Marcus Livius Drusus (before 122 BC – 91 BC) was a Roman politician and reformer. He is most famous for his legislative programme during his term as tribune of the plebs in 91 BC. During his year in office, Drusus proposed wide-ranging legislative reforms, including offering citizenship to Rome's Italian allies.
109-610: De Oratore ( On the Orator ) is a dialogue written by Cicero in 55 BC. It is set in 91 BC, when Lucius Licinius Crassus dies, just before the Social War and the civil war between Marius and Sulla , during which Marcus Antonius (orator) , the other great orator of this dialogue, dies. During this year, the author faces a difficult political situation: after his return from exile in Dyrrachium (modern Albania), his house
218-668: A literary and theatrical form that depicts such an exchange. As a philosophical or didactic device, it is chiefly associated in the West with the Socratic dialogue as developed by Plato , but antecedents are also found in other traditions including Indian literature . The term dialogue stems from the Greek διάλογος ( dialogos , ' conversation ' ); its roots are διά ( dia , ' through ' ) and λόγος ( logos , ' speech, reason ' ). The first extant author who uses
327-400: A better solution, and calls for cushions so that this group can discuss it more comfortably. Crassus states that oratory is one of the greatest accomplishments that a nation can have. He extols the power that oratory can give to a person, including the ability to maintain personal rights, words to defend oneself, and the ability to revenge oneself on a wicked person. The ability to converse
436-539: A body of theory and techniques for using egalitarian dialogue as a pedagogical tool. Martin Buber assigns dialogue a pivotal position in his theology . His most influential work is titled I and Thou . Buber cherishes and promotes dialogue not as some purposive attempt to reach conclusions or express mere points of view, but as the very prerequisite of authentic relationship between man and man, and between man and God . Buber's thought centres on "true dialogue", which
545-471: A communication tool for married couples. Both groups teach a dialogue method that helps couples learn more about each other in non-threatening postures, which helps to foster growth in the married relationship. The German philosopher and classicist Karl-Martin Dietz emphasises the original meaning of dialogue (from Greek dia-logos , i.e. 'two words'), which goes back to Heraclitus: "The logos [...] answers to
654-425: A famous actor, often complained that he hadn't found a pupil who deserved his approval. There were many with good qualities, but he could not tolerate any fault in them. If we consider this actor, we can see that he makes no gesture of absolute perfection, of highest grace, exactly to give the public emotion and pleasure. In so many years, he reached such a level of perfection, that everyone, who distinguishes himself in
763-565: A flood of supportive messages from the Italian towns. Seeing the opposition in Rome to the bill, some of the Italians grew increasingly agitated. Diodorus Siculus reports that Quintus Poppaedius Silo led 10,000 allies in a protest march on Rome, while Florus remarks that Drusus' public meetings attracted such huge crowds that it seemed as though all of Rome were under siege. Eventually,
872-489: A host of others. In the 19th century, the French returned to the original application of dialogue. The inventions of " Gyp ", of Henri Lavedan , and of others, which tell a mundane anecdote wittily and maliciously in conversation, would probably present a close analogy to the lost mimes of the early Sicilian poets. English writers including Anstey Guthrie also adopted the form, but these dialogues seem to have found less of
981-484: A law reducing the price of grain. Alongside these popularist bills, Drusus passed a law making the equestrians liable to prosecution for bribery. He may also have deliberately debased the coinage by adding one-eighth of bronze to the silver coins, perhaps in order to help pay for his agrarian redistributions. All these bills were likely passed in the early months of 91 BC. Despite support from notable backers, Drusus' legislation attracted powerful opposition, including
1090-446: A moderate political position within a Roman governing class". However, not all of his senatorial allies agreed with his proposals: "the most obviously negative aspect of [Drusus' legislative] programme... was the unacceptable personal power which he would have achieved". The most important issue which Drusus and his backers sought to address concerned the composition of juries at trials for extortion. In 122 BC, Gaius Gracchus had made
1199-713: A nice garden of a country villa of a noble Roman aristocrat. With this fanciful device, he avoided the arid explanation of rhetoric rules and devices. The work contains the second known description of the method of loci , a mnemonic technique (after the Rhetorica ad Herennium ). After Roman peace had been established, it seemed as though everyone wanted to begin learning the eloquence of oral rhetoric. After first trying rhetoric without training or rules, using only natural skill, young orators listened and learned from Greek orators and teachers, and soon were much more enthusiastic for eloquence. Young orators learned, through practice,
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#17327827231941308-472: A number of supplementary bills. To gain support from the plebeians , he passed a land law, which seems to have proposed the redistribution of public land ( Ager publicus ) to the poor as well as the creation of new colonies in Italy and Sicily. He then assigned himself a place on the board of ten commissioners tasked with carrying out the redistributions. To attract further support, Drusus may also have passed
1417-722: A papyrus in 1891, give some idea of their character. Plato further simplified the form and reduced it to pure argumentative conversation, while leaving intact the amusing element of character-drawing. By about 400 BC he had perfected the Socratic dialogue . All his extant writings, except the Apology and Epistles , use this form. Following Plato, the dialogue became a major literary genre in antiquity, and several important works both in Latin and in Greek were written. Soon after Plato, Xenophon wrote his own Symposium ; also, Aristotle
1526-413: A particular art, is called a Roscius in his field. The man who does not have the natural ability for oratory, he should instead try to achieve something that is more within his grasp. Sulpicius asks Crassus if he is advising Cotta and him to give up with oratory and rather to study civil right or to follow a military career. Crassus explains that his words are addressed to other young people, who have not
1635-428: A philosophical exchange on a train between four people with radically different epistemological views. In the 20th century, philosophical treatments of dialogue emerged from thinkers including Mikhail Bakhtin , Paulo Freire , Martin Buber , and David Bohm . Although diverging in many details, these thinkers have proposed a holistic concept of dialogue. Educators such as Freire and Ramón Flecha have also developed
1744-489: A place where oratory belongs. Courts, assemblies and the Senate are where oratory should remain, and Crassus should not extend the scope of oratory beyond these places. That is too sweeping for the profession of oratory. Crassus replies that he has heard Scaevola's views before, in many works including Plato 's Gorgias . However, he does not agree with their viewpoint. In respects to Gorgias, Crassus reminds that, while Plato
1853-485: A plot was hatched by the Italians to assassinate the consuls on the Alban Mount . This was only foiled when Drusus himself caught wind of it and warned Philippus. The Italians also began secret preparations for an armed conflict, including trading hostages and gathering weapons. In this tense climate of political disputes, alleged assassination plots, and Italian discontent, Philippus finally succeeded in persuading
1962-649: A popular following among the English than their counterparts written by French authors. The Platonic dialogue , as a distinct genre which features Socrates as a speaker and one or more interlocutors discussing some philosophical question, experienced something of a rebirth in the 20th century. Authors who have recently employed it include George Santayana , in his eminent Dialogues in Limbo (1926, 2nd ed. 1948; this work also includes such historical figures as Alcibiades , Aristippus , Avicenna , Democritus , and Dionysius
2071-423: A problem area. A disciplined form of dialogue, where participants agree to follow a dialogue framework or a facilitator , enables groups to address complex shared problems. Aleco Christakis (who created structured dialogue design ) and John N. Warfield (who created science of generic design ) were two of the leading developers of this school of dialogue. The rationale for engaging structured dialogue follows
2180-441: A related form of dialogue where a group of people talk together in order to explore their assumptions of thinking, meaning, communication, and social effects. This group consists of ten to thirty people who meet for a few hours regularly or a few continuous days. In a Bohm dialogue , dialoguers agree to leave behind debate tactics that attempt to convince and, instead, talk from their own experience on subjects that are improvised on
2289-538: A result, Drusus' popularity with the people lost him support in the Senate, where it was feared he was becoming dangerously influential in the model of the Gracchi or Lucius Appuleius Saturninus . The consul Philippus called for the abrogation of Drusus' laws, and a heated exchange took place on 13 September in the Senate House between Philippus and Lucius Crassus. Philippus claimed he could no longer work with
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#17327827231942398-415: A skilled speaker without moral principles, but both an expert of rhetorical technique and a man of wide knowledge in law, history, and ethical principles. De Oratore is an exposition of issues, techniques, and divisions in rhetoric; it is also a parade of examples for several of them and it makes continuous references to philosophical concepts to be merged for a perfect result. At the time when Cicero wrote
2507-418: A some 300 equites into the senatorial class while moving the jury pool for the permanent courts back to the senators. This was the "ultimate goal [to which] the entire legislative activity of Drusus was apparently directed". In his programme, he also included an agrarian bill along with extension of citizenship to the allies. The purpose of expanding citizenship would have been to give "further reinforcement of
2616-409: A type of pedagogy. Freire held that dialogued communication allowed students and teachers to learn from one another in an environment characterised by respect and equality. A great advocate for oppressed peoples, Freire was concerned with praxis—action that is informed and linked to people's values. Dialogued pedagogy was not only about deepening understanding; it was also about making positive changes in
2725-474: Is (according to a European Union definition) "a means of mutual communication between governments and administrations including EU institutions and young people. The aim is to get young people's contribution towards the formulation of policies relevant to young peoples lives." The application of structured dialogue requires one to differentiate the meanings of discussion and deliberation. Groups such as Worldwide Marriage Encounter and Retrouvaille use dialogue as
2834-485: Is a great achievement. This section marks Cicero's standard canons for the rhetorical composing process. The Greeks, after dividing the arts, paid more attention to the portion of oratory that is concerned with the law, courts, and debate, and therefore left these subjects for orators in Rome. Indeed, all that the Greeks have written in their treaties of eloquence or taught by the masters thereof, but Cicero prefers to report
2943-610: Is able to speak in public, using nobler and more adorned language on whichever subject, so that he can embrace all sources of the art of eloquence with his mind and memory. Someday, somewhere a man will come along who will not just claim to be eloquent, but will actually be truly eloquent. And if this man is not Crassus, then he can only be a little bit better than Crassus. Sulpicius is gleeful that, as he and Cotta had hoped, someone would mention Antonius and Crassus in their conversations so that they could get some glimmer of knowledge from these two respected individuals. Since Crassus started
3052-415: Is alluded to have learnt to speak in public. Stilus optimus et praestantissimus dicendi effector ac magister (The pen is the best and most efficient creator and master of speaking). Like an improvised speech is lower than a well thought one, so this one is, compared to a well prepared and built writing. All arguments, either those of rhetoric and from one's nature and experience, come out by themselves. But
3161-399: Is characterised by openness, honesty, and mutual commitment. The Second Vatican Council placed a major emphasis on dialogue within the church and with the world . Most of the council's documents refer to some kind of dialogue: dialogue "between the laity and their spiritual leaders" ( Lumen gentium ), dialogue with other religions ( Nostra aetate : "dialogue and collaboration with
3270-433: Is divided into three branches: natural studies, dialectic and knowledge of human conduct ( in vitam atque mores ). To truly be a great orator, one must master the third branch: this is what distinguishes the great orator. Cicero mentions Aratos of Soli, not expert in astronomy, and yet he wrote a marvellous poem ( Phaenomena ). So did Nicander of Colophon , who wrote excellent poems on agriculture ( Georgika ). An orator
3379-449: Is him who can speak in public about every subject with richness of arguments and variety of tunes and images). To speak effectively, the orator must have some knowledge of the subject. Can an advocate for or against war speak on the subject without knowing the art of war? Can an advocate speak on legislation if he does not know law or how the administration process works? Even though others will disagree, Crassus states that an expert of
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3488-412: Is no word and no language , there can be no dialogic relations; they cannot exist among objects or logical quantities (concepts, judgments, and so forth). Dialogic relations presuppose a language, but they do not reside within the system of language. They are impossible among elements of a language. The Brazilian educationalist Paulo Freire , known for developing popular education, advanced dialogue as
3597-502: Is quite an easy task, since he asks him to tell about his own oratory ability, and not about the art of oratory in general. Therefore, he will expose his usual method, which he used once when he was young, not anything strange or mysterious nor difficult nor solemn. Sulpicius exults: "At last the day we desired so much, Cotta, has come! We will be able to listen from his very words the way he elaborates and prepares his speeches". "I will not tell you anything really mysterious", Crassus says
3706-714: Is said to have written several philosophical dialogues in Plato's style (of which only fragments survive). In the 2nd century CE, Christian apologist Justin Martyr wrote the Dialogue with Trypho , which was a discourse between Justin representing Christianity and Trypho representing Judaism. Another Christian apologetic dialogue from the time was the Octavius , between the Christian Octavius and pagan Caecilius. In
3815-493: Is some idle talkative Greekling? Do they think that he just answers any question that is posed to him? It was Gorgias that started this practice—which was great when he did it—but is so overused today that there is no topic, however grand, that some people claim they cannot respond to. Had he known this was what Sulpius and Cotta wanted, he would have brought a simple Greek with him to respond—which he still can do if they want him to. Mucius chides Crassus. Crassus agreed to answer
3924-411: Is something that has been thoroughly looked at, examined and understood. It is something that is not an opinion, but is an exact fact. Oratory cannot possibly fit into this category. However, if the practices of oratory and how oratory is conducted is studied, put into terms and classification, this could then—possibly—be considered to be an art. Using Antonius's example earlier, these people didn't lack
4033-408: Is very much like the poet. The poet is more encumbered by rhythm than the orator, but richer in word choice and similar in ornamentation. Crassus then replies to Scaevola's remark: he would not have claimed that orators should be experts in all subjects, should he himself be the person he is describing. Nevertheless, everyone can easily understand, in the speeches before assemblies, courts or before
4142-451: Is what gives mankind our advantage over other animals and nature. It is what creates civilization. Since speech is so important, why should we not use it to the benefit of oneself, other individuals, and even the entire State? Scaevola agrees with Crassus's points except for two. Scaevola does not feel that orators are what created social communities and he questions the superiority of the orator if there were no assemblies, courts, etc. It
4251-418: Is what we want to better know! The rhetoric rules that you mentioned, even if they are not so now for us. But this later; now we want your opinion about exercises". Crassus approves the practice of speaking, imaging to be treating a trial in a court. However, this has the limit of exercising the voice, not yet with art, or its power, increasing the speed of speaking and the richness of vocabulary; therefore, one
4360-516: The Drusi and the provider for his two siblings, Mamercus and Livia . However, certain scholars believe that Mamercus was in fact the eldest son, Marcus one or two years his junior. Cicero reports that Drusus was a principled and conscientious youth. When serving as quaestor in Asia , possibly in 102 BC, he conspicuously refused to wear his official insignia as a sign of respect. After
4469-631: The Julio-Claudian dynasty ; and through the two marriages of his sister, Livia , he was uncle to Cato the Younger and great-uncle to Marcus Junius Brutus . His brother, Mamercus Aemilius Lepidus Livianus (who was adopted into the Aemilii Lepidi ), also served as consul in 77 BC. At some point ca. 100 BC, Drusus married Servilia , a sister of his friend Quintus Servilius Caepio . However, they appear to have divorced sometime around
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4578-482: The Social War . Marcus Livius Drusus was born before 122 or 124 BC. He was the son of Cornelia (precise identity unknown) and the Marcus Livius Drusus who had served as tribune in 122 BC, consul in 112 BC, and censor in 109 BC. His father died in office during his censorship in 109. If the younger Marcus was the eldest son, he would now have become the pater familias of
4687-582: The Tarpeian Rock , an archaic punishment for treasonable magistrates. Eventually, Drusus passed his legislation by combining all the various bills into one law – a practice that had been banned several years previously under the terms of the lex Caecilia Didia . By September, momentum was turning against Drusus and his backers. Senators in the Roman Republic were deeply wary of any one individual gaining extraordinary personal power; as
4796-402: The moral authority of these Roman orators. Cicero announces that he will not expose a series of prescriptions but some principles, that he learnt to have been discussed once by excellent Roman orators. Cicero exposes a dialogue, reported to him by Cotta , among a group of excellent political men and orators, who came together to discuss the crisis and general decline of politics. They met in
4905-634: The Correct Teaching for the Peace of the Land" (Ibid., pp. 6–30; dated 1260), while in other writings he used a question and answer format, without the narrative scenario, such as in "Questions and Answers about Embracing the Lotus Sutra" (Ibid., pp. 55–67, possibly from 1263). The sage or person answering the questions was understood as the author. Two French writers of eminence borrowed
5014-475: The East, in 13th century Japan, dialogue was used in important philosophical works. In the 1200s, Nichiren Daishonin wrote some of his important writings in dialogue form, describing a meeting between two characters in order to present his argument and theory, such as in "Conversation between a Sage and an Unenlightened Man" (The Writings of Nichiren Daishonin 1: pp. 99–140, dated around 1256), and "On Establishing
5123-494: The Italian allies. It seems Drusus already had close contacts among the Italians, as the important Marsic aristocrat Quintus Poppaedius Silo , who would later serve as the main Italian commander in the Social War, was a regular guest at his house. However, Drusus' proposal attracted more opposition, as many senators feared the personal power Drusus would gain from mass enfranchisement. Rumours apparently circulated that
5232-482: The Italians had sworn a sacred oath pledging allegiance to Drusus alone, a version of which is preserved in Diodorus Siculus : I swear by Jupiter Capitolinus, by Vesta of Rome, by Mars her ancestral god, by Sol the founder of the race, and by Terra the benefactress of animals and plants, likewise by the demigods who founded Rome and by the heroes who have contributed to increase her empire, that I will count
5341-712: The Scottish philosopher David Hume wrote Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion. A prominent 19th-century example of literary dialogue was Landor 's Imaginary Conversations (1821–1828). In Germany, Wieland adopted this form for several important satirical works published between 1780 and 1799. In Spanish literature, the Dialogues of Valdés (1528) and those on Painting (1633) by Vincenzo Carducci are celebrated. Italian writers of collections of dialogues, following Plato's example, include Torquato Tasso (1586), Galileo (1632), Galiani (1770), Leopardi (1825), and
5450-416: The Senate had come to disapprove, was the author of the Social War, and was as a result killed at his home; no-one knows by whom. After Drusus' murder, a special court was set up under the lex Varia to prosecute those who, like Drusus, were suspected of encouraging the Italians to revolt. Drusus' friend Gaius Aurelius Cotta was among the exiled, while his mentor Marcus Scaurus, the princeps senatus ,
5559-473: The Senate to abolish all of Drusus' legislation. The justification was twofold: firstly, that the laws had been passed in contravention of the sacred auspices , meaning they were contrary to the will of the gods; and secondly, that they had contravened the Lex Caecilia Didia of 98 BC. Though he publicly denounced the senatorial decree, Drusus did not attempt to use his veto to oppose it. He
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#17327827231945668-421: The Senate was forgotten by these authors, who instead emphasised the turbulence of his tribunate and his role in the start of the Social War. Though accepting that his promises to the Italians in the year 91 BC directly precipitated the outbreak of the Social War, many modern scholars are more forgiving of Drusus. Theodore Mommsen considered him a genuine reformer, a progressive who attempted to resolve some of
5777-504: The Senate, and that future jurors would now be drawn from the enlarged pool of senators. However, Livy states that Drusus introduced juries comprising a mix of senators and equites , with no enlargement of the Senate. Since Appian is notoriously unreliable for this period, some scholars believe Appian has conflated Drusus' proposal with the actual expansion of the Senate that took place ten years later under Sulla's regime. In order to gain popular support for his jury law, Drusus put forward
5886-459: The Senate, if a speaker has good exercise in the art of speaking in public or if he is also well educated in eloquence and all the liberal arts. Antonius tells of the debate that occurred in Athens regarding this very subject. Indeed, he stated that a good orator must shine of a good light himself, that is by his dignity of life, about which nothing is said by those masters of rhetoric. Moreover,
5995-424: The Younger as speakers). Also Edith Stein and Iris Murdoch used the dialogue form. Stein imagined a dialogue between Edmund Husserl (phenomenologist) and Thomas Aquinas (metaphysical realist). Murdoch included not only Socrates and Alcibiades as interlocutors in her work Acastos: Two Platonic Dialogues (1986), but featured a young Plato himself as well. More recently Timothy Williamson wrote Tetralogue ,
6104-406: The affair was compounded by Rutilius Rufus' calm, Stoical acceptance of his fate, and his case was long a byword for unjust sentences. Since Rutilius Rufus was one of Drusus' uncles, his scandalous exile likely provided the immediate incentive for Drusus' reforms. The exact form of Drusus' solution to this problem is unclear. Appian says that Drusus proposed to include 300 new equites into
6213-416: The architect to build it so that all his fellow-citizens could see everything he did. This famous house was later owned by Cicero , Censorinus , and Rutilius Sisenna. Drusus was elected tribune of the plebs for 91 BC. Hostile propaganda later portrayed him as a demagogue from the outset of his tribunate, but Cicero and others assert that he began with the aim of strengthening senatorial rule and had
6322-434: The assassination, as was Quintus Varius Hybrida , the tribune of 90 BC who later created a special court to prosecute Drusus' supporters. Since the Social War (91–87 BC) began almost immediately after his assassination, many Romans blamed Drusus for the war: Accordingly when the citizenship promised to the allies was not forthcoming, the Italians in their anger began to plot revolt ... Marcus Livius Drusus, of whom even
6431-400: The audience is directed into the mood, in which the orator drives them. But this can not happen, if he does not know in how many and in which ways he can drive the feelings of the men. This is because these secrets are hidden in the deepest heart of philosophy and the rhetors have never even touched it in its surface. In a nutshell, Antonius thought Demosthenes appeared to be arguing that there
6540-402: The backing of the senate. This included the princeps senatus , Marcus Aemilius Scaurus , who had been the colleague of Drusus' father in the censorship of 109 BC; and Lucius Licinius Crassus , the most influential orator of the day. His reform programme was hammered out within a large group of the leading senators. He intended to reinforce and restore the authority of the senate by inducting
6649-590: The concept of dialogical leadership, starting with a chapter in the 2003 book The Organization as Story . Moral dialogues are social processes which allow societies or communities to form new shared moral understandings. Moral dialogues have the capacity to modify the moral positions of a sufficient number of people to generate widespread approval for actions and policies that previously had little support or were considered morally inappropriate by many. Communitarian philosopher Amitai Etzioni has developed an analytical framework which—modelling historical examples—outlines
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#17327827231946758-403: The consul Lucius Marcius Philippus . Also among Drusus' opponents was the praetor Servilius Caepio , his former brother-in-law. On the day of voting, Philippus tried to stop proceedings, and was only deterred when one of Drusus' supporters throttled the consul to the point that he started bleeding. When Caepio continued to oppose the legislation, Drusus threatened to have the praetor hurled from
6867-401: The courts, those in public assemblies, and those that praise or blame someone. There are also some topics ( loci ) to be used in trials, whose aim is justice; other ones to be used in assemblies, whose aim is give opinions; other ones to be used in laudatory speeches, whose aim is to celebrate the cited person. All energy and ability of the orator must apply to five steps: Before pronouncing
6976-486: The current Senate, to which Crassus retorted by calling Philippus' status as consul into question, remarking 'Should I consider you a consul, when you don't think that I am a senator?' However, this was to be Crassus' 'last swan-song', in Cicero's words, as he suddenly died a week later. With Crassus dead, Drusus was robbed of one of his most influential backers. Now, late in 91 BC, he turned towards soliciting support from
7085-467: The death of his father, Drusus inherited vast amounts of wealth, with which he paid for grand gladiatorial shows during his aedileship , possibly in 94 BC. His generosity was famous in antiquity: he once commented that he spent so much money on other people that he had 'nothing left to give away to anybody but mud and air'. Drusus also built a grand new house on the Palatine Hill , telling
7194-490: The dialogue, the crisis of the state concerned everyone. The dialogue deliberately clashes with the quiet atmosphere of the villa in Tusculum . Cicero tries to reproduce the feeling of the final peaceful days in the old Roman republic. Despite De Oratore ( On the Orator ) being a discourse on rhetoric , Cicero has the original idea of inspiring himself to Plato's Dialogues , replacing the streets and squares of Athens with
7303-425: The dignity of the arguments and conveniently. The rhetors' rules are useful means for the orator. The fact is, however, that these rules came out by the observation of some people on the natural gift of others. That is, it is not the eloquence that is born from rhetoric, but the rhetoric is born by eloquence. I do not refuse rhetoric, although I believe it is not indispensable for the orator. Then Sulpicius says: "That
7412-567: The discussion, Sulpicius asks him to give his views on oratory first. Crassus replies that he would rather have Antonius speak first as he himself tends to shy away from any discourse on this subject. Cotta is pleased that Crassus has responded in any way because it is usually so difficult to get him to respond in any manner about these matters. Crassus agrees to answer any questions from Cotta or Sulpicius, as long as they are within his knowledge or power. Sulpicius asks, "is there an 'art' of oratory?" Crassus responds with some contempt. Do they think he
7521-432: The famous support of Lucius Crassus, this Lex Servilia was replaced after only two years by a law of Gaius Servilius Glaucia which restored the equestrian monopoly. Over time, the equestrian jurors proved reluctant to give guilty verdicts. Of the many political prosecutions in the years 99-92 BC, not a single individual was condemned under their courts; this created great frustration in the Senate, as it paralysed one of
7630-468: The followers of other religions"), dialogue with other Christians ( Unitatis redintegratio : "fraternal dialogue on points of doctrine and the more pressing pastoral problems of our time"), dialogue with modern society ( Gaudium et spes : "the rightful betterment of this world ... cannot be realized, ... apart from sincere and prudent dialogue"), and dialogue with political authorities ( Dignitatis humanae : "[in] dialogue ... men explain to one another
7739-669: The foundational texts of the Western canon . Institutions that continue to follow a version of this model include the Great Books Foundation , Shimer College in Chicago, and St. John's College in Annapolis and Santa Fe. Egalitarian dialogue is a concept in dialogic learning . It may be defined as a dialogue in which contributions are considered according to the validity of their reasoning, instead of according to
7848-429: The friend and foe of Drusus my friend and foe, and that I will spare neither property nor the lives of my children or parents except as it be to the advantage of Drusus and of those who have taken this oath. If I become a citizen by the law of Drusus, I shall consider Rome my country and Drusus my greatest benefactor. It was also around this point that Drusus apparently suffered a minor breakdown or epileptic fit, prompting
7957-451: The garden of Lucius Licinius Crassus ' villa in Tusculum , during the tribunate of Marcus Livius Drusus (91 BCE). Thereto also gathered Lucius Licinius Crassus, Quintus Mucius Scaevola , Marcus Antonius , Gaius Aurelius Cotta and Publius Sulpicius Rufus . One member, Scaevola, wants to imitate Socrates as he appears in Plato 's Phaedrus . Crassus replies that, instead, they will find
8066-458: The importance of variety and frequency of speech. In the end, orators were awarded with popularity, wealth, and reputation. This is the reason why this particular subject is such a difficult one to pursue. This means that the student must, through his style, bring in humor and charm—as well as the readiness to deliver and respond to an attack. In summary, oratory is a combination of many things, and to succeed in maintaining all of these qualities
8175-424: The issue at hand; and, closure through the establishment of a new shared moral understanding. Moral dialogues allow people of a given community to determine what is morally acceptable to a majority of people within the community. Marcus Livius Drusus (tribune) The failure of these reforms, and Drusus' subsequent murder at the hands of an unknown assassin in late 91 BC, are often seen as an immediate cause of
8284-452: The juries for these courts (Latin, quaestio de repetundis ) composed entirely of wealthy equites instead of senators. This gave the equestrians great judicial power, a fact resented by many senators, many of whom found the loss of their forensic role humiliating. In 106 BC, Quintus Servilius Caepio had attempted to end the equestrian monopoly on juries by proposing a law to introduce mixed senatorial–equestrian juries. However, despite
8393-517: The knowledge of oratory, they lacked the innate ability. No, they are gifts of nature, that is the ability to invent, richness in talking, strong lungs, certain voice tones, particular body physique as well as a pleasant looking face. Because of his modesty in this speech, the others in the group elevate Crassus in status even higher. An orator is easily set-up by the very nature of what he does to be labeled ignorant. If one studies other disciplines, he simply needs to be an ordinary man. Roscius ,
8502-482: The main avenues of political rivalry. As a result, a growing number of eminent senators came to believe that the equestrian monopoly had to be ended. This resentment was intensified by the prosecution and exile of the esteemed consularis Publius Rutilius Rufus in ca. 92 BC. Rutilius Rufus had served as legatus to Quintus Mucius Scaevola Pontifex during the latter's governorship in Asia. They had famously opposed
8611-525: The most pressing issues of the day in an age when few others were willing to do likewise. In the judgement of the Italian scholar Emilio Gabba: Drusus' complex scheme seems to be directed by a precise and shrewd awareness of the historical situation, the political forces at work, and the needs and interests which these forces represented and conveyed. It reveals a political capacity which matched that of Gaius Gracchus. Drusus had several distinguished descendants. Through his adopted son, he became an ancestor of
8720-443: The most striking thoughts and expressions come one after the other by the style; so the harmonic placing and disposing words is acquired by writing with oratory and not poetic rhythm ( non poetico sed quodam oratorio numero et modo ). In addition, the orator, who is used to write speeches, reaches the aim that, even in an improvised speech, he seems to speak so similar to a written text. Crassus remembers some of his exercises when he
8829-414: The natural science also must use oratory style to give an effective speech on his subject. For example, Asclepiades , a well-known physician, was popular not just because of his medical expertise, but because he could share it with eloquence. Anyone who can speak with knowledge upon a subject, can be called an orator as long as he does so with knowledge, charm, memory and has a certain style. Philosophy
8938-436: The natural talent for oratory, rather than discourage Sulpicius and Cotta, who have great talent and passion for it. Cotta replies that, given that Crassus stimulates them to dedicate themselves to oratory, now it is time to reveal the secret of his excellence in oratory. Moreover, Cotta wishes to know which other talents they have still to reach, apart those natural, which they have—according to Crassus. Crassus says that this
9047-586: The observation that a rigorous bottom-up democratic form of dialogue must be structured to ensure that a sufficient variety of stakeholders represents the problem system of concern, and that their voices and contributions are equally balanced in the dialogic process. Structured dialogue is employed for complex problems including peacemaking (e.g., Civil Society Dialogue project in Cyprus ) and indigenous community development., as well as government and social policy formulation. In one deployment, structured dialogue
9156-673: The orator. For while the schools of Philosophy claim that rhetoric and other arts belong to them, the science of oratory which adds "style," belong to its own science. Lycurgus , Solon were certainly more qualified about laws, war, peace, allies, taxes, civil right than Hyperides or Demosthenes , greater in the art of speaking in public. Similarly in Rome, the decemviri legibus scribundis were more expert in right than Servius Galba and Gaius Lelius , excellent Roman orators. Nevertheless, Crassus maintains his opinion that " oratorem plenum atque perfectum esse eum, qui de omnibus rebus possit copiose varieque dicere ". (the complete and perfect orator
9265-459: The power of persuasion—the ability to verbally manipulate opinion in crucial political decisions—was a key issue and that in the hands of an unprincipled orator, this power would endanger the entire community. As a consequence, moral principles can be taken either by the examples of noble men of the past or by the great Greek philosophers, who provided ethical ways to be followed in their teaching and their works. The perfect orator shall be not merely
9374-419: The question of the world as a whole and how everything in it is connected. Logos is the one principle at work, that gives order to the manifold in the world." For Dietz, dialogue means "a kind of thinking, acting and speaking, which the logos "passes through"" Therefore, talking to each other is merely one part of "dialogue". Acting dialogically means directing someone's attention to another one and to reality at
9483-410: The rapacity of the equestrian businessmen operating in the province, gaining much praise from the provincials and the Senate but hostility from the equites . In retaliation, the equestrians brought about Rufus' prosecution in one of their own courts when he returned to Rome. Although Rufus was likely innocent, the jury nonetheless found him guilty, and he was sent into exile to Smyrna . The injustice of
9592-452: The reoccurring components of moral dialogues. Elements of moral dialogues include: establishing a moral baseline; sociological dialogue starters which initiate the process of developing new shared moral understandings; the linking of multiple groups' discussions in the form of "megalogues"; distinguishing the distinct attributes of the moral dialogue (apart from rational deliberations or culture wars); dramatisation to call widespread attention to
9701-507: The same time. Against this background and together with Thomas Kracht, Karl-Martin Dietz developed what he termed " dialogical leadership " as a form of organisational management. In several German enterprises and organisations it replaced the traditional human resource management, e.g. in the German drugstore chain dm-drogerie markt . Separately, and earlier to Thomas Kracht and Karl-Martin Dietz, Rens van Loon published multiple works on
9810-485: The speech, it is necessary to gain the goodwill of the audience; then expose the argument; after, establish the dispute; subsequently, show evidence of one's own thesis; then, rebut the other party's arguments; finally, remark our strong positions and weaken the other's. As regards the ornaments of style, first one is taught to speak with pure and Latin language ( ut pure et Latine loquamur ); second to express oneself clearly; third to speak with elegance and corresponding to
9919-446: The spot. In his influential works, Russian philosopher Mikhail Bakhtin provided an extralinguistic methodology for analysing the nature and meaning of dialogue: Dialogic relations have a specific nature: they can be reduced neither to the purely logical (even if dialectical) nor to the purely linguistic ( compositional - syntactic ) They are possible only between complete utterances of various speaking subjects... Where there
10028-421: The status or position of power of those who make them. Structured dialogue represents a class of dialogue practices developed as a means of orienting the dialogic discourse toward problem understanding and consensual action. Whereas most traditional dialogue practices are unstructured or semi-structured, such conversational modes have been observed as insufficient for the coordination of multiple perspectives in
10137-546: The systematic use of dialogue as an independent literary form. Ancient sources indicate, however, that the Platonic dialogue had its foundations in the mime , which the Sicilian poets Sophron and Epicharmus had cultivated half a century earlier. These works, admired and imitated by Plato, have not survived and we have only the vaguest idea of how they may have been performed. The Mimes of Herodas , which were found in
10246-577: The term is Plato, in whose works it is closely associated with the art of dialectic . Latin took over the word as dialogus . Dialogue as a genre in the Middle East and Asia dates back to ancient works, such as Sumerian disputations preserved in copies from the late third millennium BC, Rigvedic dialogue hymns , and the Mahabharata . In the West, Plato ( c. 427 BC – c. 348 BC) has commonly been credited with
10355-595: The title of Lucian's most famous collection; both Fontenelle (1683) and Fénelon (1712) prepared Dialogues des morts ("Dialogues of the Dead"). Contemporaneously, in 1688, the French philosopher Nicolas Malebranche published his Dialogues on Metaphysics and Religion , thus contributing to the genre's revival in philosophic circles. In English non-dramatic literature the dialogue did not see extensive use until Berkeley employed it, in 1713, for his treatise, Three Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous . His contemporary,
10464-444: The truth they have discovered, or think they have discovered, in order thus to assist one another in the quest for truth"). However, in the English translations of these texts, "dialogue" was used to translate two Latin words with distinct meanings, colloquium ("discussion") and dialogus ("dialogue"). The choice of terminology appears to have been strongly influenced by Buber's thought. The physicist David Bohm originated
10573-421: The two listeners. First is a liberal education and follow the lessons that are taught in these classes. The main task of an orator is to speak in a proper way to persuade the audience; second, each speech can be on a general matter, without citing persons and dates, or a specific one, regarding particular persons and circumstances. In both cases, it is usual to ask: There are three kind of speeches: first, those in
10682-413: The wife to the emperor Augustus and mother of the second emperor Tiberius . Therefore, through the adoption of his son, Marcus Livius Drusus and his family (the Drusi ) became eventual ancestors to the imperial Julio-Claudian dynasty . Drusus had a sister, Livia , whom he married to his friend and brother-in-law Quintus Servilius Caepio. Livia and Caepio had three children: the famous Servilia , who
10791-543: The world: to make it better. Dialogue is used as a practice in a variety of settings, from education to business . Influential theorists of dialogal education include Paulo Freire and Ramon Flecha . In the United States, an early form of dialogic learning emerged in the Great Books movement of the early to mid-20th century, which emphasised egalitarian dialogues in small classes as a way of understanding
10900-418: The year 97 BC without having any known children. It seems that Drusus did not marry again before his death in 91 BC. However there is a Livia of the late Roman Republic who has been speculated to be Drusus' daughter. Drusus did adopt Marcus Livius Drusus Claudianus , born Appius Claudius Pulcher. This adopted son married Alfidia , with whom he had a daughter named Livia . This Livia was the famous Empress,
11009-451: The young men's questions, not to bring in some unpracticed Greek or another to respond. Crassus has been known for being a kind person, and it would be becoming for him to respect their question, to answer it, and not run away from responding. Crassus agrees to answer their question. No, he says. There is no art of speaking, and if there is an art to it, it is a very thin one, as this is just a word. As Antonius had previously explained, an Art
11118-563: Was already being prosecuted for his alleged involvement in the Alban Mount plot, and seems to have recognised that opposition was futile. It was at this point, sometime around September 91 BC, that Drusus was assassinated. According to some ancient sources, the murder took place inside the atrium of Drusus' own house. Other sources say he was stabbed whilst walking back from the Forum. Philippus and Caepio were blamed by some for
11227-542: Was also accused. In the longer term, later generations of Roman historians considered Drusus' tribunate a critical milestone in the Crisis of the Roman Republic . Appian , Livy , and Florus all placed Drusus' "seditio" within a clear sequence of similar disorders. In their analysis, he followed the examples of the Gracchi and of Saturninus , and was succeeded by the sedition of Gaius Marius and Publius Sulpicius Rufus . Thus Drusus' original position as champion of
11336-463: Was destroyed by the gangs of Clodius in a time when violence was common. This was intertwined with the street politics of Rome. Amidst the moral and political decadence of the state, Cicero wrote De Oratore to describe the ideal orator and imagine him as a moral guide of the state. He did not intend De Oratore as merely a treatise on rhetoric, but went beyond mere technique to make several references to philosophical principles. Cicero believed that
11445-547: Was good decision making and laws that formed society, not eloquence. Was Romulus an orator? Scaevola says that there are more examples of damage done by orators than good, and he could cite many instances. There are other factors of civilization that are more important than orator: ancient ordinances, traditions, augury, religious rites and laws, private individual laws. Had Scaevola not been in Crassus's domain, Scaevola would take Crassus to court and argue over his assertions,
11554-458: Was making fun of orators, Plato himself was the ultimate orator. If the orator was nothing more than a speaker without the knowledge of oratory, how is it possible that the most revered people are skilled orators? The best speakers are those who have a certain "style", which is lost, if the speaker does not comprehend the subject matter on which he is speaking. Crassus says he does not borrow from Aristotle or Theophrastus their theories regarding
11663-404: Was no "craft" of oratory and no one could speak well unless he had mastered philosophical teaching. Antonius, convinced by those arguments, says he wrote a pamphlet about them. He names disertus (easy-speaking), a person who can speak with sufficient clearness and smartness, before people of medium level, about whichever subject; on the other hand he names eloquens (eloquent) a person, who
11772-524: Was sequentially the mistress of Julius Caesar and the mother of Marcus Junius Brutus ; another Servilia , who married the general Lucullus ; and a son, also called Gnaeus Servilius Caepio . However, Drusus and Caepio fell out, allegedly over the sale of a ring at an auction, and subsequently they became personal enemies. As a result, Drusus divorced Servilia, and Caepio divorced Livia. Drusus apparently had his sister remarried almost immediately, either in 97 or 96 BC, this time to Marcus Porcius Cato ,
11881-515: Was younger, he began to read and then imitate poetry or solemn speeches. This was a used exercise of his main adversary, Gaius Carbo . But after a while, he found that this was an error, because he did not gain benefit imitating the verses of Ennius or the speeches of Gracchus . Dialogue Dialogue (sometimes spelled dialog in American English ) is a written or spoken conversational exchange between two or more people, and
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