their life, and the way others treat them. Stephanie A. Shields in her article on intersectionality and gender explains how each part of someones identity "serve as organizing features of social relations, mutually constitute, reinforce, and naturalize one another." Shields explains how one aspect can not exist individually, rather it "takes its meaning as a category in relation to another category." Intersectionality has been applied in many fields from politics, education healthcare, and employment, to economics. Today, intersectionality serves as
2540-434: A political failure of the antiracist and feminist discourses was the exclusion of the intersection of race and gender that places priority on the interest of "people of color" and "women", thus disregarding one while highlighting the other. Political engagement should reflect support of women of color; a prime example of the exclusion of women of color that shows the difference in the experiences of white women and women of color
2667-624: A provision to cover direct discrimination on up to two combined grounds—known as combined or dual discrimination. However, this section has never been brought into effect as the government deemed it too 'complicated and burdensome' for businesses." This demonstrates systematic neglect of the issues that intersectionality presents, because the UK courts have explicitly decided not to cover intersectional discrimination in their courts. This neglect of an intersectional framework can often lead to dire consequences. The African American Policy Forum (AAPF) describes
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#17327762228862794-414: A self-described 'Black, Lesbian, Mother, Warrior, Poet,' was instrumental in highlighting the intersections of race, gender, sexuality, and class. In her 1984 work Sister Outsider , Lorde argued that ignoring the multiple dimensions of identity perpetuates systems of oppression. She criticized mainstream feminism for failing to address the specific experiences of marginalized women, famously stating, "There
2921-434: A simple combination of misogyny and racism , but as something more complicated. Intersectionality engages in similar themes as triple oppression , which is the oppression associated with being a poor or immigrant woman of color. Criticism includes the framework's tendency to reduce individuals to specific demographic factors, and its use as an ideological tool against other feminist theories . Critics have characterized
3048-657: A social advantage. However, if this perception is inspired by stereotypes of Asian women as "hyperfeminine", it can serve to perpetuate racialized stereotypes of Asian women as subordinate or oversexualized. Robin Zheng writes that widespread fetishization of East Asian women's physical features leads to "racial depersonalization": the separation of Asian women from their own individual attributes. According to black feminists such as Kimberle Crenshaw , Audre Lorde , bell hooks , and Patricia Hill Collins , experiences of class, gender, and sexuality cannot be adequately understood unless
3175-409: A sociological definition of standpoint theory . A standpoint is an individual's world perspective. The theoretical basis of this approach views societal knowledge as being located within an individual's specific geographic location. In turn, knowledge becomes distinct and subjective; it varies depending on the social conditions under which it was produced. The concept of the outsider within refers to
3302-597: A speech in the Australian Parliament , the Macquarie Dictionary (which documents Australian English and New Zealand English ) expanded its definition to include not only hatred of women but also "entrenched prejudices against women". Social psychology research describes overt misogyny as "blatant hostile sexism" that raises resistance in women, as opposed to "manifestations of benevolent sexism" or chivalry that lead women to behave in
3429-466: A standpoint encompassing the self , family, and society. This relates to the specific experiences to which people are subjected as they move from a common cultural world (i.e., family) to that of modern society. Therefore, even though a woman—especially a Black woman—may become influential in a particular field, she may feel as though she does not belong. Her personality, behavior, and cultural being overshadow her value as an individual; thus, she becomes
3556-505: A widespread cultural custom or system. Sometimes misogyny manifests in obvious and bold ways; other times it is more subtle or disguised in ways that provide plausible deniability. In feminist thought, misogyny also includes the rejection of feminine qualities. It holds in contempt institutions, work, hobbies, or habits associated with women. It rejects any aspects of men that are seen as feminine or unmanly. Racism and other prejudices may reinforce and overlap with misogyny. According to
3683-484: Is a criticism of anti-woman writer Joseph Swetnam , who it represents with the pseudonym Misogynos. The character of Misogynos is the origin of the term misogynist in English. The term was fairly rare until the mid-1970s. The publication of feminist Andrea Dworkin 's 1974 critique Woman Hating popularised the idea. The term misogyny entered the lexicon of second-wave feminism . Dworkin and her contemporaries used
3810-848: Is a form of sexism that can keep women at a lower social status than men , thus maintaining the social roles of patriarchy . Misogyny has been widely practised for thousands of years. It is reflected in art , literature , human societal structure, historical events, mythology , philosophy , and religion worldwide. An example of misogyny is violence against women , which includes domestic violence and, in its most extreme forms, misogynist terrorism and femicide . Misogyny also often operates through sexual harassment , coercion, and psychological techniques aimed at controlling women, and by legally or socially excluding women from full citizenship. In some cases, misogyny rewards women for accepting an inferior status. Misogyny can be understood both as an attitude held by individuals, primarily by men, and as
3937-557: Is a vital element of gaining political and social equity and improving the societal structures that oppress individuals. Chiara Bottici has argued that criticisms of intersectionality that find it to be incomplete, or argue that it fails to recognize the specificity of women's oppression, can be met with an anarcha-feminism that recognizes "that there is something specific about the oppression of women and that in order to fight it you have to fight all other forms of oppression." Cheryl Townsend Gilkes expands on this by pointing out
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4064-732: Is actually specified in Christian doctrine, where "[l]ove is based on a deep, mutual respect as the guiding principle behind all decisions, actions, and plans". Similarly, Catholic scholar Christopher West argues that "male domination violates God's plan and is the specific result of sin". The fourth chapter (or sura ) of the Quran is called "Women" ( an-nisa ). The 34th verse is a key verse in feminist criticism of Islam . The verse notes men's God-given advantages over women. They are consequently their protectors and maintainers. Where women are disobedient "admonish them, and leave them alone in
4191-587: Is different from Wikidata All set index articles Intersectionality Intersectionality is a sociological analytical framework for understanding how groups' and individuals' social and political identities result in unique combinations of discrimination and privilege . Examples of these factors include gender , caste , sex , race , ethnicity , class , sexuality , religion , disability , height , age , and weight . These intersecting and overlapping social identities may be both empowering and oppressing . Intersectionality broadens
4318-486: Is frequently misunderstood when bridging theory into quantitative methodology. The concept of intersectionality was introduced to the field of legal studies by black feminist scholar Kimberlé Crenshaw , who used the term in a pair of essays published in 1989 and 1991. Even before Kimberlé Crenshaw coined this term, several Black feminists had already articulated ideas reflecting intersectional thinking. Scholars like Anna Julia Cooper and Maria W. Stewart emphasized on
4445-676: Is informed by their geography, history, and culture. When western feminists write about women in the global South in this way, they dismiss the inherent intersecting identities that are present in the dynamic of feminism in the global South. Mohanty questions the performance of intersectionality and relationality of power structures within the US and colonialism and how to work across identities with this history of colonial power structures. This lack of homogeneity and intersecting identities can be seen through feminism in India , which goes over how women in India practice feminism within social structures and
4572-508: Is misogynistic, and she lists what she says are specific examples of misogyny in the Pauline epistles . She states: The foundations of early Christian misogyny—its guilt about sex, its insistence on female subjection, its dread of female seduction—are all in St. Paul's epistles. In K. K. Ruthven's Feminist Literary Studies: An Introduction , Ruthven makes reference to Rogers' book and argues that
4699-403: Is more abstract than Antipater's, and Galen quotes the passage as an example of an opinion contrary to his own. What is clear, however, is that he groups hatred of women with hatred of humanity generally, and even hatred of wine. "It was the prevailing medical opinion of his day that wine strengthens body and soul alike." So Chrysippus, like his fellow stoic Antipater, views misogyny negatively, as
4826-623: Is not such thing as a single-issue struggle because we do not live single-issue lives." Additionally, Lorde comments in her essay, The master's tools will never dismantle the master's house, that she lived in "a country where racism, sexism, and homophobia are inseparable," advocating for a collective approach to dismantling these overlapping systems of discrimination. Here, Lorde outlines the importance of intersectionality, while acknowledging that different prejudices are inherently linked. Lorde's formulation of this linkage remains seminal in intersectional feminism. Though intersectionality began with
4953-432: Is not widely used. Words derived from the word misogyny and denoting connected concepts include misogynoir , the intersection of anti-black racism and misogyny faced by Black women; transmisogyny , the intersection of misogyny and transphobia faced by trans women and transfeminine people; and transmisogynoir, the confluence of these faced by black trans women and transfeminine people. Misogyny likely arose at
5080-572: Is only a distinction between optimists and pessimists, if not between idealists and realists... As we begin to realise, the term "Buddhism" does not designate a monolithic entity, but covers a number of doctrines, ideologies, and practices--some of which seem to invite, tolerate, and even cultivate "otherness" on their margins. Differences in tradition and interpretations of scripture have caused sects of Christianity to differ in their beliefs with regard to their treatment of women. In The Troublesome Helpmate , Katharine M. Rogers argues that Christianity
5207-442: Is overwhelmed by her beauty, disregards Prometheus' warnings about her, and marries her. Pandora cannot resist peeking into the jar, and by opening it she unleashes into the world all evil; labour , sickness , old age , and death . In his book The Power of Denial: Buddhism, Purity, and Gender , professor Bernard Faure of Columbia University argued generally that "Buddhism is paradoxically neither as sexist nor as egalitarian as
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5334-421: Is the women's suffrage march. Representational intersectionality advocates for the creation of imagery that is supportive of women of color. Representational intersectionality condemns sexist and racist marginalization of women of color in representation. Representational intersectionality also highlights the importance of women of color having representation in media and contemporary settings. Collins refers to
5461-497: Is used as the title of Heracles in the history of Phocion . It was the title of a play by Menander , which we know of from book seven (concerning Alexandria ) of Strabo 's 17 volume Geography , and quotations of Menander by Clement of Alexandria and Stobaeus that relate to marriage. A Greek play with a similar name, Misogunos (Μισόγυνος) or Woman-hater , is reported by Marcus Tullius Cicero (in Latin) and attributed to
5588-408: Is used to describe how different structures work together and create a complex which highlights the differences in the experiences of women of color with domestic violence and rape. Structural intersectionality entails the ways in which classism, sexism, and racism interlock and oppress women of color while molding their experiences in different arenas. Crenshaw's analysis of structural intersectionality
5715-412: Is usually thought." He remarked, "Many feminist scholars have emphasised the misogynistic (or at least androcentric) nature of Buddhism" and stated that Buddhism morally exalts its male monks while the mothers and wives of the monks also have important roles. Additionally, he wrote: While some scholars see Buddhism as part of a movement of emancipation, others see it as a source of oppression. Perhaps this
5842-775: The Oxford English Dictionary the English word "misogyny" was coined in the middle of the 17th century from the Greek misos 'hatred' + gunē 'woman'. The word was rarely used until it was popularised by second-wave feminism in the 1970s. English and American dictionaries define misogyny as "hatred of women" and as "hatred, dislike, or mistrust of women". The American Merriam-Webster Dictionary distinguishes misogyny, "a hatred of women", from sexism , which denotes sex-based discrimination, and "behavior, conditions, or attitudes that foster stereotypes of social roles based on sex." In 2012, primarily in response to
5969-462: The social determinants of health . The Women's Institute for Science, Equity and Race advocates for the disaggregation of data in order to highlight intersectional identities in all kinds of research. Additionally, applications with regard to property and wealth can be traced to the American historical narrative that is filled "with tensions and struggles over property—in its various forms. From
6096-540: The status quo and punishes those who reject women's subordinate status. Manne distinguishes sexism , which she says seeks to rationalise and justify patriarchy , from misogyny, which she calls the "law enforcement" branch of patriarchy: [S]exist ideology will tend to discriminate between men and women, typically by alleging sex differences beyond what is known or could be known, and sometimes counter to our best current scientific evidence. Misogyny will typically differentiate between good women and bad ones, and punishes
6223-650: The "legacy of Christian misogyny was consolidated by the so-called 'Fathers' of the Church, like Tertullian , who thought a woman was not only 'the gateway of the devil' but also 'a temple built over a sewer'." Several Christian institutions exclude women. For example, women are excluded from the Mount Athos region of Greece and from the governing hierarchy of the Catholic Church . Some Christian theologians, such as John Knox in his book The First Blast of
6350-423: The "work/family nexus and black women's poverty". In her 2000 article "Black Political Economy" she describes how, in her view, the intersections of consumer racism , gender hierarchies, and disadvantages in the labor market can be centered on black women's unique experiences. Considering this from a historical perspective and examining interracial marriage laws and property inheritance laws creates what Collins terms
6477-733: The 1970s by members of the Combahee River Collective in Boston, Massachusetts . Simultaneity is the simultaneous influences of race, class, gender, and sexuality, which informed the member's lives and their resistance to oppression. Thus, the women of the Combahee River Collective advanced an understanding of African-American experiences that challenged analyses emerging from black and male-centered social movements, as well as those from mainstream cisgender, white, middle-class, heterosexual feminists. Since
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#17327762228866604-422: The 1980s, as second-wave feminism began to recede, scholars of color including Audre Lorde , Gloria E. Anzaldúa and Angela Davis brought their lived experiences into academic discussion, shaping what would become known as "intersectionality" within race, class, and gender studies in U.S. academia. As articulated by author bell hooks , the emergence of intersectionality "challenged the notion that 'gender'
6731-466: The 1990s, particularly in the wake of the further development of Crenshaw's work in the writings of sociologist Patricia Hill Collins. Crenshaw's term, Collins says, replaced her own previous coinage "black feminist thought", and "increased the general applicability of her theory from African American women to all women". Much like Crenshaw, Collins argues that cultural patterns of oppression are not only interrelated, but are bound together and influenced by
6858-597: The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania beginning in 2021 [REDACTED] Surname list This page lists people with the surname DeGraffenreid . If an internal link intending to refer to a specific person led you to this page, you may wish to change that link by adding the person's given name (s) to the link. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=DeGraffenreid&oldid=1220471035 " Category : Surnames Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description
6985-521: The EU and UK, these intersections are referred to as the notion of "multiple discrimination". Although the EU passed a non-discrimination law which addresses these multiple intersections; there is however debate on whether the law is still proactively focusing on the proper inequalities. Outside of the EU, intersectional categories have also been considered. In Analyzing Gender, Intersectionality, and Multiple Inequalities: Global, Transnational and Local Contexts ,
7112-656: The Quran. The economic and social position of men and women was reflected in blood money to the family of a victim. The financial loss for a woman was pegged at half that of a man. Scholars William M. Reynolds and Julie A. Webber have written that Guru Nanak , the founder of the Sikh faith tradition, was a "fighter for women's rights" that was "in no way misogynistic" in contrast to some of his contemporaries. However, unconscious misogynistic attitudes in Sikh men have steadily reduced
7239-638: The Republic , Nickolas Pappas describes the "problem of misogyny" and states: In the Apology , Socrates calls those who plead for their lives in court "no better than women" (35b)... The Timaeus warns men that if they live immorally they will be reincarnated as women (42b-c; cf. 75d-e). The Republic contains a number of comments in the same spirit (387e, 395d-e, 398e, 431b-c, 469d), evidence of nothing so much as of contempt toward women. Even Socrates' words for his bold new proposal about marriage... suggest that
7366-536: The Romans, Greeks, and the tribes of the Amazon Basin and Melanesia , who did not follow a monotheistic religion. Nearly every human culture contains evidence of misogyny. Anthropologist David D. Gilmore argues that misogyny is rooted in men's conflicting feelings: men's existential dependence on women for procreation , and men's fear of women's power over them in their times of male weakness, contrasted against
7493-580: The Trumpet Against the Monstruous Regiment of Women , have written that women should be excluded from secular government institutions for religious reasons. However, some other scholars have argued that Christianity does not include misogynistic principles, or at least that a proper interpretation of Christianity would not include misogynistic principles. David M. Scholer, a biblical scholar at Fuller Theological Seminary , stated that
7620-542: The United States through the Equal Pay Act of 1963 , Title IX , and Roe v. Wade , they largely alienated black women from platforms in the mainstream movement. However, third-wave feminism —which emerged shortly after the term intersectionality was coined in the late 1980s—noted the lack of attention to race, class, sexual orientation, and gender identity in early feminist movements, and tried to provide
7747-500: The authors argue: "The impact of patriarchy and traditional assumptions about gender and families are evident in the lives of Chinese migrant workers (Chow, Tong), sex workers and their clients in South Korea (Shin), and Indian widows (Chauhan), but also Ukrainian migrants (Amelina) and Australian men of the new global middle class (Connell)." This text suggests that there are many more intersections of discrimination for people around
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#17327762228867874-439: The background, ideas, issues, conflicts, and debates within intersectionality. Another branch seeks to apply intersectionality as an analytical strategy to various social institutions in order to examine how they might perpetuate social inequality. The final branch formulates intersectionality as a critical praxis to determine how social justice initiatives can use intersectionality to bring about social change. Audre Lorde ,
8001-578: The black political economy. Patricia Hill Collins writes: "Du Bois saw race, class, and nation not primarily as personal identity categories but as social hierarchies that shaped African-American access to status, poverty, and power." Du Bois nevertheless omitted gender from his theory and considered it more of a personal identity category. Britney Cooper , in her book Beyond Respectability, addresses this omission by exploring how early Black female intellectuals such as Anna Julia Cooper and others critiqued and expanded upon these limited frameworks, emphasizing
8128-583: The collection stress how their sexuality interacts with their race and gender to inform their perspectives. Similarly, poor women of color detail how their socio-economic status adds a layer of nuance to their identities, ignored or misunderstood by middle-class white feminists. Asian American women often report intersectional experiences that set them apart from other American women. For example, several studies have shown that East Asian women are considered more physically attractive than white women, and other women of color. Taken at face value, this may seem like
8255-437: The constant premises that influence the lives of African-American women, saying, "black women experience a special kind of oppression and suffering in this country which is racist, sexist, and classist because of their dual race and gender identity and their limited access to economic resources." Other writers and theorists were using intersectional analysis in their work before the term was coined. For example, Pauli Murray used
8382-408: The construct of dichotomous oppositional difference. This construct is characterized by its focus on differences rather than similarities. Lisa A. Flores suggests, when individuals live in the borders, they "find themselves with a foot in both worlds". The result is "the sense of being neither" exclusively one identity nor another. Both Collins and Dorothy Smith have been instrumental in providing
8509-519: The continuing effects of colonization that differ from that of Western and other non-Western countries. This is elaborated on by Christine Bose, who discusses a global use of intersectionality which works to remove associations of specific inequalities with specific institutions while showing that these systems generate intersectional effects. She uses this approach to develop a framework that can analyze gender inequalities across different nations and differentiates this from an approach (the one that Mohanty
8636-527: The deep-seated needs of men for the love, care and comfort of women—a need that makes the men feel vulnerable. Angela Saini notes that a large proportion of women in ancient societies were kidnapped brides from other cultures. Such a woman was often forced to marry a man who had killed her family. Misogynistic suspicion in ancient Greece and elsewhere is to some degree explained by male anxiety that women would some day revolt against their captors. Saini argues that patriarchy and gender stereotyping emerged at
8763-478: The disadvantages caused by intersecting systems creating structural, political, and representational aspects of violence against minorities in the workplace and society. Crenshaw explained the dynamics that using gender, race, and other forms of power in politics and academics plays a big role in intersectionality. However, long before Crenshaw, W. E. B. Du Bois theorized that the intersectional paradigms of race, class, and nation might explain specific aspects of
8890-429: The effect of the state on identity formation, Patil says: "If we continue to neglect cross-border dynamics and fail to problematize the nation and its emergence via transnational processes, our analyses will remain tethered to the spatialities and temporalities of colonial modernity." Misogyny Misogyny ( / m ɪ ˈ s ɒ dʒ ɪ n i / ) is hatred of, contempt for, or prejudice against women or girls . It
9017-485: The employment of African-American male factory workers disproved racial discrimination, and the employment of white female office workers disproved gender discrimination . The court declined to consider compound discrimination, and dismissed the case. Crenshaw argued that in cases such as this, the courts have tended to ignore black women's unique experiences by treating them as only women or only black. The ideas behind intersectional feminism existed long before
9144-547: The exclusion of Black women's experiences from mainstream feminist narratives and underscored the importance of addressing race, gender, and class as intersecting systems of oppression. Patricia Hill Collins later traced the intellectual roots of intersectionality to Black, Chicana , Latina, Indigenous, and Asian American feminists active between 1960s and 1980s. She acknowledged earlier thinkers such as Cooper and Ida B. Wells , as well as influential intellectuals like Stuart Hall and Nira Yuval-Davis, who explored similar ideas. By
9271-606: The experience of being a black woman cannot be understood in terms independent of either being black or a woman. Rather, it must include interactions between the two identities, which, she adds, should frequently reinforce one another. In order to show that non-white women have a vastly different experience from white women due to their race and/or class and that their experiences are not easily voiced or amplified, Crenshaw explores two types of male violence against women: domestic violence and rape . Through her analysis of these two forms of male violence against women, Crenshaw says that
9398-411: The experiences of non-white women consist of a combination of both racism and sexism. She says that because non-white women are present within discourses that have been designed to address either race or sex—but not both at the same time—non-white women are marginalized within both of these systems of oppression as a result. In her work, Crenshaw identifies three aspects of intersectionality that affect
9525-465: The exploration of the interplay between gender and race, over time other identities and oppressions were added to the theory. For example, in 1981 Cherríe Moraga and Gloria Anzaldúa published the first edition of This Bridge Called My Back . This anthology explored how classifications of sexual orientation and class also mix with those of race and gender to create even more distinct political categories. Many black, Latina, and Asian writers featured in
9652-587: The first being each respective court's inability to fully understand the multidimensionality of the plaintiff's intersecting identities. Second is the limited ability that the plaintiffs had to argue their case due to restrictions created by the very legislation that exists in opposition to discrimination such as Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 as used against the plaintiffs in the DeGraffenreid v Motors case. The term gained prominence in
9779-582: The framework as ambiguous and lacking defined goals. As it is based in standpoint theory , critics say the focus on subjective experiences can lead to contradictions and the inability to identify common causes of oppression. An analysis of academic articles published through December 2019 found that there are no widely adopted quantitative methods to investigate research questions informed by intersectionality and provided recommendations on analytic best practices for future research. An analysis of academic articles published through May 2020 found that intersectionality
9906-452: The globe than Crenshaw originally accounted for in her definition. Chandra Mohanty discusses alliances between women throughout the world as intersectionality in a global context. She rejects the western feminist theory, especially when it writes about global women of color and generally associated "third world women". She argues that "third world women" are often thought of as a homogeneous entity, when, in fact, their experience of oppression
10033-433: The healthcare system. For example, in the period immediately after 9/11 researchers noted low birth weights and other poor birth outcomes among Muslim and Arab Americans, a result they connected to the increased racial and religious discrimination of the time. Some researchers have also argued that immigration policies can affect health outcomes through mechanisms such as stress , restrictions on access to health care, and
10160-449: The impact of intersectionality are wages, discrimination, and domestic labor. Those who experience privilege within the social hierarchy in terms of race, gender, and socio-economic status are less likely to receive lower wages, to be subjected to stereotypes and discriminated against, or to be hired for exploitative domestic positions. Studies of the labor market and intersectionality provide a better understanding of economic inequalities and
10287-574: The implications of the multidimensional impact of race and gender on social status within society. Kimberlé Crenshaw, in "Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence Against Women of Color", uses and explains three different forms of intersectionality to describe the violence that women experience. According to Crenshaw, there are three forms of intersectionality: structural, political, and representational intersectionality. Structural intersectionality
10414-593: The imposition of Eurocentric gender norms during colonial rule, which marginalized non-Western gender identities and social structures. Similarly, in South Asia, Dalit feminists have drawn on intersectional analysis to emphasize the compounded marginalization faced by Dalit women, who experience both caste-based and gender-based discrimination. Scholars such as Thenmozhi Soundararajan argue in their works like, "The Trauma of Caste" that mainstream feminist frameworks often neglect these intersecting oppressions, calling for
10541-485: The influence of racialization is carefully considered. This focus on racialization was highlighted many times by scholar and feminist bell hooks , specifically in her 1981 book Ain't I A Woman: Black Women and Feminism . Patricia Hill Collins's essay "Gender, black feminism, and black political economy" highlights her theory on the sociological crossroads between modern and post-modern feminist thought . Black feminists argue that an understanding of intersectionality
10668-477: The interconnected nature of racial and gender oppressions. In Cooper's publication of "A Voice from the South" (1892) emphasized on the importance of considering the 'whole race' by focusing on the lived experiences of Black women. Cooper highlighted that their oppression was just not racial or gender-based but a complex combination of the two. Intersectionality originated in critical race studies and demonstrates
10795-420: The interconnectedness of race, gender, and class in shaping Black women's experiences and political resistance. Cooper highlights how these early Black feminists established a critical intellectual tradition that prefigured later intersectional theories. In the 1970s, a group of black feminist women organized the Combahee River Collective in response to what they felt was an alienation from both white feminism and
10922-436: The intersectional systems of society, such as race, gender, class, and ethnicity. Collins describes this as "interlocking social institutions [that] have relied on multiple forms of segregation... to produce unjust results". Collins sought to create frameworks to think about intersectionality, rather than expanding on the theory itself. She identified three main branches of study within intersectionality. One branch deals with
11049-521: The last couple of decades in the European Union (EU), there has been discussion regarding the intersections of social classifications. Before Crenshaw coined her definition of intersectionality, there was a debate on what these societal categories were. The once definite borders between the categories of gender, race, and class have instead fused into a multidimensional intersection of "race" that now includes religion, sexuality, ethnicities, etc. In
11176-470: The latter. […] Sexism wears a lab coat; misogyny goes on witch hunts . Misogynous and misogynistic can both be used as an adjectival form of the word. The noun misogynist can be used for a woman-hating person. The counterpart of misogyny is misandry , the hatred or dislike of men. Misandry is a minor issue, not equivalent to the widespread practice and extensive history of misogyny. The antonym of misogyny, philogyny —love or fondness toward women—
11303-472: The law interacts with intersectionality. For example, the UK's legislation to protect workers' rights has a distinct issue with intersectionality. Under the Equality Act 2010, the things that are listed as 'protected characteristics' are "age, disability, gender reassignment, marriage or civil partnership, pregnancy and maternity, race, religion or belief, sex, and sexual orientation". "Section 14 contains
11430-463: The male-dominated black liberation movement, citing the "interlocking oppressions" of racism, sexism and heteronormativity . In DeGraffenreid v. General Motors (1976), Emma DeGraffenreid and four other black female auto workers alleged compound employment discrimination against black women as a result of General Motors ' seniority-based system of layoffs . The courts weighed the allegations of race and gender discrimination separately, finding that
11557-465: The multiple ways that race and gender interact with class in the labor market; interrogating the ways that states constitute regulatory regimes of identity, reproduction, and family formation"; and examining the inequities in "the power relations [of the intersectionality] of whiteness ... [where] the denial of power and privilege ... of whiteness, and middle-classness", while not addressing "the role of power it wields in social relations". Over
11684-427: The outsider within. Speaking from a critical standpoint, Collins points out that Brittan and Maynard say that "domination always involves the objectification of the dominated; all forms of oppression imply the devaluation of the subjectivity of the oppressed". She later notes that self-valuation and self-definition are two ways of resisting oppression, and claims the practice of self-awareness helps to preserve
11811-601: The performances of these nat-cult feminisms are also not essentialist. Instead, they are strategies. Across diverse cultural and geopolitical contexts, intersectionality has proven to be a versatile framework for analyzing overlapping systems of power and inequality. For instance, in Latin America, Maria Lugones introduced the concept of the "coloniality of gender" to explore how colonial histories intersect race, gender, and class, creating unique forms of oppression for Indigenous and Afro-descendant women. Her work reveals
11938-515: The phrase "Jane Crow" in 1947 while at Howard University to describe the compounded challenges faced by black women in the Jim Crow south. Deborah K. King published the article "Multiple Jeopardy, Multiple Consciousness: The Context of a Black Feminist Ideology" in 1988, just before Crenshaw coined the term intersectionality . In the article, King addresses what soon became the foundation for intersectionality, saying, "black women have long recognized
12065-484: The poet Marcus Atilius . Cicero reports that Greek philosophers considered misogyny to be caused by gynophobia , a fear of women. It is the same with other diseases; as the desire of glory, a passion for women, to which the Greeks give the name of philogyneia : and thus all other diseases and sicknesses are generated. But those feelings which are the contrary of these are supposed to have fear for their foundation, as
12192-537: The power of women in Sikhism, such that the Sikh community has been observed to contain toxic masculinity . Numerous influential Western philosophers have expressed ideas that have been characterised as misogynistic, including Aristotle , René Descartes , Thomas Hobbes , John Locke , David Hume , Jean-Jacques Rousseau , G. W. F. Hegel , Arthur Schopenhauer , Friedrich Nietzsche , Sigmund Freud , Otto Weininger , Oswald Spengler , and John Lucas . Because of
12319-446: The practical uses of intersectionality, owing to misapplication of theoretical concepts and problems in methodology. For example, within the institution of education, Sandra Jones' research on working-class women in academia takes into consideration meritocracy within all social strata, but argues that it is complicated by race and the external forces that oppress. Additionally, people of color often experience differential treatment in
12446-696: The removal of Native Americans (and later Japanese Americans ) from the land, to military conquest of the Mexicans, to the construction of Africans as property, the ability to define, possess, and own property has been a central feature of power in America ;... [and where] social benefits accrue largely to property owners." One could apply the intersectionality framework analysis to various areas where race, class, gender, sexuality and ability are affected by policies, procedures, practices, and laws in "context-specific inquiries, including, for example, analyzing
12573-1123: The risk of serious injury and death on the one hand, or deportation on the other." They continue to argue that advocates of several kinds hadn't originally considered this particular struggle many immigrant women face, including advocates for fairer immigration policies and advocates for domestic violence survivors. Marie-Claire Belleau argues for "strategic intersectionality" in order to foster cooperation between feminisms of different ethnicities. She refers to different nat-cult (national-cultural) groups that produce different types of feminisms. Using Québécois nat-cult as an example, Belleau says that many nat-cult groups contain infinite sub-identities within themselves, arguing that there are endless ways in which different feminisms can cooperate by using strategic intersectionality, and that these partnerships can help bridge gaps between "dominant and marginal" groups. Belleau argues that, through strategic intersectionality, differences between nat-cult feminisms are neither essentialist nor universal, but should be understood as resulting from socio-cultural contexts. Furthermore,
12700-542: The same time as patriarchy : three to five thousand years ago at the start of the Bronze Age . The three main monotheistic religions of Judaism , Christianity and Islam promoted patriarchal societal structures, and used misogyny to keep women at a lower status. Misogyny gained strength in the Middle Ages , especially in Christian societies. In parallel to these, misogyny was also practised in societies such as
12827-473: The same time as the state . In his book City of Sokrates: An Introduction to Classical Athens , J.W. Roberts argues that older than tragedy and comedy was a misogynistic tradition in Greek literature, reaching back at least as far as Hesiod . He claims that the term misogyny itself comes directly into English from the Ancient Greek word misogunia ( μισογυνία ), which survives in several passages. The earlier, longer, and more complete passage comes from
12954-757: The same type of gender and racial oppression. Shelly Grabe coined the term transnational intersectionality to represent a more comprehensive conceptualization of intersectionality. Grabe wrote, "Transnational intersectionality places importance on the intersections among gender, ethnicity, sexuality, economic exploitation, and other social hierarchies in the context of empire building or imperialist policies characterized by historical and emergent global capitalism ." Both Postcolonial and transnational feminists advocate attending to "complex and intersecting oppressions and multiple forms of resistance". Vrushali Patil argues that intersectionality ought to recognize transborder constructions of racial and cultural hierarchies. About
13081-416: The scope of the first and second waves of feminism , which largely focused on the experiences of women who were white , middle-class , to include the different experiences of women of color , poor women , immigrant women , and other groups. Intersectional feminism aims to separate itself from white feminism by acknowledging women's differing experiences and identities. The term intersectionality
13208-851: The self-contempt women may be taught to feel toward their own bodies. Sociologist Michael Flood at the University of Wollongong defines misogyny as the hatred of women, and notes: Though most common in men, misogyny also exists in and is practiced by women against other women or even themselves. Misogyny functions as an ideology or belief system that has accompanied patriarchal, or male-dominated societies for thousands of years and continues to place women in subordinate positions with limited access to power and decision making. […] Aristotle contended that women exist as natural deformities or imperfect males […] Ever since, women in Western cultures have internalised their role as societal scapegoats, influenced in
13335-448: The self-esteem of the group that is being oppressed while allowing them to avoid any dehumanizing outside influences. Marginalized groups often gain a status of being an "other". In essence, you are "an other" if you are different from what Audre Lorde calls the mythical norm . Gloria Anzaldúa , scholar of Chicana cultural theory, theorized that the sociological term for this is " othering ", i.e. specifically attempting to establish
13462-509: The sleeping-places and beat them; then if they obey you, do not seek a way against them..." In his book No god but God , University of Southern California , Professor Reza Aslan wrote that "misogynistic interpretation" has been persistently attached to An-Nisa, 34 because commentary on the Quran "has been the exclusive domain of Muslim men". In his book Popular Islam and Misogyny: A Case Study of Bangladesh , Taj Hashmi discusses misogyny in relation to Muslim culture, writing: [T]hanks to
13589-552: The special circumstances of our lives in the United States: the commonalities that we share with all women, as well as the bonds that connect us to the men of our race." Additionally, Gloria Wekker describes how Gloria Anzaldúa 's work as a Chicana feminist theorist exemplifies how "existent categories for identity are strikingly not dealt with in separate or mutually exclusive terms, but are always referred to in relation to one another". In 1989, Kimberlé Crenshaw coined
13716-464: The subjective interpretations of the Quran (almost exclusively by men), the preponderance of the misogynic mullahs and the regressive Shariah law in most "Muslim" countries, Islam is synonymously known as a promoter of misogyny in its worst form.... we may draw a line between the Quranic texts and the corpus of avowedly misogynic writing and spoken words by the mullah having very little or no relevance to
13843-568: The term intersectionality as a way to help explain the oppression of African-American women in her essay "Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A black Feminist Critique of Anti-discrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Antiracist Politics". Crenshaw's term has risen to the forefront of national conversations about racial justice, identity politics , and policing—and over the years has helped shape legal discussions. In her work, Crenshaw discusses Black feminism , arguing that
13970-498: The term to include not only a hatred or contempt of women, but the practice of controlling women with violence and punishing women who reject subordination. Misogyny was discussed worldwide in 2012 because of a viral video of a speech by Australian Prime Minister Julia Gillard . Her parliamentary address is known as the Misogyny Speech . In the speech, Gillard powerfully criticised her opponents for holding her policies to
14097-473: The term was coined, many feminist scholars have emerged with historical support for the intersectional theory. These women include Beverly Guy-Sheftall and her fellow contributors to Words of Fire: An Anthology of African-American Feminist Thought , a collection of articles describing the multiple oppressions black women in America have experienced from the 1830s to contemporary times. Guy-Sheftall speaks about
14224-574: The term was coined. For example, Sojourner Truth exemplified intersectionality in her 1851 " Ain't I a Woman " speech, where she spoke from her racialized position as a formerly enslaved woman to critique essentialist notions of femininity . Truth highlighted the differences in how society treated white and Black women, noting that white women are often regarded as emotional and delicate, while Black women were stereotyped as brutish and subjected to both gendered and racialized abuse. However, these observations were largely dismissed by many white feminists of
14351-451: The time, who prioritized the suffrage movement over addressing the intersecting oppressions faced by Black women. Similarly, in her 1892 essay "The Colored Woman's Office," Anna Julia Cooper identified Black women as crucial agents of social change, emphasizing their unique understanding of multiple forms of oppression. Scholar bell hooks , in her groundbreaking work "Ain't I a Woman? Black Women and Feminism" (1981), further critiqued
14478-569: The twenty-first century by multimedia objectification of women with its culturally sanctioned self-loathing and fixations on plastic surgery , anorexia and bulimia . Philosopher Kate Manne of Cornell University defines misogyny as the attempt to control and punish women who challenge male dominance. Manne finds the traditional "hatred of women" definition of misogyny too simplistic, noting it does not account for how perpetrators of misogynistic violence may love certain women; for example, their mothers. Instead, misogyny rewards women who uphold
14605-474: The value of centering on the experiences of black women. Joy James takes things one step further by "using paradigms of intersectionality in interpreting social phenomena". Collins later integrated these three views by examining a black political economy through the centering of black women's experiences and the use of a theoretical framework of intersectionality. Collins uses a Marxist feminist approach and applies her intersectional principles to what she calls
14732-624: The various intersections of social inequality as the matrix of domination . These are also known as "vectors of oppression and privilege". These terms refer to how differences among people (sexual orientation, class, race, age, etc.) serve as oppressive measures towards women and change the experience of living as a woman in society. Collins, Audre Lorde (in Sister Outsider ), and bell hooks point towards either/or thinking as an influence on this oppression and as further intensifying these differences. Specifically, Collins refers to this as
14859-681: The verse Galatians 3:28 ("There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither slave nor free, there is neither male nor female; for you are all one in Christ Jesus") is "the fundamental Pauline theological basis for the inclusion of women and men as equal and mutual partners in all of the ministries of the church." In his book Equality in Christ? Galatians 3:28 and the Gender Dispute , Richard Hove argues that—while Galatians 3:28 does mean that one's sex does not affect salvation—"there remains
14986-403: The visibility of non-white women: structural intersectionality, political intersectionality, and representational intersectionality. Structural intersectionality deals with how non-white women experience domestic violence and rape in a manner qualitatively different from white women. Political intersectionality examines how laws and policies intended to increase equality have paradoxically decreased
15113-621: The visibility of violence against non-white women. Finally, representational intersectionality delves into how pop culture portrayals of non-white women can obscure their own authentic lived experiences. Within Crenshaw's work, she delves into a few legal cases that exhibit the concept of political intersectionality and how anti-discrimination law has been historically limited. These cases include DeGraffenreid v Motors, Moore v Hughes Helicopter Inc., and Payne v Travenol. There are two commonalities, amongst others, that exist between these cases with
15240-417: The way the word has been used over the prior 30 years. The book Down Girl , which reconsidered the definition using the tools of analytic philosophy , was inspired in part by Gillard. In Misogyny: The World's Oldest Prejudice , Jack Holland argues that there is evidence of misogyny in the mythology of the ancient world. In Greek mythology according to Hesiod, the human race had already experienced
15367-711: The women are to be "held in common" by men. He never says that the men might be held in common by the women... We also have to acknowledge Socrates' insistence that men surpass women at any task that both sexes attempt (455c, 456a), and his remark in Book 8 that one sign of democracy's moral failure is the sexual equality it promotes (563b). Misogynist is also found in the Greek— misogunēs ( μισογύνης )—in Deipnosophistae (above) and in Plutarch 's Parallel Lives , where it
15494-432: Was a factor that was largely ignored by first-wave feminism, which was primarily concerned with gaining political equality between white men and white women. Early women's rights movements often exclusively pertained to the membership, concerns, and struggles of white women. Second-wave feminism worked to dismantle sexism relating to the perceived domestic purpose of women. While feminists during this time achieved success in
15621-474: Was championed by Iris Marion Young , arguing that differences must be acknowledged in order to find unifying social justice issues that create coalitions that aid in changing society for the better. More specifically, this relates to the ideals of the National Council of Negro Women (NCNW). The term also has historical and theoretical links to the concept of simultaneity, which was advanced during
15748-430: Was coined by Kimberlé Crenshaw in 1989. She describes how interlocking systems of power affect those who are most marginalized in society . Activists and academics use the framework to promote social and political egalitarianism . Intersectionality opposes analytical systems that treat each axis of oppression in isolation. In this framework, for instance, discrimination against black women cannot be explained as
15875-403: Was referring to) which, one, paints national-level inequalities as the same and, two, differentiates only between the global North and South. This is manifested through the intersection of global dynamics like economics, migration, or violence, with regional dynamics, like histories of the nation or gendered inequalities in education and property education. There is an issue globally with the way
16002-400: Was the primary factor determining a woman's fate". The historical exclusion of black women from the feminist movement in the United States resulted in many black 19th- and 20th-century feminists, such as Anna Julia Cooper, challenging their historical exclusion. This disputed the ideas of earlier feminist movements, which were primarily led by white middle-class women, suggesting that women were
16129-721: Was used during her field study of battered women. In this study, Crenshaw uses intersectionality to display the multilayered oppressions that women who are victims of domestic violence face. Political intersectionality highlights two conflicting systems in the political arena, which separates women and women of color into two subordinate groups. The experiences of women of color differ from those of white women and men of color due to their race and gender often intersecting. White women suffer from gender bias, and men of color suffer from racial bias; however, both of their experiences differ from that of women of color, because women of color experience both racial and gender bias. According to Crenshaw,
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